Profile of Egyptian

Literature
• Introduction to Egyptian Literature
• Three Kingdoms
• Egyptian Book of the Dead
• Egyptian Gods
A. Introduction
- Ancient Egyptian literature comprises a wide
array of narrative and poetic forms including
inscriptions on tombs, stele, obelisks, and temples;
myths, stories, and legends; religious writings;
philosophical works; autobiographies;
biographies; histories; poetry; hymns; personal
essays; letters and court records. Although many
of these forms are not usually defined as
"literature" they are given that designation in
Egyptian studies because so many of them,
especially from the Middle Kingdom (2O4O-1782
BCE), are of such high literary merit.
 Stele of Minnakht
(Chief of the Scribes)
- The first examples of Egyptian writing come
from the Early Dynastic Period (c.6OOO -
c.315O BCE) in the form of “Offering Lists” and
autobiographies. The autobiography was carved
on one's tomb along with the Offering List to let
the living know what gifts, and in what quantity,
the deceased was due regularly in visiting the
grave.
- Since the dead were thought to live on after their
bodies had failed, regular offerings at graves
were an important consideration; the dead still
had to eat and drink even if they no longer held
a physical form.
- From the Offering List came the Prayer for
Offerings (a standard literary work which would
replace the Offering List), and from the
autobiographies grew the “Pyramid Texts”
(accounts of a king's reign and his successful
journey to the afterlife); both these
developments took place during the period of
the Old Kingdom (c.2613 - c.2181 BCE).
- These texts were written in hieroglyphics
“sacred carvings“ a writing system combining
phonograms (symbols which represent sound),
logograms (symbols representing words), and
ideograms (symbols which represent meaning or
sense). Hieroglyphic writing was extremely
labour intensive and so another script grew up
beside it known as hieratic sacred writings
which was faster to work with and easier to
use.
- Hieratic was based on hieroglyphic script and
relied on the same principles but was less
formal and precise. Hieroglyphic script was
written with certain care for the aesthetic
beauty of the arrangement of the symbols;
hieratic script was used to relay information
quickly and easily.
- In c.7OO, BCE hieratic was replaced by
demotic script "popular writing" which
continued in use until the rise of Christianity in
Egypt and the adoption of Coptic script (c.4th
century CE.)
- Most of Egyptian literature was written in
hieroglyphics or hieratic script; hieroglyphics
were used on monuments such as tombs,
obelisks, stele, and temples while hieratic script
was used in writing on papyrus scrolls and
ceramic pots. Although hieratic, and later
demotic and Coptic, scripts became the
common writing system of the educated and
literate, hieroglyphics remained in use
throughout Egypt's history for monumental
structures until it was forgotten during the
early Christian period.
- Although the definition of "Egyptian
Literature" includes many different types of
writing, for the present purposes attention will
mostly be paid to standard literary works such
as stories, legends, myths, and personal essays;
other kinds or work will be mentioned when
they are particularly significant. Egyptian
history, and so literature, spans centuries and
fills volumes of books; a single article cannot
hope to treat of the subject fairly in attempting
to cover the wide range of written works of the
culture.
Hieroglyphics
Old Kingdom
- The Offering Lists and autobiographies,
though not considered literature, are the first
examples of the Egyptian writing system in
action. The Offering List was a simple
instruction, known to the Egyptians as the
hetep-di-nesw (a boon given by the king),
inscribed on a tomb detailing food, drink, and
other offerings appropriate for the person
buried there.
- The autobiography, written after the person's
death, was always inscribed in the first person
as though the deceased were speaking.
 “The basic aim of the
autobiography (the self-portrait in
words), was the same as that of the
self-portrait in sculpture and relief: to
sum up the characteristic features of
the individual person in terms of his
positive worth and in the face of
eternity.”
- These early obituaries came to be augmented by a
type of formulaic writing now known as the
Catalogue of Virtues which grew from "the new
ability to capture the formless experiences of life in
the enduring formulations of the written word.”
- The Catalogue of Virtues accentuated the good a
person had done in his or her life and how worthy
they were of remembrance. Lichtheim notes that the
importance of the Virtues was that they "reflected
the ethical standards of society" while at the same
time making clear that the deceased had adhered to
those standards.
- Some of these autobiographies and lists of virtues
were brief, inscribed on a false door or around the
lintels; others, such as the well-known
“Autobiography of Weni,” were inscribed on large
monolithic slabs and were quite detailed. The
autobiography was written in prose; the Catalogue
in formulaic poetry.
I have come from my town
I have descended from my Nome
I have done justice for its lord
I have satisfied him with what he loves.
I spoke truly, I did right
I spoke fairly, I repeated fairly
I seized the right moment
So as to stand well with people.
I judged between two so as to content them
I rescued the weak from the stronger than he
As much as was in my power.
I gave bread to the hungry, clothes to the naked
I brought the boatless to land.
I buried him who had no son,
I made a boat for him who lacked one.
I respected my father, I pleased my mother,
I raised their children.
So says he whose nickname is Sheshi. (Lichtheim)
- These autobiographies and virtue lists gave
rise to the Pyramid Texts of the 5th and 6th
dynasties which were reserved for royalty
and told the story of a king's life, his virtues,
and his journey to the afterlife; they
therefore tried to encompass the earthly life
of the deceased and his immortal journey on
into the land of the gods and, in doing so,
recorded early religious beliefs.
- Creation myths such as the famous story of
Atum standing on the primordial mound
amidst the swirling waters of chaos, weaving
creation from nothing, comes from the
Pyramid Texts.
- These inscriptions also include allusions to
the story of Osiris, his murder by his brother
Set, his resurrection from the dead by his
sister-wife Isis, and her care for their son
Horus in the marshes of the Delta.
 Detail from the
“Sarcophagus of Ankhnesneferibre”
- Following closely on the heels of the Pyramid
Texts, a body of literature known as the
“Instructions in Wisdom” appeared. These
works offer short maxims on how to live
much along the lines of the biblical Book of
Proverbs and, in many instances, anticipate
the same kinds of advice one finds in
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Psalms, and other
biblical narratives.
- The oldest Instruction is that of Prince
Hardjedef written sometime in the 5th Dynasty
which includes advice such as:

Cleanse yourself before your own eyes

Lest another cleanse you.
When you prosper, found your household,
Take a hearty wife, a son will be born to you.
It is for the son you build a house
When you make a place for yourself.
- The somewhat later “Instruction Addressed to
Kagemni” advises:

The respectful man prospers,

Praised is the modest one.
The tent is open to the silent,
The seat of the quiet is spacious
Do not chatter!
- The somewhat later “Instruction Addressed to
Kagemni” advises:

When you sit with company,

Shun the food you love;
Restraint is a brief moment
Gluttony is base and is reproved.
A cup of water quenches the thirst,
A mouthful of herbs strengthens the heart.
( Lichtheim, 59-6O )
- There were a number of such texts, all written
according to the model of Mesopotamian Naru
Literature, in which the work is ascribed to, or
prominently features, a famous figure. The actual
Prince Hardjedef did not write his Instruction nor
was Kagemni's addressed to the actual Kagemni.
- As in Naru literature, a well-known person was
chosen to give the material more weight and so
wider acceptance. Wisdom Literature, the Pyramid
Texts, and the autobiographical inscriptions
developed significantly during the Old Kingdom
and became the foundation for the literature of the
Middle Kingdom.
 Middle
Kingdom
- The Middle Kingdom is considered the classical
age of Egyptian literature. During this time the
script known as Middle Egyptian was created,
considered the highest form of hieroglyphics and
the one most often seen on monuments and other
artifacts in museums in the present day.
- The literature of this era reflected the added
depth and maturity that the country now gained
as a result of the civil wars and upheavals of the
“First Intermediate Period.”
 The literature of this era reflected the added
depth and maturity that the country now gained as
a result of the civil wars and upheavals of the
“First Intermediate Period.” New genres of
literature were developed including the so-called
Pessimistic Literature, which perhaps best
exemplifies the self-analysis and doubts that the
Egyptians now experienced. ( Rosalie David )
- The Pessimistic Literature is some of the
greatest work of the Middle Kingdom in that it
not only expresses a depth of understanding of
the complexities of life but does so in high prose.
- Some of the best known works of this genre
(generally known as Didactic Literature because it
teaches some lesson) are; The Dispute Between a
Man and his Ba (soul), The Eloquent Peasant,
The Satire of the Trades, The Instruction of King
Amenemhet I for his Son Senusret I, Prophecies
of Neferti, and Admonitions of Ipuwer.
 The Dispute Between a
Man and His Ba
“The Dispute Between a Man and his
Ba” is considered the oldest text on suicide
in the world.
The piece presents a conversation
between a narrator and his soul on the
difficulties of life and how one is supposed
to live in it.
 The Dispute Between a
Man and His Ba
In passages reminiscent of Ecclesiastes or
the biblical “Book of Lamentations,” the soul
tries to console the man by reminding him of
the good things in life, the goodness of the
gods, and how he should enjoy life while he
can because he will be dead soon enough. But
Egyptologist, W.K. Simpson has translated
the text as “The Man Who Was Weary of Life”
and disagrees with the interpretation that it
has to do with suicide.
 This Middle Kingdom text, preserved on
Papyrus Berlin 3O24, has often been interpreted as
a debate between a man and his ba on the subject
of suicide. I offer here the suggestion that the text
is of a somewhat different nature.
What is presented in this text is not a debate but
a psychological picture of a man depressed by the
evil of life to the point of feeling unable to arrive at
any acceptance of the innate goodness of
existence. His inner self is, as it were, unable to be
integrated and at peace.
( Simpson )
 The Eloquent Peasant
The depth of the conversation between
the man and his soul, the range of life
experiences touched on, is also seen in the
other works mentioned.
In “The Eloquent Peasant” a poor man
who can speak well is robbed by a wealthy
landowner and presents his case to the
mayor of the town.
 The Eloquent Peasant
The mayor is so impressed with his
speaking ability that he keeps refusing him
justice so he can hear him speak further.
Although in the end the peasant
receives his due, the piece illustrates the
injustice of having to humour and
entertain those in positions of authority in
order to receive what they should give
freely.
 The Satire of the Trades
“The Satire of Trades” is presented as a
man advising his son to become a scribe
because life is hard and the best life
possible is one where a man can sit around
all day doing nothing but writing. All the
other trades one could practice are
presented as endless toil and suffering in a
life which is too short and precious to
waste on them.
 The Satire of the Trades
The motif of the father advising his son
on the best course in life is used in a
number of other works.
The Instruction of Amenemhat features
the ghost of the assassinated king warning
his son not to trust those close to him
because people are not always what they
seem to be; the best course is to keep one's
own counsel and be wary of everyone else.
 The Satire of the Trades
Amenemhat's ghost tells the story of
how he was murdered by those close to
him because he made the mistake of
believing the gods would reward him for a
virtuous life by surrounding him with
those he could trust.
In Shakespeare's “Hamlet,” Polonius advises his
son.

"Those friends thou hast, and their adoption

tried/Grapple them unto thy soul with hoops of
steel/But do not dull thy palm with entertainment
of each new-hatched, unfledged courage" (I.iii.62-
65).
Polonius here is telling his son not to waste time on
those he barely knows but to trust only those who
have proven worthy.

Put no trust in a brother,

Acknowledge no one as a friend,
Do not raise up for yourself intimate companions,
For nothing is to be gained from them.
When you lie down at night, let your own heart be
watchful over you,
For no man has any to defend him on the day of
anguish. ( Simpson, 168 )
 Prophecies of Neferti
The actual king Amenemhat I (c.1991 -
1962 BCE) was the first great king of the 12th
Dynasty and was, in fact, assassinated by
those close to him. The Instruction bearing
his name was written later by an unknown
scribe, probably at the request of Senusret I
(c.1971 - 1926 BCE) to eulogize his father and
vilify the conspirators.
 Prophecies of Neferti
Amenemhat I is further praised in the
work “Prophecies of Neferti” which foretell
the coming of a king (Amenemhat I ) who will
be a saviour to the people, solve all the
country's problems, and inaugurate a golden
age. The work was written after Amenemhat
I's death but presented as though it were an
actual prophecy pre-dating his reign.
 Prophecies of Neferti
This motif of the "false prophecy" - a
vision recorded after the event it supposedly
predicts - is another element found in
Mesopotamian Naru literature where the
historical "facts" are reinterpreted to suit the
purposes of the writer. In the case of the
Prophecies of Neferti, the focus of the piece is
on how mighty a king Amenemhat I was and
so the vision of his reign is placed further
back in time to show how he was chosen by
 Prophecies of Neferti
the gods to fulfill this destiny and save his
country. The piece also follows a common
motif of Middle Kingdom literature in
contrasting the time of prosperity of
Amenemhat I's reign, a "golden age", with a
previous one of disunity and chaos.
 Admonitions of Ipuwer
The “Admonitions of Ipuwer” touches on
this theme of a golden age more completely.
Once considered historical reportage, the
piece has come to be recognized as literature
of the order vs. chaos didactic genre in which
a present time of despair and uncertainty is
contrasted with an earlier era when all was
good and life was easy.
 Admonitions of Ipuwer
The Admonitions of Ipuwer is often cited
by those wishing to align biblical narratives
with Egyptian history as proof of the “Ten
Plagues from the Book of Exodus” but it is no
such thing.
Not only does it not - in any way -
correlate to the biblical plagues but it is quite
obviously a type of literary piece which many,
many cultures have produced throughout
history up to the present day.
 Admonitions of Ipuwer
It is hardly an exaggeration to say that
everyone, at some point in his or her life, has
looked back on the past and compared it
favourably to the present.
The Admonitions of Ipuwer simply records
that experience, though perhaps more
eloquently than most, and can in no way be
interpreted as an actual historical account.
- In addition to these prose pieces, the Middle
Kingdom also produced the poetry known as
The Lay of the Harper (also known as The Songs
of the Harper), which frequently question the
existence of an ideal afterlife and the mercy of
the gods and, at the same time, created hymns to
those gods affirming such an afterlife.
- The most famous prose narratives in Egyptian
history - The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor and
The Story of Sinuhe both come from the Middle
Kingdom as well.
 The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor
and Sinuhe’s Story
“The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor” holds
Egypt up as the best of all possible worlds
through the narrative of a man shipwrecked
on an island and offered all manner of wealth
and happiness; he refuses, however, because he
knows that all he wants is back in Egypt.
“The Story of Sinuhe” reflects the same
ideal as a man is driven into exile following the
assassination of Amenemhat I and longs to
return home.
- The complexities Egypt had experienced during
the First Intermediate Period ( 2181-2O4O
BCE ) were reflected in the literature which
followed in the Middle Period. Contrary to the
claim still appearing in history books on Egypt,
the First Intermediate Period had not been a
time of chaos, darkness, and universal distress;
it was simply a time when there was no strong
central government.
- This situation resulted in a democratization of
art and culture as individual regions developed
their own styles which were valued as greatly as
royal art had been in the Old Kingdom.
- The Middle Kingdom scribes, however, looked
back on the time of the First Intermediate
Period and saw in it a clear departure from the
glory of the Old Kingdom. Works such as The
Admonitions of Ipuwer were interpreted by later
Egyptologists as accurate accounts of the chaos
and disorder of the era preceding the Middle
Kingdom but actually, if it were not for the
freedom of exploration and expression in the
arts the First Intermediate Period encouraged,
the later scribes could never have written the
works they produced.
- The royal autobiographies and Offering Lists of
the Old Kingdom, only available to kings and
nobles, were made use of in the First
Intermediate Period by anyone who could afford
to build a tomb, royal and non-royal alike.
- In this same way, the literature of the Middle
Kingdom presented stories which could praise a
king like Amenemhat I or present the thoughts
and feelings of a common sailor or the nameless
narrator in conflict with his soul.
- The literature of the Middle Kingdom opened
wide the range of expression by enlarging upon
the subjects one could write about and this
would not have been possible without the First
Intermediate Period.
- Following the age of the 12th Dynasty, in which
the majority of the great works were created, the
weaker 13th Dynasty ruled Egypt. The Middle
Kingdom declined during this dynasty in all
aspects, finally to the point of allowing a foreign
people to gain power in lower Egypt: The
Hyksos and their period of control, just like the
First Intermediate Period, would be vilified by
later Egyptian scribes who would again write of
a time of chaos and darkness. In reality,
however, the Hyksos would provide valuable
contributions to Egyptian culture even though
these were ignored in the later literature of the
New Kingdom.
New Kingdom
- Between the Middle Kingdom and the era
known as the New Kingdom falls the time
scholars refer to as the Second Intermediate
Period (c.1782 - c.157O BCE).
- During this era rule in Egypt was divided
between the foreign kings of the Hyksos in
Lower Egypt at Avaris, Egyptian rule from
Thebes in Upper Egypt, and control of the
southern reaches of Upper Egypt by the
Nubians. Egypt was united, and the Hyksos
and Nubians driven beyond the borders, by
Ahmose of Thebes (c.157O - 1544 BCE) who
inaugurated the New Kingdom.
- The memory of the Hyksos "invasion"
remained fresh in the minds of the Egyptians
and was reflected in the political policies and
the literature of the period.
- The early pharaohs of the New Kingdom
dedicated themselves to preventing any kind
of incursion like that of the Hyksos and so
embarked on a series of military campaigns
to expand Egypt's borders; this resulted in
the Age of Empire for Egypt which was
reflected in a broader scope of content in the
literature and art.
- Monumental inscriptions of the gods of Egypt
and their enduring support for the pharaoh
became a vehicle for expressing the country's
superiority over its neighbors, stories and
poems reflected a greater knowledge of the
world beyond Egypt's borders, and the old
theme of “Order vs. Chaos” was re-imagined
as a divine struggle. These larger themes
were emphasized over the pessimistic and
complex views of the Middle Kingdom.
- The Hyksos and the Second Intermediate
Period did the same for New Kingdom art
and literature that the First Intermediate
Period had for the Middle Kingdom; it made
the works richer and more complex in plot,
style, and characterization.
 New Kingdom literature, developed in a
period when Egypt had founded an empire,
displays a more cosmopolitan approach. This is
expressed in texts that seek to promote the great
state god, Amun-Ra, as a universal creator and
in the inscriptions carved on temple walls and
elsewhere that relate the king's military
victories in Nubia and Syria.
( David )
- This is true only of the monumental
inscriptions and hymns, however. The
inscriptions are religious in nature and focus
on the gods, usually either on Amun or Osiris
and Isis, the gods of the two most popular
religious cults of the time.
- Stories and poems, however, continued to
deal for the most part with the conflicts
people faced in their lives such as dealing
with injustice, an unfaithful spouse, and
trying to live one's life fully in the face of
death.
- These same themes had been touched on or
fully dealt with during the Middle Kingdom
but the New Kingdom texts show an
awareness of other cultures, other values,
outside of the Egyptian paradigm.
The Seated Scribe
- Middle Kingdom literature was now
considered "classical" and studied by
students learning to be scribes.
- An interesting aspect of New Kingdom
literature is its emphasis on the importance of
the scribal tradition. Scribes had always been
considered an important aspect of Egyptian
daily life and the popularity of The Satire of
the Trades makes clear how readers in the
Middle Kingdom recognized this.
- In the New Kingdom, however, in the works
extant in the Papyrus Lansing and the
Papyrus Chester Beatty IV, a scribe is not
simply a respected profession but one who is
almost god-like in the ability to express
concepts in words, to create something out of
nothing, and so become immortal through
their work.
 Papyrus Chester Beatty IV is a typical scribal
miscellany. The recto contains religious hymns;
the verso consists of several short pieces
relating to the scribal profession. Among
these, one piece is of uncommon interest. It is a
praise of the writer's profession which goes
beyond the usual clichés and propounds the
remarkable idea that the only immortality man
can achieve is the fame of his name transmitted
by his books. Man becomes dust; only the
written word endures.
( New Kingdom, 167 )
- The concept of the sacred nature of words
had a long history in Egypt. The written word
was thought to have been given to humanity
by the god of wisdom and knowledge, Thoth.
Worship of Thoth can be dated to the late Pre-
Dynastic Period (c. 6OOO - c. 315O BCE)
when Egyptians first began to discover
writing.
- During the 2nd Dynasty of the Early Dynastic
Period, Thoth received a consort: his
daughter-wife named Seshat.
Thoth Seshat
- The concept of the sacred nature of words
had a long history in Egypt. The written word
was thought to have been given to humanity
by the god of wisdom and knowledge, Thoth.
Worship of Thoth can be dated to the late Pre-
Dynastic Period (c. 6OOO - c. 315O BCE)
when Egyptians first began to discover
writing.
- During the 2nd Dynasty of the Early Dynastic
Period, Thoth received a consort: his
daughter-wife named Seshat.
- Seshat was the goddess of all the different
forms of writing, patroness of libraries and
librarians, who was aware of what was
written on earth and kept a copy of the
scribe's work in the celestial library of the
gods.
- As part of her responsibilities, also presided
over accounting, record-keeping, census-
taking, and measurements in the creation of
sacred buildings and monuments.
- She was regularly invoked as part of the
ceremony known as “The Stretching of the
Cord” in which the king would measure out
the ground on which a temple was built.
- In this capacity she was known as “Mistress
of Builders” who measured the land and lay
the foundation of temples.
- Egyptologist Richard H. Wilkinson writes,
“…she appears to have had no temple of her
own, but by virtue of her role in the foundation
ceremony, she was part of every temple
building.” ( 167 )
- Her involvement in a temple complex did not
end with its inception, however, as she
continued to inhabit a part of the temple
known as the “House of Life.”
 The House of Life appears to have been an area
of the temple that acted as a library, scriptorium,
and higher teaching institution, where the sacred
writings were produced and stored and where
instruction was given. Medical and magical texts
as well as religious books were probably compiled
and copied there.
Sometimes this institution may have been
situated within the temple itself, but elsewhere it
was probably located in one of the buildings within
the temple precinct.
 Very little is known of its administration or
organization but it is possible that every sizable
town had one. They are known to have existed at
Tell el-Amarna, Edfu, and Abydos. ( David )
- The name of the institution reflects the value
Egyptians placed on the written word. The
House of Life (a school, library, publishing
house, distributor, and writer's workshop
combined), was presided over by Seshat who
made sure to keep copies of all that was
produced there in her own celestial library.
- During the New Kingdom these works were
largely hymns, prayers, instructions in
wisdom, praise songs, love poems, and stories.
- The Egyptian love poem of the New Kingdom
is remarkably similar on many levels to the
biblical Song of Solomon and the much later
compositions of the troubadours of 12th
century CE France in their evocation of a
beloved who is beyond compare and worthy
of all devotion and sacrifice.
- The same sentiments, and often imagery, used
in these New Kingdom love poems are still
recognizable in the lyrics of popular music in
the present day.
Tale of Two Brothers Papyrus
- The narrative structure of the prose work of
the time, and sometimes even plot elements,
will also be recognized in later works.
- In the story of Truth and Falsehood (also
known as The Blinding of Truth by
Falsehood), a good and noble prince (Truth) is
blinded by his evil brother (Falsehood) who
then casts him out of the estate and assumes
his role. Truth is befriended by a woman who
falls in love with him and they have a son
who, when he discovers the noble identity of
his father, avenges him and takes back his
birthright from the usurper.
- This plot line has been used, with
modifications, in many stories since.
- The basic plot of any adventure tale is utilized
in the story known as “The Report of
Wenamun” which is a story about an official
sent on a simple mission to procure wood for
a building project.
- In the course of what was supposed to be a
short and easy trip, Wenamun encounters
numerous obstacles he needs to overcome to
reach his goal and return home.
- Two of the best known tales are The Prince
Who Was Threatened by Three Fates (also
known as The Doomed Prince) and The Two
Brothers (also known as The Fate of an
Unfaithful Wife).
 The Doomed Prince
“The Doomed Prince” has all the
elements of later European fairy tales and
shares an interesting similarity with the
story of the awakening of the Buddha: a
son is born to a noble couple and the
Seven Hathors (who decree one's fate at
birth) arrive to tell the king and queen
their son will die by a crocodile, a snake,
or a dog.
 The Doomed Prince
His father, wishing to keep him safe,
builds a stone house in the desert and
keeps him there away from the world.
The prince grows up in the isolation of
this perfectly safe environment until, one
day, he climbs to the roof of his home and
sees the world outside of his artificial
environment. He tells his father he must
leave to meet his fate, whatever it may be.
 The Doomed Prince
On his journeys he finds a princess in a
high castle with many suitors surrounding
the tower trying to accomplish the feat of
jumping high enough to catch the window's
edge and kiss her. The prince accomplishes
this, beating out the others, and then has to
endure a trial to win the father's consent. He
marries the princess and later meets all three
of his fates - the crocodile, snake, and dog -
and defeats them all.
 The Doomed Prince
The end of the manuscript is missing
but it is assumed, based on the narrative
structure, that the conclusion would be the
couple living happily ever after.
 The Two Brothers
“The Two Brothers” tells the story of the
divine siblings Anubis and Bata who lived
together with Anubis' wife. The wife falls
in love with the younger brother, Bata,
and tries to seduce him one day when he
returns to the house from the fields.
Bata refuses her, promising he will
never speak of the incident to his brother,
and leaves.
 The Two Brothers
When Anubis returns home, he finds his
wife distraught and she, fearing that Bata
will not keep his word, tells her husband that
Bata tried to seduce her. Anubis plans to kill
Bata but the younger brother is warned by
the gods and escapes. Anubis learns the truth
about his unfaithful wife (who goes on to
cause more problems for them both) and must
do penance before the brothers are united
and the wife is punished.
 The Contendings of
Horus and Set
From this same period comes the text
known as “The Contendings of Horus and
Set,” although the actual story is no doubt
older. This tale is a divine version of the
Middle Kingdom, “Order vs. Chaos” motif
in which Horus (champion of order)
defeats his uncle Set (symbolizing chaos) to
avenge his father Osiris and restore the
kingdom which Set has usurped.
 The Contendings of
Horus and Set
Horus, the prince, must avenge the
murder of his father by his uncle and, to
do this, must endure a number of trials to
prove himself worthy of the throne.
This is the basic paradigm of what
scholar Joseph Campbell calls "the hero's
journey" and can be seen in myths around
the world and throughout history.
 The Contendings of
Horus and Set
The enduring popularity of George
Lucas' Star Wars films is their adherence
to the narrative form and symbolism of
this type of tale.
The Contendings of Horus and Set,
although likely never read by later
authors, is a precursor to two of the best-
loved and most popular plots in western
literature: Hamlet and Cinderella.
 The Contendings of
Horus and Set
American author, Kurt Vonnegut has
pointed out that both of these stories have
been re-imagined with great success
multiple times.
The story of the disenfranchised who
wins back what is rightfully theirs,
sometimes at great cost, continues to
resonate with audiences in the present day
just as The Contendings of Horus and Set
did for an ancient Egyptian audience.
Book of the Dead
Book of the Dead Papyrus
- Probably the best-known piece of literature
from New Kingdom texts, however, is The
Book of Coming Forth by Day, commonly
known as The Egyptian Book of the Dead.
Although the concepts and spells in The
Egyptian Book of the Dead originated in the
Early Dynastic Period and the book took
form in the Middle Kingdom, it became
extremely popular in the New Kingdom and
the best preserved texts we have of the work
date to that time.
- The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a series of
"spells" which are instructions for the
deceased in the afterlife to help them navigate
their way through various hazards and find
everlasting peace in paradise.
- The work is NOT an "ancient Egyptian
Bible", as some have claimed, nor is it a
"magical text of spells". As the afterlife was
obviously an unknown realm, The Egyptian
Book of the Dead was created to provide the
soul of the deceased with a kind of map to
help guide and protect them in the land of the
dead.
- The afterlife was considered to be a
continuation of life on earth and, after one
had passed through various difficulties and
judgment in the Hall of Truth, a paradise
which was a perfect reflection of one's life on
earth. After the soul had been justified in the
Hall of Truth it passed on to cross over Lily
Lake to rest in the Field of Reeds where one
would find all that they had lost in life and
could enjoy it eternally.
- In order to reach that paradise, however, you
needed to know where to go, how to address
certain gods, what to say at certain times, and
how to comport one's self in the land of the
dead, which is why one would find an afterlife
manual extremely useful. This book originated
from concepts depicted in tomb paintings and
inscriptions from as early as the Third
Dynasty of Egypt ( c.267O - 2613 BCE ). By
the 12th Dynasty ( 1991 – 18O2 BCE ) these
spells, with accompanying illustrations, were
written on papyrus and placed in tombs and
graves with the dead.
- Their purpose was to instruct the deceased on
how to overcome the dangers of the afterlife by
enabling them to assume the form of several
mythical creatures and to give them the
passwords necessary for admittance to certain
stages of the underworld. They also served,
however, to provide the soul with fore-
knowledge of what would be expected at
every stage. Having this book in one's tomb
would be the equivalent of a student in the
modern day getting their hands on all the test
answers they would ever need in every grade
of school.
- At some point prior to 16OO BCE the
different spells had been divided in chapters
and, by the time of the New Kingdom ( 157O
– 1O69 BCE), the book was extremely
popular. Scribes who were experts in spells
would be consulted to fashion custom-made
books for an individual or a family. These
spells and passwords were not part of a ritual
but were fashioned for the deceased, to be
recited in the afterlife. If someone were sick,
and feared they might die, they would go to a
scribe and have them write up a book of
spells for the afterlife.
- The scribe would need to know what kind of
life the person had lived in order to surmise
the type of journey they could expect after
death; then the appropriate spells would be
written specifically for that individual.
- Prior to the New Kingdom, The Book of the
Dead was only available to royalty and the
elite. The popularity of the Osiris Myth in the
period of the New Kingdom made people
believe the spells were indispensible because
Osiris featured so prominently in the soul's
judgment in the afterlife.
- As more and more people desired their own
Book of the Dead, scribes obliged them and
the book became just another commodity
produced for sale. In the same way that
publishers in present day offer print on
demand books, the scribes offered different
"packages" to clients to choose from. They
could have as few or as many spells in their
books as they could afford. The individual
could decide the number of chapters to be
included, the types of illustrations, and the
quality of the papyrus used. The individual
was limited only by his or her financial
resources.
- From the New Kingdom through the
Ptolemaic Dynasty ( 323 – 3O BCE ) this
book was produced in this way. It continued
to vary in form and size until c.65O BCE
when it was fixed at 19O uniform spells but
still, people could add or subtract what they
wanted to from the text.
- A Book of the Dead from the Ptolemaic
Dynasty which belonged to a woman named
Tentruty had the text of “The Lamentations of
Isis and Nephthys” attached to it which was
never included as part of this book.
- Other copies of the book continued to be
produced with more or less spells depending
on what the buyer could afford. The one spell
which every copy seems to have had, however,
was “Spell 125.”
- Spell 125 is the best known of all the texts of
the Book of the Dead. People who are
unacquainted with the book, but who have
even the slightest acquaintance with Egyptian
mythology, know the spell without even
realizing it.
- Spell 125 describes the judging of the heart of
the deceased by the god Osiris in the “Hall of
Truth,” one of the best known images from
ancient Egypt, even though the god with his
scales is never actually described in the text.
- As it was vital that the soul pass the test of the
weighing of the heart in order to gain
paradise, knowing what to say and how to act
before Osiris, Thoth, Anubis, and the Forty-
Two Judges was considered the most
important information the deceased could
arrive with.
Hall of Truth
- When a person died, they were guided by
Anubis to the Hall of Truth (also known as
The Hall of Two Truths) where they would
make the Negative Confession (also known as
The Declaration of Innocence). This was a list
of 42 sins the person could honestly say they
had never indulged in.
- Once the Negative Confession was made,
Osiris, Thoth, Anubis, and the Forty-Two
Judges would confer and, if the confession
was accepted, the heart of the deceased was
then, weighed in the balance against the white
feather of Ma'at, (the feather of truth.)
- If the heart was found to be lighter than the
feather, the soul passed on toward paradise;
if the heart was heavier, it was thrown onto
the floor where it was devoured by Ammit
(monster goddess) and the soul would cease to
exist.
Spell 125 begins with an introduction to the
reader (the soul):

"What should be said when arriving at this Hall

of Justice, purging _____ [person's name] of all
the evil which he has done and beholding the faces
of the gods."
The spell then begins very clearly telling the soul
exactly what to say when meeting Osiris:

“Hail to you, great god, Lord of Justice! I have

come to you, my lord, that you may bring me so
that I may see your beauty for I know you and I
know your name and I know the names of the
forty-two gods of those who are with you in this
Hall of Justice, who live on those who cherish evil
and who gulp down their blood on that day of the
reckoning of characters in the presence of
Wennefer [another name for Osiris].
Behold the double son of the Songstresses; Lord of
Truth is your name. Behold, I have come to you, I
have brought you truth, I have repelled falsehood
for you. I have not done falsehood against men, I
have not impoverished my associates, I have done
no wrong in the Place of Truth, I have not learnt
that which is not."
- After this prologue the soul then speaks the
Negative Confession and is questioned by the
gods and the Forty-Two Judges. At this point
certain very specific information was required in
order to be justified by the gods. One needed to
know the different gods' names and what they
were responsible for but one also needed to
know such details as the names of the doors in
the room and the floor one needed to walk
across; one even needed to know the names of
one's own feet. As the soul answered each deity
and object with the correct response, they would
hear the reply, "You know us, pass by us" and
could continue.
At one point, the soul must answer the gods about
the soul's feet:

"I will not let you tread on me," says the floor of this
Hall of Justice.
"Why not? I am pure."
"Because I do not know the names of your feet with
which you would tread on me. Tell them to me."
“Secret image of Ha' is the name of my right foot;
`Flower of Hathor' is the name of my left foot."
"You know us; enter by us."
The spell concludes with what the soul should be
wearing when it meets judgment and how one
should recite the spell:

The correct procedure in this Hall of Justice:

One shall utter this spell pure and clean and clad
in white garments and sandals, painted with black
eye-paint and anointed with myrrh.
There shall be offered to him meat and poultry,
incense, bread, beer, and herbs when you have put
this written procedure on a clean floor of ochre
overlaid with earth upon which no swine or small
cattle have trodden.
- Following this, the scribe who wrote the spell
congratulates himself on a job well done and
assures the reader that he, the scribe, will
flourish as will his children for his part in
providing the spell. He will do well, he says,
when he himself comes to judgment and will "be
ushered in with the kings of Upper Egypt and the
kings of Lower Egypt and he shall be in the suite
of Osiris. A matter a million times true." For
providing the spell, the scribe was considered
part of the inner-workings of the afterlife and so
was assured of a favorable welcome in the
underworld and passage on to paradise.
- For the average person, even the king, the whole
experience was much less certain. If they
answered all of these questions correctly, and
had a heart lighter than the feather of truth, and
managed to be kind to the surly Divine
Ferryman who would row the souls across Lily
Lake, they would find them self in paradise, The
Egyptian Field of Reeds. Full with everything
they had left behind in life. Once there, the soul
was reunited with lost loved ones and even
beloved pets.
- The soul would live in an image of the home they
had always known with the exact same yard,
same trees, same birds singing at evening or
morning, and this would be enjoyed for eternity
in the presence of the gods.
- There were quite a number of slips the soul
might make, however, between arrival at the
Hall of Truth and the boat ride to paradise. The
Book of the Dead includes spells for any kind of
circumstance but it does not seem that each soul
was guaranteed to survive these twists and
turns.
- Egypt has a long history and, as with any
culture, beliefs changed in time, changed back,
and changed again. Not every detail described
above was included in the vision of every era of
Egyptian history. In some periods the
modifications are minor while, in others, the
afterlife is seen as a perilous journey toward a
paradise that is only temporary. At some points
in the culture the way to paradise was very
straightforward after the soul was justified by
Osiris while, in others, crocodiles might thwart
the soul or bends in the road prove dangerous or
demons appear to trick or even attack.
- In these cases, the soul needed spells to survive
and reach paradise. Spells included in the book
include titles such as "For Repelling A Crocodile
Which Comes To Take Away", "For Driving Off A
Snake", "For Not Being Eaten By A Snake In
The Realm Of The Dead", "For Not Dying Again
In The Realm Of The Dead", "For Being
Transformed Into A Divine Falcon", "For Being
Transformed Into A Lotus“, "For Being
Transformed Into A Phoenix" and so on.
- The spells of transformation have become
known through popular allusions to the book in
television and film productions which has
resulted in the misguided understanding that
The Book of the Dead is some type of work
which ancient Egyptians once used for mystical
rites.
- The Book of the Dead, as noted, was never used
for magical transformations on earth, the spells
only worked in the afterlife. The claim that The
Book of the Dead was some kind of sorcerer's
text is as wrong and unfounded as the
comparison with the Bible.
- The spells throughout the Book of the Dead, no
matter what era the texts were written or
collected in, promised a continuation of one's
existence after death. Just as in life, there were
trials and there were unexpected turns in the
path, areas and experiences to be avoided,
friends and allies to cultivate, but eventually the
soul could expect to be rewarded for living a
good and virtuous life.
- For those left behind in life, the spells would
have been interpreted the way people in the
present day read horoscopes.
- Horoscopes are NOT written to emphasize a
person's bad points nor are they read to feel
badly about one's self; in the same way, the
spells were constructed so that someone still
living could read them, think of their loved one
in the afterlife, and feel assured that they had
made their way safely through to the Field of
Reeds.
 The literature of ancient Egypt would be a
contender as the basis for later works but for the
fact that the texts were lost and the language
forgotten for centuries. The best one can argue is
that the Hebrew scribes who wrote the biblical
narratives may have been acquainted with some
versions of these texts and later writers took plots
and motifs from there but this is speculation.
Different cultures come to similar conclusions,
without any apparent contact, many times
throughout history as best exemplified by the
pyramid form of the Maya, Egyptians, and
Chinese.
 It is possible, however, that Egyptian texts
inspired or at least lent certain aspects to biblical
narratives which were then borrowed by later
writers in their works.
It is, of course, equally possible that the story
of the hero who triumphs over the forces of
darkness and disorder simply resonates on a very
deep level with humanity and there need be no
original work later writers borrowed from.
 Following the New Kingdom came the era
known as the Third Intermediate Period ( c.1O69 -
525 BCE ) and then the Late Period ( 525-323 BCE
) and the Ptolemaic Dynasty ( 323 – 3O BCE ) after
which Egypt was annexed by Rome.
Around the 4th century CE Christianity rose to
prominence in Egypt and the Christian Egyptians
(known as Copts) developed their own script, a
kind of hybrid of demotic Egyptian and Greek, and
the old texts of hieroglyphic and hieratic script
were forgotten.
 Inscriptions on monuments and temples, and
all the texts in the libraries and Houses of Life,
became incomprehensible until the discovery of
the Rosetta Stone in 1798 CE and the
breakthrough in deciphering hieroglyphics it
enabled by Jean-Francois Champollion in 1824
CE.
 By the time Champollion unlocked the
mystery of the ancient text a whole world of
literature had been created without the benefit of
the ancient Egyptian works and yet the plots of
these forgotten stories and poems appear in texts
all over the world; testament to the primal and
powerful nature of these themes to touch upon
the most resonant aspects of the human
experience.
Egyptian Gods
- The gods and goddesses of Ancient Egypt were
an integral part of the people's everyday lives.
It is not surprising then that there were over
2,OOO deities in the Egyptian pantheon. Some
of these deities' names are well known: Isis,
Osiris, Horus, Amun, Ra, Hathor, Bastet, Thoth,
Anubis, and Ptah while many others less so.
- The more famous gods became state deities
while others were associated with a specific
region or, in some cases, a ritual or role.
- The goddess Qebhet, for example, is a little
known deity who offered cool water to the
souls of the dead as they awaited judgment in
the afterlife, and Seshat was the goddess of
written words and specific measurements
overshadowed by Thoth, the better known god
of writing and patron of scribes.
- Ancient Egyptian culture grew out of an
understanding of these deities and the vital role
they played in the immortal journey of every
human being.
 The numerous gods of Egypt were the focal
points of the nation's cultic rites and personal
religious practices.
They also played a part in the great mortuary
rituals and in the Egyptian belief in posthumous
eternal bliss. ( Bunson )
- The gods evolved from an animistic belief
system to one which was highly
anthropomorphic and imbued with magic.
- Heka was the god of magic and medicine but
was also the primordial force, pre-dating all
the other gods, who enabled the act of creation
and sustained both mortal and divine life.
- The central value of the Egyptian culture was
Ma'at ( harmony and balance ) represented by
the goddess of the same name and her white
ostrich feather, and it was Heka who
empowered Ma'at just as he did all the other
deities.
- Heka was the manifestation of “heka” which
means “magic” that should be understood to be
natural laws which today would be considered
supernatural but to the Egyptians, were simply
how the world and the universe functioned. The
gods provided people with all good gifts but it
was heka which allowed them to do so.
- These gods all had names, individual
personalities and characteristics, wore different
kinds of clothing, held different objects as
sacred, presided over their own domains of
influence, and reacted in highly individualistic
ways to events.
- Each deity had their own area of expertise but
were often associated with several spheres of
human life.
- Hathor, for example, was a goddess of music,
dancing, and drunkenness but was also
understood as an ancient Mother Goddess, also
associated with the Milky Way as a divine
reflection of the Nile River, and, in her earlier
incarnation as Sekhmet, as a destroyer.
- The goddess Neith was originally a war goddess
who became the epitome of the Mother Goddess,
a nurturing figure, to whom the gods would
turn to settle their disputes. Many gods and
goddesses, such as Set ( death ) or Serket,
transformed through time to take on other roles
and responsibilities.
- These transformations were sometimes
dramatic, as in the case of Set who went from a
hero protector-god to a villain and the world's
first murderer.
- Serket was almost certainly an early Mother
Goddess, and her later role as protector against
venomous creatures (especially scorpions) and
guardian of women and children reflects those
characteristics.
 The Egyptians had no problem with a multitude
of gods and they seldom shelved old deities in favor
of new ones. Characteristics and roles of various
gods were syncretized to reconcile differing religious
beliefs, customs, or ideals.
For political and religious reasons, for example,
the Theban god Amun, who was considered the most
powerful deity in the New Kingdom, was united with
Ra, a sun god whose cult dated to the beginnings of
Egypt. Worship of the gods of Egypt evolved over
time as large cults developed on a local and then on
a national scale.
( Bunson )
- The following list of the gods and goddesses of
ancient Egypt is derived from numerous works
on the subject which follow below in the
bibliography. Every attempt has been made to
create a comprehensive listing but minor
regional deities have been omitted if their role
seems uncertain or they were transformed into
major gods. When a major god evolved from an
earlier minor deity, it is noted.
- Included also are concepts, such as “The Field
of Reeds or Lily Lake,” which were regions in
the afterlife associated with the gods.
- The definitions of the god's characteristics and
the roles they played are synthesized for clarity
but it should be noted that not every deity listed
was understood in the same way throughout
Egypt's long history. Osiris, for example, was
most likely a fertility god in the Predynastic
Period of Egypt (c.6OOO – 315O BCE) but was
already understood as the “first king” by the
Early Dynastic Period (c.315O - 2613 BCE) and
was the most popular god in Egypt during the
time of the New Kingdom (157O – 1O69 BCE)
at the same time that Amun was considered
“King of the Gods.”
- Although these developments are sometimes
noted below, the gods are generally described in
the roles they were best known for at the peak
of their popularity.
 A'ah - An early moon god who evolved into
Iah (also known as Yah) and, eventually,
Khonsu.
 Aken - Custodian of the boat which ferried
souls across Lily Lake to the Field of Reeds in
the afterlife. He slept until he was needed by
Hraf-Hef, the surly Divine Ferryman. His name
only appears in the Book of the Dead.
 Aker - The deified horizon, guardian of the
eastern and western horizons of the afterlife.
He protected the sun barge of Ra as it entered
and left the underworld at dusk and dawn.
Akerr
 Am-Heh - A god in the underworld, "devourer
of millions" and "eater of eternity" who lived in
a lake of fire.
 Amenet (Amentet) - A goddess who welcomed
the dead to the afterlife with food and drink.
She is also known as “she of the west", Amenet
was the consort of the Divine Ferryman. She
lived in a tree near the gates of the underworld.
She is the daughter of Hathor and Horus.
 Ammit (Ammut) - She is called as the
“devourer of souls", a goddess with the head of
a crocodile, torso of a leopard, and
hindquarters of a hippo. She sat beneath the
scales of justice in the Hall of Truth in the
afterlife and devoured the hearts of those souls
which were not justified by Osiris.
 Amun (Amun-Ra) – He is considered as the
“god of the sun and air.” One of the most
powerful and popular gods of ancient Egypt,
patron of the city of Thebes, where he was
worshipped as part of the Theban Triad of
Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Supreme king of the
gods in some periods, though originally a
minor fertility god. By the time of the New
Kingdom he was considered the most powerful
god in Egypt and his worship bordered on
monotheism.
 Other gods were even considered mere aspects
of Amun at this time. His priesthood was the
most powerful in Egypt and the position of god's
wife of Amun, given to royal women, almost on
par with that of the pharaoh.
Ammit Amun
 Amunhotep (Amenhotep) – He is the son of
Hapu, god of healing and wisdom. Along with
Hardedef and Imhotep, one of the few human
beings deified by the Egyptians. He was the
royal architect of Amunhotep III (1386 - 1353
BCE). He was considered so wise that, after
death, he became deified. He had a major
temple in western Thebes and a healing center
at Deir el-Bahri.
 Amunet - The female counterpart of Amun,
member of the Ogdoad.
 Anat – She is the goddess of fertility, sexuality,
love, and war. She was originally from Syria or
Canaan. In some texts she is referred to as the
“mother of the gods” while in others she is a
virgin and, in still others, sensuous and erotic,
described as the most beautiful goddess.
- In one version of The Contendings of Horus
and Set, she is given as a consort to Set at the
suggestion of the goddess Neith. Often equated
with Aphrodite (Greece), Astarte (Phoenicia),
Inanna (Mesopotamia), and Sauska (Hittites).
 Anta - An aspect of the mother goddess Mut
worshipped at Tanis as the consort of Amun.
 Andjety - Early god of fertility associated with
the city of Busiris (Andjet). His name means
"He who is from Andjet" associated with the
“djed” symbol. He eventually was absorbed by
Osiris and his name became associated with
that deity.
 Anhur (Han-her) - Also known as Onuris by
the Greeks. He is the god of war and patron of
the Egyptian army.
 He was a god of war and hunting. The name
Onuris means “he who brings back the distant
one" which is a reference to the story about his
retrieval of the Eye of Ra from Nubia. In this
tale, the Eye of Ra goes forth from Egypt and
transforms itself into a lion. Onuris hunts the
lion, captures it, and returns it to Ra where it
transforms into the goddess Mekhit who then
becomes his consort.
 This story is an example of the distant goddess
motif in which the Eye of Ra departs from the sun
god and then is returned (or returns itself)
bringing transformation.
Onuris was considered as a son of Ra and
associated with the god Shu. His image (as
Anhur) appeared on the banners of the Egyptian
army as he led them to war, protected them in
battle, and brought them safely home. He was the
patron god of the Egyptian army and of hunters.
 Anqet (Anukit or Anuket) - Goddess of fertility
and the cataract of the Nile River at Aswan.
 Anti - He is a “hawk god ” of Upper Egypt
sometimes associated with Anat.
 Anubis – He is the god of the dead associated
with embalming. Son of Nephthys and Osiris,
father of Qebhet. Anubis is depicted as a man
with the head of a dog or jackal carrying a staff.
He guided the souls of the dead to the Hall of
Truth and was part of the ritual of the
“Weighing of the Heart and of the Soul” in the
afterlife.
 He was probably the original “god of the
dead” before that role was given to Osiris, at
which time he was made Osiris' son.
Anubis
Anubis (Inpu) from the tomb of
Tausert/Setnakht in the Valley of the Kings.
 Anuke – She is a war goddess originally and
one of the oldest deities of Egypt, sometimes
consort of Anhur. She came to be associated
with Nephthys and, to a lesser degree, Isis and
is referred to in some texts as their younger
sister. Early depictions show her in battle dress
with bow and arrow but she was transformed
into a “mother goddess” and nurturing figure.
The Greeks associated her with Hestia.
 Apedemak – He is a war god depicted as a lion,
originally thought to be from Nubia.
 Apep (Apophis) - Apep, the celestial serpent
assaulted the sun barge of Ra every night as it
made its way through the underworld toward
the dawn. Gods and the justified dead would
help Ra fend the serpent off. The ritual known
as “Overthrowing of Apophis” was performed
in temples to help the gods and departed souls
protect the barge and ensure the coming of
day.
Apophis
 Apis – It is the “divine bull” worshipped at
Memphis as an incarnation of the god Ptah.
One of the earliest gods of ancient Egypt
depicted on the Narmer Palette (c.315O BCE).
The “Apis Cult” was one of the most important
and long-lived in the history of Egyptian culture.
 Arensnuphis - Companion to the goddess Isis
and worshipped primarily at her sacred site at
Philae. He was depicted as a lion or a man with
a feathered headdress. Originally from Nubia.
 Asclepius (Aesculapius) - A god of healing of
the Greeks also worshipped in Egypt at Saqqara
and identified with the deified Imhotep. His
symbol, possibly derived from the god Heka,
was a staff with a serpent entwined about it,
associated in the modern day with healing and
the medical profession, known as the “Rod of
Asclepius.”
 Ash (As) – He’s a god of the Libyan desert, a
kindly deity who provided the oasis for
travelers.
 Astarte - Phoenician goddess of fertility and
sexuality, often closely equated with Aphrodite
of the Greeks, Inanna/Ishtar of Mesopotamia,
and Sauska of the Hittites; referred to as
Queen of Heaven. In Egyptian mythology, she
is given as a consort to Set, along with Anat, by
the goddess Neith.
 Aten - The sun disk, originally a sun deity who
was elevated by pharaoh Akhenaten ( 1353-
1336 BCE ) to the position of sole god, creator
of the universe.
 Atum (Ra) - The sun god, supreme lord of the
gods, first god of the Ennead (tribunal of nine
gods), creator of the universe and human
beings. Atum (Ra) is the first divine being who
stands on the primordial mound in the midst of
chaos and draws on the magical forces of Heka
to create all the other gods, human beings, and
life on earth.
 Auf (Efu-Ra) - An aspect of Atum (Ra).
 The great sun god of Heliopolis whose cult
spread across Egypt to become the most popular
by the Fifth Dynasty (2498-2345 BCE). The
pyramids of Giza are associated with Ra as the
supreme lord and creator god who ruled over the
land of the living and the dead.
He drives his sun barge across the heavens by
day, showing another aspect of himself with each
advance of the sun across the sky, and then dives
into the underworld at evening where the barge
is threatened by the primordial serpent Apep
(Apophis) and must be defended by the other
gods and souls of the justified dead.
 Ra was among the most important and popular
gods of Egypt. Even when the god Amun rose in
prominence, Ra's position was undiminished and
he merged with Amun to become Amun-Ra, the
supreme god.
Ra
 Ba’al – He is the storm god originally from
Phoenicia. His name means “lord" and his was
a major deity in Canaan only worshipped in
Egypt in the later period of the New Kingdom
(157O – 1O69 BCE).
 Ba’alat Gebal - Phoenician goddess of the city
of Byblos, a protector deity, incorporated into
Egyptian worship through her association with
papyrus, which came from Byblos.
 Babi (Baba) - He was a virility god depicted as
a baboon and symbolizing male sexuality.
 Banebdjedet - A fertility/virility god who
appears as a ram or a man with a ram's head,
associated with the city of Mendes, eventually
another name for Osiris.
 Ba-Pef – He is the god of terror, specifically
spiritual terror. His name translates as "that
soul". He lived in the “House of Woe” in the
afterlife and was known to afflict the king of
Egypt. He was never worshipped with a temple
but a Cult of Ba-Pef existed to help appease the
god and protect the king.
 Bastet (Bast) - The beautiful goddess of cats,
women's secrets, childbirth, fertility, and
protector of the hearth and home from evil or
misfortune. She was the daughter of Ra and
closely associated with Hathor. Bastet was one
of the most popular deities of ancient Egypt.
Men and women revered her equally and
carried talismans of her cult. She was so
universally adored that, in 525 BCE, the
Persians used the Egyptian devotion to Bastet
to their advantage in winning the “Battle of
Pelusium.”
 They painted images of Bastet on their shields
and drove animals in front of their army
knowing the Egyptians would rather surrender
than offend their goddess.
She is depicted as a cat or a woman with a cat's
head, and her major cult center was at Bubastis.
Bastet
 Bat - An early cow goddess associated with
fertility and success. She is one of the oldest
Egyptian goddesses dating from the early
Predynastic Period (c.6OOO – 315O BCE). Bat
is depicted as a cow or a woman with cow ears
and horns and is most probably the image at
the top of the Narmer Palette (c.315O BCE) as
she was associated with the king's success. She
blessed people with success owing to her ability
to see both past and future. Eventually, she was
absorbed by Hathor who took on her
characteristics.
 Bennu - An avian deity better known as the
“Bennu Bird,” the divine bird of creation and
inspiration for the Greek Phoenix. The Bennu
Bird was closely associated with Atum, Ra, and
Osiris. It was present at the dawn of creation
as an aspect of Atum (Ra) which flew over the
primordial waters and woke creation with its
cry. Afterwards, it determined what would and
would not be included in creation. It was
associated with Osiris through the imagery of
rebirth as the bird was closely connected to the
sun which died each night and rose again the
next morning.
Bennu
 Bes (Aha or Bisu) – He is the god of childbirth,
fertility, sexuality, humour, and war, popularly
known as the “dwarf god”. He is one of the
most popular gods in Egyptian history who
protected women and children, fended off evil,
and fought for divine order and justice. He is
often represented as more of a spirit (a
'demon', though not at all in the modern-day
understanding of that word) than a deity but
was worshipped as a god and featured on a
number of everyday items in the homes of the
Egyptians such as furniture, mirrors, and knife
handles.
 His consort was Taweret, the hippopotamus
goddess of childbirth and fertility. Bes is depicted
as a bearded dwarf with large ears, prominent
genitals, bow-legged, and shaking a rattle. He is
always shown in a front-facing position of
protection watching over his charges.
 Beset - The female aspect of Bes invoked in
ceremonial magic. As a protective god, Bes also
fended off dark magic, ghosts, spirits, and
demons. His feminine aspect was called on to
combat these forces.
 Buchis - Aspect of the ka (life force/astral self)
of the god Montu in the form of a live bull.
Depicted as a bull running.