Distributions

Distributions
Presented by Group 2
Ahmad Reza Fahlevi (11200140000032)
Rahima Fitri Maharani
(11200140000038) Irfan Himmaturrafi
(11200140000052)
Nabila Maura Galuh Di Prasya
(11200140000058)
Phoneme
Phoneme /'foʊni:m/ is s a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from
another in a particular language. Phoneme of a language or dialect is an
abstraction of a speech sound or of a group of different sounds which are
all perceived to have the same function by speakers of that particular
language or dialect. For example, the English word through consists of
three phonemes: the initial "th" sound, the "r" sound, and a vowel sound.
The phonemes in this and many other English words do not always
correspond directly to the letters used to spell them (English orthography
is not as strongly phonemic as that of many other languages).
Phoneme
s by the use of minimal pairs, such as tap vs
Phonemes that are established
tab or pat vs bat, are written between slashes: /p/, /b/. To show
pronunciation, linguists use square brackets: [pʰ] (indicating an aspirated p
in pat) are differing views as to exactly what phonemes are and how a given
language should be analyzed in phonemic (or phonematic) terms.
However, a phoneme is generally regarded as an abstraction of a set (or

equivalence class) of speech sounds (phones) that are perceived as
equivalent to each other in a given language. For example, the English k
sounds in the words kill and skill are not identical (as described below), but
they are distributional variants of a single phoneme /k/.
The Example Phonemes
The word “keep” are contain of three phonemes.
They are: /ki:p/
The word “keep” has a meaning which is to have or continue to have in our
possession.
When we change the /k/ phonemes to /d/ phonemes, it would make the
word change from “keep” to “deep” and it’s carrying different meaning.
The word “deep” has a meaning which is going or being along way down
from top to surface.
Allophone
Allophone (/ˈæləfoʊn/;) is one of a set of multiple possible spoken
sounds, or phones, or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a
particular language. For example, in English, [t] (as in stop [stɒp]) and
the aspirated form [tʰ] (as in top [ˈtʰɒp]) are allophones for the
phoneme / t / , while these two are considered to be different phonemes in
some languages such as Thai and Hindi. The specific allophone selected in
a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context, with
such allophones being called positional variants, but some allophones
occur in free variation. Replacing a sound by another allophone of the
same phoneme usually does not change the meaning of a word, but the
result may sound non-native or even unintelligible.
Allophone
There are many allophonic processes in English: lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial
devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of
obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.
Aspiration: In English, a voiceless plosive /p, t, k / is aspirated (has a strong
explosion of breath) if it is at the beginning of the first or a stressed syllable in a
word. For example, [pʰ] as in pin and [p] as in spin are allophones for the
phoneme / p / because they cannot distinguish words (in fact, they occur in
complementary distribution).
English-speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are different: the first
is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Many languages treat the
two phones differently.
Nasal plosion – In English, a plosive (/p, t, k, b, d, ɡ/) has nasal plosion if it is
followed by a nasal, whether within a word or across a word boundary.
Allophone
Partial devoicing of sonorants: In English, sonorants (/j, w, l, r, m, n,
ŋ/) are partially devoiced after a voiceless sound in the same
syllable.
Complete devoicing of sonorants: In English, a sonorant is
completely devoiced after an aspirated plosive (/p, t, k/).
Partial devoicing of obstruents: In English, a voiced obstruent is
partially
devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound within a word
or across a word boundary.
Retraction: In English, /t, d, n, l / are retracted before / r / .
PHONEMES VS
ALLOPHONES
If two sounds CONTRAST in a particular language (e.g. [t] and [d] in English)…
(a) The sounds are separate phonemes in that language.
Example: / t / and / d / are separate phonemes of English.
(b) Speakers of that language pay attention to the diference between the sounds, and
have an easy time perceiving the contrast between them.
(c) The sounds are in contrastive (or overlapping) distribution, meaning there are at least
some contexts where either sound is possible.
Example: In English, either [t] and [d] can fll in the blank in [ _ɹejn ].
(d) There are minimal pairs distinguishing the two sounds.

Example: In English, we have have a minimal pair [tɹejn] vs. [dɹejn] (train vs. drain).
(e) It’s unpredictable which of the sounds you get in at least some contexts.
Example: Given the context [ _ɹejn ], there is no way of predicting which of the two
sounds will be used.
PHONEMES VS
ALLOPHONES
If two sounds DO NOT CONTRAST
and dark [ɫ] in English)…
in a particular language (e.g. light [l]
(a) The sounds are allophones of a single phoneme in that language.

Example: [l] and [ɫ] are allophones of the English phoneme /L/.
(b) Speakers of that language ignore the difference between the sounds,
and ofen have a hard time perceiving the contrast, even when it’s
brought to their attention.
(c) The sounds are in complementary (or non-overlapping) distribution,

meaning the places one shows up, the other never shows up.
Example: In English, [l] only shows up before vowels, and [ɫ] never
shows up before vowels.
PHONEMES VS
ALLOPHONES
If two sounds DO NOT CONTRAST in a particular language (e.g. light [l] and dark
[ɫ] in English)…
(d) There are no minimal pairs distinguishing the two sounds.
Example: In English it would be impossible to have two words [læmp] and
[ɫæmp] that mean diferent things. Similarly, pronouncing hill [hɪɫ] with a light
L like [hɪl] sounds funny but can’t change the meaning of the word.
(e) It’s predictable which of the sounds will be used in a given context.
Example: Given the context [ _æmp ], we know that if the phoneme / L / is used,
the pronunciation will be [læmp], and not [ɫæmp]. Similarly, in the context[ hɪ_
], it’s predictable that the allophone [ɫ] will be used rather than [l].
Surface vs Underlying
Form
Surface variation
Surface variation also results in changes to pronunciation which can
include the addition, deletion, or modification of sounds. What
makes surface variation distinct from underlying variation is that it
is not grammatically required, which may result in greater
variability in application of the alternation.
It should be noted that the distinction between surface and underlying

variation does not imply these two types of variation are in opposition.
Indeed, given the emergence of a fully stable pattern, surface variation
may become phonologized. Likewise, phonological alternations are of
course subject to the considerations of surface variation.
Form
Underlying Variation
Underlying variation results in a variety modifications to word forms,
including the addition, deletion, or modification of specific segments
(sounds) in a word. In many instances, these changes are caused by
the addition of phonological material created by morphological
operations, such as prefixing or suffixing, in which case they are
considered morphophono- logical alternations.
Form
Example
In many cases, the underlying form is simply the phonemic form. For
example, in many varieties of American English, the phoneme / t / in a word
like wet can surface either as an unreleased stop [t̚ ] or as a flap [ɾ],
depending on environment: [wɛt] wet vs. [ˈwɛɾɚ] wetter. (In both cases,
however, the underlying representation of the morpheme wet is the same: its
phonemic form
/wɛt/.) The word "cats" has the phonemic representation /kæts/. If it is
assumed that the underlying form of the English plural suffix is a [z] sound,
the underlying form of "cats" would be //kætz//. (The [z] surfaces as an [s]
because of the phonological process of devoicing after an unvoiced
consonant.)
Morphophonemics
Definition:
Morphophonemics, a branch of morphology, deals with the variation in the
forms of morphemes because of phonetic factor.
Smallest units of concern are morphemes. We have been concerned with

the ways in which morphemes are put together into utterances; now we
are concerned with the phonemic shapes which represent the morphemes.
Here is the list of several English words taken here for example : brought, went,
sold, and sang, Each consists of two morphemes: one is asserted to be the verb
stem bring, go, sell, and sing, while the other, common to all four, is asserted to
be the past tense morpheme. The elements we have to make mention are the
obvious differences between the phonemic shapes representing these various
morphemes in the different words.
Morphophonemics
When a morpheme is represented sometimes by one phonemic
shape and sometimes by another or others, we say that the shapes
stand in alternation with each other. Each representation is a
morph; all the morphs that represent some given morpheme are
called allomorphs of that morpheme.
Manifests invariant alternation–being represented, in all

environments, by a single allomorph. Two morphs are distinct if
they differ in phonemic shape. They are also distinct if they are
allomorphs of different morphemes, even if they are identical in
shape
AIdentifying Alternation
(a) Loss of
Morphophonemics
Phonemes
(b) Addition of
Phonemes
(c) Simple Change of Phonemes

Morphophonemics
(d) Assimilation -
Dissimilation
(e) Synthesis
Morphophonemics
(f) Stress shift,
Gradation
(g) Suppletion
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However, a phoneme is generally regarded as an abstraction of a set (or

(d) There are minimal pairs distinguishing the two sounds.

(a) The sounds are allophones of a single phoneme in that language.

(c) The sounds are in complementary (or non-overlapping) distribution,

It should be noted that the distinction between surface and underlying

Smallest units of concern are morphemes. We have been concerned with

Manifests invariant alternation–being represented, in all

(c) Simple Change of Phonemes

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