ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

OF KASHMIR
A. Adil Paray
 Unit I Prehistoric Sites
 Burzahom

A Prehistoric site is a place (or group of

Physical sites/Places in which evidences of
past human activities are preserved in the
form of material Culture except writing.
Prehistory or the pre-literary history is the
period of human history about which we
don’t have written records but the things
that they left behind e.g., Stone tools, Rock
art, pottery, etc.
BURZAHOM
 BURZAHOM
 Burzahom is a Neolithic sites in Kashmir Valley.
 Theterm Neolithic continues to be used with different
qualifying phrases like stone-using agriculturalists,
sedentary living farming communities or the like.
 Theearliest Kashmiris lived on the Karewa at Burzahom
(Lat. 30°10' N and Long. 74°30' E) district Srinagar,
located 16 kms northwest of city of Srinagar about 1800
meters above sea level.
 The site is situated on the west of village Burzuhom,
surrounded by Mahadev hill on the north-east, on north
side by Yenderhom village, on the west Batapora village
and on the south cultivated fields.
 Karewa mound was first noticed by H. de Terra and T.T.
Peterson in 1935, who collected some stone and bone
tools in a short excavation.
 Extensive excavations were conducted by the Frontier
Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India under the
supervision of T.N. Khazanchi and his colleagues in eight
seasons from 1960-1971 and B. M. Pande from 1971-73.
 Cultural Profile and Chronology
 Theexcavations revealed fourfold sequence of
cultures; Period I and II, Neolithic; Period III,
Megalithic; and Period IV, Early Historical.
 The site is dated between 3000 BCE-1500 BCE
 Pits
 Burzuhom is better known for its unique pit dwellings in
Period I, cut below ground level into the natural soil
which is loess.
 The traces of the cuts show that the pits were dug out
with long stone celts. The pits are oval or circular in
plan, narrow at the top and wide at the base. The side
walls of the pits were plastered with the Karewa mud.
 Theoccurrence of post holes on the surface of the pits
suggested a superstructure which was built of birch
cover supported by wooden posts, as birch has been
found during excavations.
 The landing steps were also seen which did
not reach the bottom. Presence of ash,
charcoal, hearths and pot shreds within
these pits indicate human occupation.
Shallow storage pits were also seen there.
Besides circular pits, rectangular and
squarish pit chambers were also found
there cut below the ground level with deep
post holes at the corners for supporting the
roof. These chambers also had stone as
well as clay hearths.
 Subsistence Economy

 The overall economic level of Neolithic Burzuhom was hunting and gathering
with the practice of primitive cultivation as attested by harvesters found
there. In the mature Neolithic period the people lived with a subsistence
economy of food gathering including hunting and fishing as evident from
different bone and stone objects.
 The animals represented by the bones found there include, Himalayan Ibex,
wild and domestic dogs, wolf, bear, the Nilgai, wild Urial, the pig, the
Kashmir stag, humped cattle, Indian domestic buffalo, the domestic sheep,
the domestic goat, etc.
 Many of the bones recovered bore cut and skinning marks indicating they
were slaughtered for food.
 In Neolithic Period I and II of Burzuhom wheat, barley and lentil, plant
remains were recovered. Besides husks, impressions of barley grains were
also seen from plastered floor and mud bricks. In the final stage rice and pea
were also cultivated. Sharma, A.K., op. cit., Delhi, 2000, pp. 54-55.
 Ground Stone Tools

 Excavations have revealed that the stone tools were fairly advanced with
more working efficiency, sophistication and variations. The ground and
polished stone tools were made of Pir Panjal (‘Himalayan’) trap of basalt and
a few of felsite rocks. In Period I a variety of ground stone tools were used by
these Neolithic people, which include polished axes, wedges, chisels, adzes,
hoe, pick, perforated pick, ring-stones or mace heads, sling stones and
harvesters.
 Bone tools
 Apart from stone tools, bone tools are the striking
feature of the Neolithic Kashmir. Generally the
bone tools were fashioned out of long bones of
animals like stag, sheep, goat etc. through
splitting, chipping and grinding and polishing by
constant rubbing techniques. Holes were made by
technique of alternate pecking and drilling.
 Needlesand Awls, Harpoons, points, Scrappers,
Arrow heads, Saws, etc.
 Ornaments

 Themain ornaments found were the carnelian

beads in good number with a few paste and a soap
stone pendent at Burzuhom. At Gufkral one
spacer, one carnelian, one terracotta and one
wooden bead were found with copper hair pin and
terracotta bangle Kaw, R.N., ‘The Neolithic
Culture of Kashmir’, in Essays in Indian
Protohistory, Delhi, 1979, pp. 223-234. IAR, 1981-
82. p. 20.
 Pottery
 In the Period I and II at Burzuhom hand-made grey ware of different
shades like dull red, brown and buff were represented by bowls, vases
and stems.
 Mat impressions are a recurrent feature on many types especially on
pots having a flat base indicating their production on mats. In Period II
varieties of fine pottery represented by bowls, globular pots, jars,
stems, and funnel shaped vessels have been found.
 In addition, dishes with hollow stand, stems with triangular perforations
and high necked jar with a flaring rim, globular body and flat base,
which was deluxe ware of the period.
 Few painted pots were also found which look foreign in origin. A red
ware wheel made pot with horned figure was also found in period II. The
pottery was made through coiling technique.
 Burial Practices

 In Neolithic Kashmir both inhumation and secondary burials

have been found in Period II. The secondary burials show that
the bones were excarnated and treated with red ochre. While
as in primary burials no red ochre treatment was seen on
bones, which were placed in couched, embryonic position
with their skulls placed in north-east or south-east direction.
Grave goods were found in the human graves.Along with the
human bones, those of animal bones were also found, which
were perhaps sacrificed in honour of the dead. The pits for
burials were generally oval and rectangular in shape and
plastered with lime. There is evidence of trepanning also.
Sharma, A.K., Sharma, A.K., Prehistoric Burials of Kashmir,
Delhi, 1998, p. 28.
 GUFKRAL-Archaeological site
 The Neolithic site Gufkral (Lat. 33°54' and Long. 75°00')
was explored by the Frontier Circle of Archaeological Survey
of India in 1962-63 and it was excavated by the Prehistory
Branch of Archaeological Survey of India in 1981 and 1982
under the guidance of K.D. Banerjee and A.K. Sharma.
 The site was excavated partially in two seasons only
because of the contradictions between the excavators. The
two season dig on the mound of loess silt has revealed three
main periods of cultural occupations. IAR, 1981-82, p. 19.
 They are Period IA-Aceramic Neolithic; Period IB-Early
Neolithic; Period IC-Late Neolithic, Period II-Megalithic and
Period III-Early Historical.
 Structural Remains

 The Settlement pattern in Gufkral was almost same as that of Burzahom.

 In Period IA different types and sizes of dwelling pits cut into the loessic
deposits having narrow mouths and wide bottoms with circular or oval in
shape and plastered with red-ochre were formed.
 Storage pits, hearths and number of post holes were also seen around these
pits. Post holes suggest that roofs were erected over these pits.
 In Period IB, the settlement pattern is indicated by the presence of floor
made of yellow compact clay and the construction of mud and rubble walls.
 Three types of constructions have come to light in Period IC. In the first
type a number of circular dwelling pits and storage pits were cut through
the earth.
 In the second type circular mud walls were exposed with the base of
thatched superstructures.
 The third type was of mud and rubble walls without postholes. The pits
were probably covered with removable conical thatched roofs. Around all
the three types rectangular and circular hearths were also found.
 SUBSISTANCE
 In the initial stage of aceramic Neolithic period the people were purely hunter gatherers as
the bones of wild species of animals were found including Ovis, Ibex and cattle.
 In the second phase of aceramic period people still depended on hunting but domesticated
predators like wild dogs and wolf.
 In the final phase of Period IA domestication of dogs, sheep and goat increased and the
bones of the wolf, the Kashmir stag, the Nilgai, Indian humped cattle, the Urial or wild
sheep, the Argali-large, Asiatic sheep, the domestic sheep and goat, the Himalayan ibex, the
Red deer, Bear and Fish were recovered, which bore skinning marks of hunt and slaughter.
 Towards the end of this period people had started cultivating following cereals, pulses and
weeds; Barley-six-row, wheat, lentil, common pea, clover, alfa-alfa, corn Cromwell etc.
 In Period IB, the percentage of domesticated animals increased with domesticated cattle
formed the largest percentage and there was increase of domestic buffalo, fowl, and rat in
the previous list. And in cereal cultivation the same grains and weeds were cultivated.
 Period IC witnessed increase of the wild bear, the Hare, rat and the rabbit and the cowrie
shell in the animal food list. And besides wheat, barley and lentil rice was cultivated in
abundance.
 Stone & Bone Tools

 Excavations have revealed that the stone tools were fairly advanced
with more working efficiency, sophistication and variations. The
ground and polished stone tools were made of Pir Panjal
(‘Himalayan’) trap of basalt and a few of felsite rocks. In Period I a
variety of ground stone tools were used by these Neolithic people,
which include polished axes, wedges, chisels, adzes, hoe, pick,
perforated pick, ring-stones or mace heads, sling stones and
harvesters.
 Apart from stone tools, bone tools are the striking feature of the
Neolithic Kashmir. Generally the bone tools were fashioned out of
long bones of animals like stag, sheep, goat etc. through splitting,
chipping and grinding and polishing by constant rubbing techniques.
Holes were made by technique of alternate pecking and drilling
 Metal Objects

 Metal objects like arrow heads, hair pins, bangles,

antimony rods, copper rings, coil, copper needles, etc.
were found at both sites mostly belonging to Period II of
Neolithic culture.
 The metal objects were not the local production but were
imported into valley from the Pre-Harappan or Harappan
cultures in that form.
 But Bandey disagrees with the view because the features
of the copper objects found at Harappan sites are
uncharacteristic of Kashmir objects except of
Chanahodaro and Rajasthan.
 Pottery
 At Gufkral, the Period IA of Neolithic culture is a well-defined Aceramic Level
going back to 2800 BCE, the earliest in India.
 In early Neolithic Period IB, hand-made pottery comprised mostly coarse grey
with small number of dull rough red ware, black burnished ware, with knobbed
designs. The shapes represented are big jars, bowls, vases, and basins, dishes
on stand with mat impressed bases, pinched designs, and reed impressions,
oblique designs with rough interior and exterior surfaces. A potter’s kiln was
also found.
 In Period IC, the late Neolithic period, pottery consisted of grey ware,
burnished grey ware, wheel turned black burnished ware and a few red gritty
ware shreds were found. The previous shapes continued in this period with an
addition of funnel shaped vases and high necked jars with flaring rim, globular
body and flat base.
 Decorations include mat and cord impressed bases, reed and straw impressions,
pinched and oblique designs on the neck region etc. At both the sites many pots
were characterized by graffiti marks.
 Contacts and Affinities

 The material culture excavated at Burzahom and Gufkral raised the

questions about the origin of these people, their relationships, affinities and
contacts with other cultures outside.
 While responding to these queries H.D. Sankalia believed that the people of
Neolithic Kashmir were not natives but were definitely ‘colonists’, who came
from outside.
 While supporting Sankalia, Khazanchi held that they could have come from
Central Asia, particularly from the North and Central China. He based his
argument on certain affinities that some of the material culture of Kashmir
had resemblance with the Neolithic cultures from the North and Central
China, Shilka valley and some Neolithic sites in eastern Siberia in Russia.
 But R.K. Pant, et. al. pointed out that the Neolithic culture shows distinct
signs of evolution and clear technological affinities with the preceding
Paleolithic culture of Kashmir.
 The Allchins regard that Burzahomites had affinities with the Neolithic
people of north and north-west of China and Central Asia, particularly
because of the practice of animal burial common in these areas. The
studies on the skeletal remains show some of them resemble with the
Harappan cemetery R. 37 series and some belonged to west-Asian stock.
Coarse grey and black burnished pottery, pit houses, ground stone tools,
bone tools and even masur, wheat, barley and rice, found in Swat valley
resemble with that of Neolithic Kashmir.
 The Burzahom painted pot with the horned deity resemble with the pre-
Harappan painted pots found at Kot-Diji, The burial of dogs with humans
(probably their masters) was found in Ang-Ang-His culture of Manchuria,
Shilka cave culture of Amur, Gilyaks, Ulchis and Goldis of this region.
 KANISPUR
 Kanishkapura or modern Kanispur (Lat. 34⁰ 13ʹ 35‫ ״‬N and Long. 74⁰ 24ʹ 30‫ ״‬to 74⁰ 25ʹ
E), a prolific Neolithic and historical site in the Baramulla district of Kashmir, was
excavated by B.R. Mani in 1998–99 while working as Superintending Archaeologist of
the Srinagar Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India.
 The Neolithic remains excavated at Kanispur were followed by historical remains
beginning with Kushana period.
 Interestingly, it has been revealed that after the Neolithic settlement, the site was
reoccupied only during the Kushan period when Kanishka seems to have established a
city on his own name as mentioned in the Rajtarangini of Kalhana.
 Unlike Burzahom and Gufkral, the site does not have any evidence of a megalithic
culture.
 At Kanishkapura evidence of aceramic Neolithic (Period I) was found followed by
Ceramic Neolithic (Period II). It has been inferred that the Neolithic population
settled on the flat top of the Karewas at Kanispur and later after enlargement of
their settlement they occupied the slopes too. Four successive floor levels along with
post-holes were noticed which are parts of rectangular houses which most probably
had thatched roofs.
 Tools and Pottery

 Five bone points and six polished stone celts were recovered during
excavations.
 The ceramic industry comprised both hand made as well as wheel turned
pottery. Fine grey ware of medium to thick fabric, coarse grey ware, red
ware, dull red ware, black wares of both plain and burnished varieties are
important types.
 Evidence of brushing the wet surface of pots with reeds and mat-impressed
designs on the disc bases of pots have been found.
 Pinched designs on applique bands and incised oblique decorations on the
neck and rims of handmade vases have been frequently found. Similar
decorations are also found on the body of the pots. Series of deep incised
lines, notching and semi-perforated decorations were noticed on stems or
stands of pottery, particularly on dish on-stand.
 The important shapes include bowls, shallow bowls, or dishes on stand, jars,
vases and long-necked vases.
 Metal Objects

 The evidence of copper objects in the form of a bangle piece, a

needle, two pins, an ear or nose ring and a chisel from the late
Neolithic levels at Kanishkapura suggests the chalcolithic contacts,
probably with the Harappans, as also found in similar levels at
Burzahom and Gufkral.
 Subsistence

 Besides recovery of wheat, barley, lentil, common pea and rice as

reported from Burzahom and Gufkral, the excavations at Kanishkapura
have further given the evidence of Emmer wheat or Triticum dicoccum
which is found from early Harappan deposits at Kunal in district Hissar
(Haryana) where evidence of pit-dwelling has also been noticed – a
common feature of Neolithic settlement at Burzahom.
 According to radiocarbon dates from Kanishkapura , the beginning of
Neolithic age in the latter half of the fourth millennium BCE in Kashmir
and not in the first half of the third millennium BCE as popularly believed
by archaeologists on the evidence of Burzahom and Gufkral. A caliberated
C-14 date on one charcoal sample from Kanishkapura is 3361 BCE to 2937
BCE (average being 3149 BCE).
 BOMAI
 Bomai is a Palaeolithic archaeological site located near the
Wular Lake in Sopore.
 It was first reported by Dr. Mumtaz yatoo in 2005.
 There was found a huge rock shelter with an evolved stone
Acheullian hand Axe.
 Such tools were found in Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Period.
 At the site there is a big prehistoric rock engraving, the first of
its kind in Kashmir.
 The engraving of the upper Palaeolithic period depicts chase
and game engagements of Prehistoric population.
 The petroglyphs on the rock shows concentric
circles which might have been caused by
meteorite showers.
 The three other circles in the Bomai rock art are
collinear and the three Lakes (Manasbal, Dal and
Anchar) are also aligned in the same direction
 SoPrehistoric ancestors in Kashmir recorded the
celestial movements and topography around
them.
 Semthan
 Semthan near Bijbehara in District Anantnag in the south of Kashmir
was excavated from 1978-1980 under the supervision of R.S. Bisht
assisted by G.S. Gaur and others in four seasons.
 It yielded a six-phase cultural sequence. Period I is characterised by
several types of red ware comparable with Megalithic ceramics from
other sites in Kashmir.
 Semthan (75°9′ E Long. 33°48′ N Lat.) is located 44 km south of
Srinagar on the Jammu-Srinagar National Highway in tehsil Bijbihara,
district Anantnag.
 The site which is situated on the top of the Chakradhara Karewa, an
isolated Karewa near village Semthan.
 Semthan-Cultural Profile
 Semthan, has yielded a sequence of six cultures starting from the
middle of first millennium BCE up to the late medieval times (post 13th
century CE)
 It included, Period I, Pre-NBP (700-500 BCE),
 Period II, NBPW (500-200BCE),
 Period III, Indo-Greek, (200 BCE-beginning of 1st century CE),
 Period IV, Kushana-Huna (100 CE to 500 CE),
 Period V, Hindu rule (500-1100 CE)
 and Period VI, Early Medieval. In addition, there are ancient
monuments falling within the time bracket of 1st to 13th century CE in
the region, which include Shrine of Siva Vijeshvara, Martand.
 Artefacts
 Semthan was at one point a Greek settlement. Many
figurines in the Hellenistic style were found during the
excavations.
  The female figurines are fully dressed, with the left leg
slightly bent, and wear the Greek chiton and himation,
and the Hellenistic styles of Bactria are probably the
ultimate source of these designs. 
 Itis thought that the Indo-Greeks introduced their
artistic styles into the area as they moved eastward
from the area of Gandhara into South Kashmir. 
 the Semthan excavation has bridged the gap between the Neolithic and
Kushana periods in Kashmir. Based on pottery in relation to its
composition of clay, ingredients, firing, surface finish etc., the cultural
sequence of the Semthan site has been arranged in six periods and
presents a continuity of historical events in Kashmir.
 Period I is designated by the presence of Pre-Northern Black Polished
Ware dated from 700 BC to 500 BC. The people of this period built
houses with rammed clay and pebble walls and used copper, terracotta
and bone beads and tools. Iron is absent in this period and the presence
of pottery has been classified into five fabrics.
 Period II dated to 500-200 BC is marked by the presence of red ware
associated with the Northern Black Polished Ware. Besides successive
floor levels, a rubble-wall is the only structure found from this level.
Important antiquities include cast copper coins from the upper level
that belong to the Indo-Greeks.
 Period III, the phase of Indo-Greeks dated 200 BC to 1st century AD, is
represented by pottery of a thin fabric with bright red or orange slip.
Striking shapes are thali (pans) and goblets. A small clay seal depicting
an Indo-Greek deity was a significant discovery. Coins of this period were
also collected from the surface.
 Period IV witnessed the continuation of certain wares and types of the
preceding period. During this period, Kashmir was under Kushanas, Kidar
Kushanas and Huns and dated back to 1st century to 5th century AD. A
large number of terracotta figurines, coins and clay sealing of this period
are found from both excavation and surface. The figurines are usually
prepared out of a single mould. Other finds comprise beads of terracotta
and semiprecious stones in addition to copper and iron objects.
 Period V belonged to the time of prolific temple building and flourishing
sculptural art in Kashmir. It was the period of Karkota, Utpala and
Lohara dynasities.
 HARWAN
 Harwan situated three kilometers beyond Shalimar garden on a
hill side.
 In the Rajtarangni of Kalhana Harwan is referred to
Shadarhadwan (grove of six saints).
 Kalhana says that Nagarjuna famous Buddhist philosopher
lived here in the reign of Kanishka.
 R. C. Kak took up excavations in the year 1920-21 and in
subsequent years, briefly noting his discoveries in the
illustrated London News and more fully in his book Ancient
Monuments of Kashmir Published in 1933 from London.
 The site is dated variously between the second and seventh
century CE.
 The entire site is divided into three terraces containing about ten
ruins located upon each terrace.
 On the top most terrace the excavations revealed the remains of an
apsidal temple and the unique courtyard of remarkable terracotta
tiles surrounded on three sides by a low wall of numbered plaques
each portraying identical images of an emaciated ascetic figure.
 The subject matter of the tiles may be divided into four main
categories: humans, animals, flora and abstract designs.
 Among the human representations are found both male and female
figures engaged in many different activities. Some dance as they
play a drum and others are seen carrying water pots.
A graceful lady on one tile walks with a basket while on another a
male stands guard holding a long spear in his left hand.
A hunter shoots an arrow while riding an animal while on another, a
male figure, wielding a mace-like weapon and striding over a spoked
wheel, appears to be in combat with a feline, griffin-like creature
which stands on its hind legs.
 The existence of Kharoshti numerals on the tiles affords a reliable
clue to the date of the tiles. Kharoshti script ceased to be in vogue in
north-western India, where it had principally flourished, about the
fifth century CE. And Ye dharma in Brahmi.
 The structural remains of the middle terrace have almost
disappeared due to frequent cloud burst and excessive rains except
for the terraces of rubble and diaper pebble structures.
 In the lowest terrace four structures were noticed by the excavators
these were built in diaper rubble, diaper pebble and in a peculiar
style which was evidently a cross between the older pebble style and
the later rubble style.
 Among the buildings constructed in diaper rubble style are:
 (1) triple base of a medium sized Stupa (2) a set of rooms which
might have served as chapels or for residential purposes.
 While digging under its foundations a copper coin of Toramana
who flourished in the late 5th century C.E., was discovered.
 Among the antiquities that this area yielded, were a large
number of broken fingers and toes of terracotta figures,
terracotta curls belonging to images of the Buddha of which no
other remnant was found, and a few clay votive tablets bearing
in relief miniature stupas.
 The Stupa depicted on the tablets had a triple base, all the three flights of
steps leading up being in line with one another, as is the case with the
existing Stupa at Harwan.
 Percy Brown who found Harwan representing ―motifs suggestive of more
than half a dozen alien civilizations of the ancient world besides others
which are indigenous and local.
 In fact right from about 200 BCE Kashmir was under the occupation of
Central Asian powers namely Bactrian Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, Kushans,
Kidarates and Huns.
 The overall plan of Harwan closely takes after the fire temple at
Surkhkotal (Bactria) dedicated by Kanishka.
 The apsidal temple preceded by an oblong hall has resemblance with the
temple of Artemis-Nanaia at Dura-Europus (a famous Parthian site) and
also with the apsidal structure of Sircap, the Greeko-Parthain city.
 The facial characteristics of the human figures stamped on the tiles
bear close resemblance with the inhabitants of the regions
roundabout of Yarkand and Kashgar whose heavy features prominent
cheek bones, narrow sunk and slanting eyes and receding foreheads
are faithfully represented on the tiles.
 Thedifferent masonry styles namely the rubble stone style,
pebble style, diaper pebble style and the diaper rubble style
have their origins in Greek, Shaka, Parthian and Kushan
cultures
 AtTaxila heavy diaper masonry was introduced at Sircap by the
Parthians
 Harwan tiles are no doubt unusual but not unique, decorative
floor tiles with floral designed have been found in Turfan and
China, Korea, Khalachayen in Uzbekistan etc.
 AHAN
 Ahan, 34⁰ 13' 51'' N and 74⁰ 39' 59'' is situated near Sumbal in District Ganderbal
in Tehsil Lar Block Wakura.
 The archaeological site of Ahan 34⁰ 13́ 54̎ N and 74⁰ 40́ 00.17̎ E is on the banks
of tiny Lake Ahansar.
 The renowned Historian Prof. Fida Mohammad Hassnain was the first to locate
the site when some locals accidentally discovered terracotta tiles at the site.
 He, in 1962, unearthed a pavement decorated with the terracotta tiles
resembling with the Harwan tiles, some pebble style walls and a dilapidated
stupa.
 The Excavation at Ahan Ganderbal was a part of Indo-Russian archaeological
expedition under the project, “Archaeological Studies on the Migration Routes
from Central Asia to Kashmir” funded by ‘Gerda Henkel Stiftung,
Germany,carried out in collaboration with ‘Institute of Archaeology and
Ethnography Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (SB RAS)’ and
Centre of Central Asian Studies (CCAS), University of Kashmir under Dr. M.
Ajmal Shah, Director of the Project.
THANK YOU