Chapter Five

Survey research

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A survey is a systematic method for gathering
information from (a sample of) entities for the purposes
of constructing quantitative descriptors of the attributes
of the larger population of which the entities are
members.
A survey is a method of collecting data in a
consistent way.
When the data can be collected from an entire population,
as may be the case in the small community or tribe, then
the survey is sometimes
called a census.
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• Survey research is useful for documenting existing
community conditions, characteristics of a
population, and community opinion.
• Surveys are conducted to gather information that
reflects population’s attitudes, behaviors, opinions
and beliefs.
• The success of survey research depends on how
closely answers that people give to survey
questions match how people think and act in reality.

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 BASIC SURVEY DESIGNS
1. Cross-Sectional Surveys: Data are collected at one
point in time from a sample selected to represent a
larger population.
2. Longitudinal Surveys : Trend, Cohort, and Panel
-Trend: Surveys of sample population at different points in
time, data trends allow you to assess how your response data
has changed over time.
-Cohort: Study of same population each time data are
collected, although samples studied may be different.
-Panel: Collection of data at various time points with the
same sample of respondent.
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 Modes of survey administration
• Personal (Face-to-Face)
• Telephone
• Mail
• Web
• Combination of Methods

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 How do you decide on the mode of
data collection?
• Population
• Characteristics of the Sample
• Types of Questions
• Response Rate
• $$ Cost $$
• Time

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 Sampling frame
• It is a list of all those within a population who
can be sampled, and may include individuals,
households or institutions.
• So how population and sampling frames are
same and different.

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 Randomization and probability sampling methods

• Randomization – the mechanism for achieving

reliable data by reducing potential bias.
A. Simple random sample – in a sample survey,
each possible sample of size n has the same
probability of being selected.
B. Systematic Random Sample –
(1) selects a subject at random from the first k names
in the sampling frame and
(2) selects every k th subject listed after that one. The
number k is called the skip number.
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C. Stratified Random Sample – divides the
population into separate groups, called strata,
and then selects a simple random sample from
each stratum.
D. simple random sample from each stratum.
• Can be proportional (proportionate to
population parameters) or disproportional.

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E. Cluster random sampling – divides the
population into a large number of clusters, such
as city blocks.
• Selects a simple random sample of the
clusters. Uses all the subjects in those clusters
as the sample.
F. Multistage Sampling – uses combination of
sampling methods.

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 Sampling error
• The sampling error of a statistic equals the
error that occurs when we use a sample
statistic to predict the value of a population
parameter.
• Randomization protects against bias; direction
and extent of bias is unknown for studies that
cannot employ randomization.

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 Sampling variability and possible bias

1. Sampling bias (nonprobability sampling,

undercoverage(It occurs when some members
of the population are inadequately represented
in the sample)).
– Volunteer sampling
2. Response bias (e.g., poorly worded questions,
order of questions, approval of the interviewer)

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3. Nonresponse bias (missing data, respondents
can’t be reached or refuse to participate)
• – Results of any sample with over 20%
nonresponse rate should be questionable.

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 Types of survey question formats

1. Open-ended question: Questions for which

the respondent is asked to provide his or her
own answers. In-depth, qualitative interviewing
relies almost exclusively on open ended
questions.
• Disadvantage of open-ended questions is
more complex data analysis.

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• The Open Ended survey question seeks to
explore the qualitative, in-depth aspects of a
particular topic or issue. It gives a person the
chance to respond in detail. Although open-
ended questions are important, they are time-
consuming and should not be over-used.

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2. Closed-ended question: Survey questions in
which the respondent is asked to select an
answer from among a list provided by the
researcher.
– Popular in survey research because they
provide a greater uniformity of responses and
are more easily processed than open-ended
questions.

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 Closed-ended question could be
-The Dichotomous Question: The dichotomous
survey question is generally a "yes/no" question.
-The Multiple Choice Questions: The multiple-
choice survey questions consists of three or
more exhaustive, mutually exclusive
categories. Multiple choice questions can ask for
single or multiple answers. 

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-Rank Order Scaling Question: Rank order
scaling question allow a certain set of brands or
products to be ranked based upon a specific
attribute or characteristic.

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 Tips for preparing questions
1. Be in line with your study
2. Make questions clear (grammar errors or sentence
fragment
2. Avoid double-barrel questions(Avoid asking for a
single answer to a question that actually has multiple
parts).
3. Short questions are best.
4. Avoid negative and double negative questions.
5. Target the vocabulary of the population to be
surveyed.
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 Reporting research findings
• Very often, you will have to write reports,
which are documents containing factual and
objective information that you have collected
through research.
• Analytical research reports, which are written after
having gathered important information from primary
research resources such as surveys or experiments,
rather than published documents, present original
data that you collect and analyze.

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• Learning to write them well, especially the Results
and Discussion section, sometimes called Findings
or simply Results, is an important skill you will need
to learn the general tips.
General Tips
1. Use text and visual aids properly
2. Interpret results
3. Use headings and sub-headings
4. Use language of reporting appropriately
5. Refer to figures correctly

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5. Know your audience
6. Get input
7. Formatting
8. Use straightforward and interesting language
9. Get creative

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 Written research paper

1. The first pages should include the title, abstract,

contents list and introduction explaining the purpose of
the report, the research question, and outline of the
research and structure of the report.
2. The literature review should highlight the existing state
of knowledge about the subject, an evaluation of this work
and the relationship of this previous work to the present
study.

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3. The methodology includes how and why the data were
obtained, methods used to collect the data, approaches
taken to data analysis and discussion of the integrity of the
data and ethical issues.
Data are at the heart of the report. It is important to
remember that often in qualitative research data collection
goes hand-in-hand with analysis and as a consequence it is
often inadvisable to have separate sections or chapters on
data and analysis.

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4. The final chapter should address the research
question asked and what the answer(s) are, how
and what are the links of the research to those
discussed in the literature review, what lessons
have been learned from the study, implications
of the findings and specific suggestions for
further research.

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 Submitting your paper
to a journal
• It is more than likely that if you are submitting the
results of your research to a journal with a view to
publication, it will be reviewed before being accepted.
• The review process can differ between journals, but in
most cases it might be first read by the editor and then
by two or more reviewers with
knowledge in the area, who will critically review
the paper and advise the editor.

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• The author(s) will then be advised about the
outcome, which might be ‘accept without revision’
(although this is unlikely), ‘revise and review’,
‘reject and resubmit’ or ‘reject’.
• The outcome is dependent on a number of factors,
including the particular journal you submit to, and
the journal’s ranking in the list of leading journals.

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• So how can the chance of your paper being accepted
be raised and what is it that editors and reviewers
look for in a paper?
Broadly, papers need to describe research that is
original and important, where the methodology used
is correct and that journal readers will find it
interesting.

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• Your paper will gain favor with the editor and
reviewers if the research question(s) has been clearly
stated, the message is clear and important and your
methods and results are clearly presented.
• Your paper will need to demonstrate brevity and
clarity in style, with good grammar and spelling. It is
important to remember to include an abstract.

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• Editors and reviewers do not like papers which
describe unimportant or unoriginal research and
very long papers.
• Papers are usually rejected because they have either
incorrect or flawed research methods, e.g. statistical
analysis, unrepresentative samples in quantitative
research, provide no statistical justification to the size of
the selected sample, have problems in data collection
techniques, or the discussion or conclusion is unrelated to
the results.

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