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    Session 4

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    sunit das
    This document provides an overview of key concepts in social research including classifications of research based on purpose, time, data collection techniques, and scope. It defines concepts, constructs, and variables. The document discusses deductive and inductive approaches to theory building. An example theory on natural resource management is provided along with its theoretical propositions and hypotheses. Major philosophical approaches to social research are outlined including positivism, interpretivism, and critical approaches.

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    Session 4

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    sunit das
    24 views18 pages
    This document provides an overview of key concepts in social research including classifications of research based on purpose, time, data collection techniques, and scope. It defines concepts, constructs, and variables. The document discusses deductive and inductive approaches to theory building. An example theory on natural resource management is provided along with its theoretical propositions and hypotheses. Major philosophical approaches to social research are outlined including positivism, interpretivism, and critical approaches.

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    This document provides an overview of key concepts in social research including classifications of research based on purpose, time, data collection techniques, and scope. It defines concepts, constructs, and variables. The document discusses deductive and inductive approaches to theory building. An example theory on natural resource management is provided along with its theoretical propositions and hypotheses. Major philosophical approaches to social research are outlined including positivism, interpretivism, and critical approaches.

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    24 views18 pages

    Session 4

    Uploaded by

    sunit das
    This document provides an overview of key concepts in social research including classifications of research based on purpose, time, data collection techniques, and scope. It defines concepts, constructs, and variables. The document discusses deductive and inductive approaches to theory building. An example theory on natural resource management is provided along with its theoretical propositions and hypotheses. Major philosophical approaches to social research are outlined including positivism, interpretivism, and critical approaches.

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    of 18

    Social research types, theory

    & research and methodology


    Classifications of social research
    • Based on use and audience
    Basic research (for knowledge/scientific community)
    Applied research (for practical solutions, e.g., evaluation,
    action & impact/for respective users)

    • Based on purpose
    Exploratory (focus on exploring new subject/phenomenon)
    Descriptive (focus on description of subject/phenomenon)
    Explanatory (focus on explaining the subject/phenomenon)
    Classifications continued…
    • Based on single or multiple points in time
    Cross-sectional (one time, no repetition)
    Longitudinal (more than one instance, e.g., time series,
    panel, cohort)
    Case study

    • Based on data collection techniques/tools


    Quantitative (experiments, surveys, quantitative content
    analysis)
    Qualitative (ethnographic, social constructivist, grounded
    theory)
    Classifications further…
    • Based on within or across cases
    Single case study (focus on only one case)

    Small-n comparison study (focus on small number of cases, say 8 to 12)

    Large-n comparison study (comparison of large number of cases, say


    30)
    Theory and research
    • Multiple definitions of theory
    “Logically connected set of general propositions,
    establishing a connection between two or more
    variables.”

    “Explanation of a specific social phenomenon,


    identifying a set of causally relevant factors or
    phenomenon”

    “An entire worldview, or a way of seeing, interpreting


    and understanding events in the world”
    Theory…
    • Working definition of theory:
    “A system of interconnected ideas about the social world”
    • Primary purpose of theory is to explain
    • Few characteristics of social theory
    Parsimony
    Dynamic & Open knowledge system
    Entertains ambiguity
    Assumptions based on open, informed debates and discussions
    Example of a social theory
    • “Tragedy of commons” by Garrett Hardin: Till the 1980s, explained
    collapse of common resources unless government or private property
    was enforced.

    • “Drama of commons” by Elinor Ostrom and others: After mid 1980s,


    explained the possibility of successful collective action in
    communities under certain conditions.
    Classical theories in development
    • Rostow’s five stages of growth: 1) subsistence society, 2) pre-
    conditions of take-off, 3) take-off, 4) maturity and 5) stage of high
    consumption as stages that each country goes through.
    (criticized for being euro-centric and lacking context in consideration
    of development)
    • Structural change theory: W. Lewis two sector model proposed the
    trajectory of development being movement from rural areas with
    surplus of labor towards industrial urban areas that will employ the
    labor.
    (criticized for faulty assumption of surplus labor in rural/agrarian
    areas, among other things).
    • Dependency theory: as a reaction to faulty assumptions in previous
    theories about the uniform model of growth; considers the entire
    world into a set of core (developed western countries) and periphery
    countries (developing, colonial countries) where the periphery
    countries feed the core and contribute to its development.
    Parts of theory
    • Assumptions (conditions in which it holds good)

    • Concepts (abstract ideas that define the theory)

    • Relationships (propositions, hypothesis based on concepts)

    • Units of analysis (the unit of application)


    Concepts, constructs & variables
    • Concepts: abstract idea, but it can be observed and
    generally accepted, like agrarian distress, community
    cohesiveness/solidarity.

    • Constructs: specific way in which the concept is


    defined with the purpose of measuring or observing
    the concept, like poverty & social capital.

    • Variables provide the means to measure the constructs,


    like income poverty/food poverty & bonding/bridging
    social capital.
    Working of theory in social research
    • Theory explains relationship between concepts (e.g.,
    positive-negative; direct-indirect; necessary-sufficient)
    • Relationships are explained via propositions and
    hypothesis in quantitative research
    ⮚Propositions: “a theoretical statement that two or more
    concepts are related and the type of relationship”
    ⮚Hypothesis: “empirically verifiable proposition”
    A major purpose of theory is to offer propositions, and
    hypothesis that can be verified with empirical data.
    How to theorize?
    • 2 major approaches to theory building and testing in
    social research.

    ⮚Deductive: testing theoretical propositions via


    hypotheses using empirical data; common in
    quantitative research.
    ⮚Inductive: using empirical data to arrive at theoretical
    propositions and hypotheses; common in
    qualitative/interpretive research.
    Example of theory and its parts at work
    • Theory
    Commonly held natural resources, unless held by the government or private
    property, will face depletion as individuals’ self-interest to benefit will
    dominate over the collective interest to conserve the resource.

    • Theoretical propositions
    a) The ownership of natural resources determines its survival.
    b) Self-interest to extract common resources conflicts with the collective
    interest to co-operate and conserve.

    • Hypotheses
    H1: Government control over the forests leads to better forest conditions.
    H2: Privately owned forests have a better forest cover than community—
    managed forests.
    Methodology in social research

    • Methodology
    Not to be confused with methods;
    A larger concept capturing the entire research philosophy and its
    actualization (design, assumptions, data collection methods, data analysis and
    interpretations)
    ❑Philosophical foundations of research affect and determine the
    methodology

    • Ontology: world view, the nature of reality (out there objective reality or
    individually experienced and social constructed reality)

    • Epistemology: nature of knowledge (can be measured or can be interpreted)


    Major philosophical approaches to social research
    Positivism Interpretivism Critical
    Social realities can be Social realities can be The hidden inequalities in
    discovered as natural laws interpreted, dependent on social realities need to be
    experience, no pre-existing brought out, no pre-existing
    natural laws natural laws

    Rational human beings Social human beings Social human beings


    affected by powerful
    Value-neutral research Value-laden research Value-laden research
    Objective of discovering Objective of explaining Objective of transformation
    and predicting patterns and how individuals and groups of existing patterns of
    trends make sense of the world inequality and exploitation

    Detached researcher Involved researcher Involved researcher


    References
    • Edgell, P., & Tranby, E. (2007). Religious influences on understandings of racial inequality in the United
    States. Social Problems, 54(2), 263-288
    • Bryman, A. (2016). Social Research Methods (International edition). Oxford University Press: New York. 
    • Lawrence, N.W. (2015). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (7 th edition). Allyn
    and Bacon: Noida.
    • Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. Handbook of qualitative
    research, 2(163-194), 105.

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