Research Design 3

Research strategy
• RD is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the data.
• Prior to RD decision about research strategy must
have been taken.
• Strategy for case study
 Case Study
• A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates:
• A contemporary phenomenon
• With in depth approach, and
• Within its real-life context.
• Empirical: based on knowledge and experience, or more
practically speaking involves the collection and analysis of
data.
• How about objectivity?
• Case study research is concerned with investigating single
or multiple units of study.
• Using familiar research methods for data collection such as
interviews or surveys.
 Small number of units/cases
• Case is ‘a bounded system’ (for one case) or ‘multiple
bounded systems’(for more than one).
• The case study researcher is able to look in-depth at a
topic of interest or phenomenon.
• Case studies are preferred in the following situations:
• 􀁶 When ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions are being asked.
• 􀁶 When the researcher has little control over events.
• 􀁶 When the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon.
 Studying the phenomenon in context
• The findings generate insight into how the
phenomenon actually occurs within a given
situation.
• For business researchers, there are many
advantages in looking at something within a
particular location, company, team, department or
industry.
• Limitation: unable to make generalizations as in
survey research.
• But this deep understanding can contribute to
knowledge.
 Very clear about the focus of study
• It means: that the researcher makes very clear
statements in the research objectives about the
focus and the extent of the research.
 Types of case studies
• Intrinsic case: a situation where you need to learn
about a particular case, which could be a problem
in a particular work situation.
• Instrumental case: use a case to learn about
something else (e.g. the efficacy of cross-functional
teams in managing customer relationships)
• Collective case: find out about a particular
phenomenon from a number of different cases
(senior executive pay  collect data from a number
of organizations)
 Data sources
• Primary (interview data)
• Secondary (internal documentation, industry
reports)
• By using several different sources of data or
different methods of data collection, the research
findings are strengthened as the evidence is
triangulated.
• Triangulation (different perspectives) is an
important concept in case study research. Provides
robust foundations for the findings and supports
arguments for its contribution to knowledge.
 Longitudinal approach
• Not as common as they should be in business and
management.
• Study the process and evolving patterns.
• Gaining understanding of the phenomenon over a
year or longer. (Transfer of new technologies
from the developers to the users.)
• The phenomenon can be studied in its natural
setting and meaningful, relevant theory
generated from the understanding gained through
actual practice.
 Answer the questions of why and how

• Case study research is ideal for looking at

research questions which are closely connected to
their context or situation, which in business is
particularly appealing.
• Research questions relating to the problems can
be explored from perspectives that could be:
• industry-specific.
• Geographical location specific.
• Size specific.
 Why of the phenomenon?
• The aim of case study research, by using multiple
data sources, is to:
• Gain understanding of the phenomenon, and
through this understanding
• Look for explanations i.e. extend or test theory
• The value of case study research for business is
that it allows the researcher to examine a problem
or question in a practical, real-life situation.
 Variety of data collection methods
• The real business of a case is particularization and understanding the case
itself. Uniqueness of reality.
• Versatility of case study: variety of data collection methods at the
disposal of the case study researcher.
• Adopt a particular method that is suitable to particular situations and
conditions.
• For example: In a larger organization it may be quite feasible to collect
data using a survey of staff.
• Smaller organizations may lend themselves to a study of their documents
and archives or in-depth interviews.
• As case study research usually involves a number of different data
sources and methods
• Insight is gained from considering the question from a multi-dimensional
perspective.
•  
 Variety of data collection methods
Experiment Case study Survey
Small number of units Small number of units Larger number of units
(sometimes one)

Data collected and analyzed Data collected and analyzed Data collected and analyzed
about small number of about large and often not about a small number of
predetermined features of predetermined features of features of each case
each unit each unit

Study of units organized in Interest in naturally occurring Units selected to represent

such a way as to control features or the variables in characteristics of the study’s
variables of interest context population

Data usually quantified Data can be quantitative, Data usually quantified

qualitative or both

Aim is of testing theory or Aim is to understand and Aim is to generalize findings

evaluation of an intervention theorize through enfolding from sample to population
the literature
 Reasons for case study choice
• Case study is a separate research method that has
its own research designs.
• Case study research is particularly suitable for
description, explanation and exploratory research.
• It is perhaps a weakness of the definitions that
neither mention theory when case study
researchers go to great lengths to demonstrate
how their research contributes to theory. Logical
explanation.
 Selection of cases for case study
• Need sufficient access to the potential data,
whether to interview people, review documents
or records, or make observations in the “field.”
• Given such access to more than a single candidate
case, choose the case(s) that will most likely
illuminate your research questions.
 Research insight: How many cases
• Case study is a unit. No formula for how many units.
• A unit of study could be an individual, an organization,
an event or an activity.
• Leadership: individual/s leadership styles.
• Organizational culture: select organization. study two
departments or groups within that
• organization or make comparisons between two or
more different organizations.
• Cases constitute a range of phenomena.
• Aim: to provide a rich multidimensional holistic
picture of the situation in a real-life context.
Mixed Methods Designs:
Mixing Case Studies with Other Methods
• Research where the researcher mixes or combines
quantitative and qualitative research techniques,
methods, approaches, concepts or language into a
single study.
• Mixed methods research forces the methods to share the
same research questions, to collect complementary data,
and to conduct counterpart analyses.
• Mixed methods research can permit investigators to
address more complicated research questions and collect
a richer and stronger array of evidence than can be
accomplished by any single method alone.
 Embedded case study designs
• The embedded case studies rely on more holistic
data collection strategies for studying the main
case but then call upon surveys or other more
quantitative techniques to collect data about the
embedded unit(s) of analysis.
• In this situation, other research methods are
embedded within your case study.
 Case study embedded in mixed methods
study
• The main investigation may rely on a survey or
other quantitative techniques, and case study
may help to investigate the conditions within
one of the entities being surveyed.
• The contrasting relationships (survey within case
or case within survey).
 The Role of Theory in case study
• This role of theory development, prior to the
conduct of any data collection, is one point of
difference between case studies and related
methods such as ethnography and “grounded
theory.”
• Typically, these related methods deliberately
avoid specifying any theoretical propositions at
the outset of an inquiry.
 Unique use of theory
• Resultantly students think that, by having selected
the case study method, they can proceed quickly
into the data collection phase of their work.
• It is just misleading.
• The relevant field contacts depend upon an
understanding—or theory—of what is being
studied.
 Theory development for case studies

• Theory development as part of the design phase is

essential, whether the ensuing case study’s
purpose is to develop or to test theory.
• “Why” of case study of a phenomenon demands
the articulation of argumentation as an
explanation of the existence or change in the
reality.
• Workability of intervention. That is theory, a
theory of change.
 Theory part of research design
• The questions to be answered, propositions for the
possible answers, selection of units of analysis,
logic connecting data to propositions, and criteria
for interpreting the findings, all need logical
argumentation.
• The complete research design embodies a
“theory” of what is being studied
 Theoretical framework – an essential step
• The simple goal is to have a sufficient blueprint for your study,
and this requires theoretical propositions
• “a [hypothetical] story about why acts, events, structure, and
thoughts occur”
• Success /failure story of management information system
(MIS) in an organization.
• A convincing story with logical argumentation.
• Theory will provide surprisingly strong guidance in
determining what data to collect and the strategies for
analyzing the data.
• For this reason, theory development prior to the collection of
any case study data is an essential step in doing case studies.
 Theory development a challenging job
• Theory development takes time and can be
difficult.
• Review of literature provides a rich resource for
theoretical framework for designing a specific case
study.
• Review case studies and gain a richer
understanding of how theory was used.
• Individual theories, group theories, organizational
theories, societal theories.
Generalizing from case study to theory
• Same theoretical orientation also becomes the
main vehicle for generalizing the results of the
case study.
 Two outstanding strengths
• Case study method can achieve:
• 1. Study the phenomenon in its natural setting.
Process. Understanding the reality. How it has
been happening i.e. complexity of reality in
totality (in context)?
• 2. Generate meaningful and relevant theory from
the understanding gained through practice. Why
i.e. logical explanation.
Research Design for Case Study
 What is research design?
• Every type of empirical research has an implicit, if
not explicit, research design.
• In the most elementary sense, the design is the
logical sequence that connects the empirical data
to a study’s initial research questions and,
ultimately, to its conclusions.
 What is research design? (cont.)
• Colloquially, a research design is a logical plan for
getting from here to there, where here may be
defined as the initial set of questions to be
answered, and there is some set of conclusions
(answers) about these questions.
• Between “here” and “there” may be found a
number of major steps, including the collection
and analysis of relevant data.
 Summary definition
• RD is a plan that:
• guides the investigator in the process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting observations.
• It is a logical model of proof that allows the researcher to
draw inferences concerning causal relations among the
variables under investigation.
• Dealing with at least four problems:
• 1. what questions to study,
• 2. what data are relevant,
• 3. what data to collect, and
• 4. how to analyze the results
 A RD deals with a logical problem and not a logistical problem

• Suppose you want to study a single organization. But your research

questions, for example, have to do with the organization’s
relationships with other organizations— their competitive or
collaborative nature.
• Such questions can be answered only if you collect information
directly from the other organizations and not merely from the one
you started with. Logical.
• If you complete your study by examining only one organization,
you cannot draw unbiased conclusions about inter organizational
partnerships.
• This is a flaw in your research design, not in your work plan. The
outcome could have been avoided if you had developed an
appropriate research design in the first place.
 Components of Research Designs for Case Studies

• 1. A study’s questions;
• 2. Its propositions, if any;
• 3. Its unit(s) of analysis;
• 4. The logic linking the data to the propositions;
and
• 5. The criteria for interpreting the findings.
 1. Study questions
• The form of the question—in terms of “who,”
“what,” “where,” “how,” and “why”—provides an
important clue regarding the most relevant
research method to be used.
• Research question helps in the demarcation of
boundaries of the study.
• The case study method is most likely to be
appropriate for “how” and “why” questions.
• Initial task is to clarify precisely the nature of
study questions in this regard.
 Defining the Boundaries of a Case Study

• Formulate the research questions to be answered

or propositions to be examined by your case study.
• Naming of these questions or propositions clarifies
the boundaries of the case study with regard to:
• the time period covered by the case study;
• the relevant social group, organization, or
geographic area;
• the type of evidence to be collected; and
• the priorities for data collection and analysis.
 2. Study propositions
• Each proposition directs attention to something that should be
examined within the scope of study.
• For instance, assume that your research, on the topic of inter
organizational partnerships, began with the following
question: How and why do organizations collaborate with one
another to provide joint services (for example, a manufacturer
and a retail outlet collaborating to sell certain computer
products)?
• These “how” and “why” questions, capturing what you are
really interested in answering, led you to the case study as the
appropriate method in the first place.
• Nevertheless, these “how” and “why” questions do not point
to what you should study.
 Proposed answer to the question
• How and why do organizations collaborate with
one another to provide joint services?
• Proposed answer: proposed XY connection. Some
rationale and direction.
• How? Management collaboration.
• Why? Derivation of mutual benefits.
• Delimits the boundaries.
 3. Unit of analysis
• Define what the “case” is.
• A “case” may be an individual. (juvenile delinquents, clinical
patients, exemplary students, certain types of leaders).
• The individual is the primary unit of analysis.
• Several such individuals or “cases” might be included in a multiple-
case study.
• Questions and propositions set boundaries to the information
collected.
• Case can be a group, a locality, an organization, a decision, a
programs, the implementation process, and organizational change.
• Initial question identifies the unit (case) of analysis.
• Delimit the time boundaries of the case: whole life of the entity,
part there of.
• Questions as well as units of analysis can be revisited
 Case should be some real-life phenomenon

• There is need for spatial, temporal, and other concrete

boundaries of the case.
• Desired case should be some real-life phenomenon, not
an abstraction such as a topic, or an argument.
• Neighboring is an abstract concept. Make it real by
specifying its spatial, temporal, ethnic boundaries for
purposes of case study.
• To justify using the case study method, you need to define
a specific, real-life “case” to represent the abstraction.
• Give an operational definition. Get help form literature.
Will help in comparing results.
Concrete real life situation
 EXERCISE: Defining the Unit of Analysis
(and the “Case”) for a Case Study
• Examine the figure in the last slide: Discuss each
subject, which illustrates a different unit of
analysis. Find a published case study on at least
one of these subjects, indicating the actual “case”
that was being studied. Understanding that each
subject illustrates a different unit of analysis and
involves the selection of different cases to be
studied, do you think that the more concrete units
might be easier to define than the less concrete
ones? Why?
 4. The logic linking the data to the
propositions
• Data presentation will require analysis of case
study data as a direct reflection of initial study
propositions.
• It may require: pattern matching, explanation
building, time-series analysis, logic models, and
cross-case synthesis.
Anticipate the needed data to use the
techniques to their full advantage
• If some or all of propositions cover a temporal
sequence it would require some type of time-
series analysis. Noting data in different times.
• Make sure that the RD had sufficient procedures
to collect time markers as part of data collection
plans.
• Don’t (a) collect too much data that were not
later used in any analysis or (b) collect too little
data that prevented the proper use of a desired
analytic technique.
 5. Criteria for interpreting the findings
• Statistical analyses offer some explicit criteria for
such interpretations (p level of less than .05
“statistically significant” criterion).
• Case study analysis calls attention to other ways
of thinking about such criteria.
• An alternative strategy is to identify and address
rival explanations for the findings.
 Cont.
• Anticipate and enumerate the important rival
explanations, so you will include information about
them as part of your data collection.
• The complete research design should indicate what
data are to be collected—as indicated by a study’s
questions, its propositions, and its units of analysis.
• The design also should tell what is to be done after
the data have been collected—as indicated by the
logic linking the data to the propositions and the
criteria for interpreting the findings.
 CRITERIA FOR JUDGING
THE QUALITY OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
Four tests
• Four tests have been commonly used to
establish the quality of any empirical social
research.
• Case studies are one form of empirical
research, the same four tests also are
relevant to case studies.
 The four tests
• 1. Construct validity: identifying correct operational
measures for the concepts being studied.
• 2. Internal validity (for explanatory or causal studies only
and not for descriptive or exploratory studies): seeking to
establish a causal relationship, whereby certain
conditions are believed to lead to other conditions, as
distinguished from spurious relationships.
• 3. External validity: defining the domain to which a
study’s findings can be generalized.
• 4. Reliability: demonstrating that the operations of a
study—such as the data collection procedures—can be
repeated, with the same results.
Case Study Tactics for Four Design Tests
Tests Case study tactics Phase of research in
which tactic occurs
♦ use multiple sources of data collection
Construct evidence data collection
validity ♦ establish chain of evidence
♦ have key informants review
Composition
draft case study report

♦ do pattern matching data analysis

Internal validity ♦ do explanation building data analysis
♦ address rival explanations data analysis
♦ use logic models data analysis

♦ use theory in single-case studies research design

External validity ♦ use replication logic in multiple
research design
case Studies

♦ use case study protocol data collection

Reliability ♦ develop case study database data collection
 Construct Validity
• A case study investigator fails to develop a
sufficiently operational set of measures and that
“subjective” judgments are used to collect the data.
• Define the concept
• identify operational measures that match the
concepts (preferably citing published studies that
make the same matches).
• Use of multiple sources of evidence
• Have the draft case study report reviewed by key
informants
 Internal Validity
• Concern of experimental studies. Causal study. Hi internal
validity.
• Inapplicable to other studies.
• Inference: a case study involves an inference every time when
an event cannot be directly observed.
• An investigator will “infer” that a particular event resulted from
some earlier occurrence, based on interview and documentary
evidence collected as part of the case study.
• Is the inference correct?
• Have all the rival explanations and possibilities been
considered?
• Is the evidence convergent?
• Does it appear to be airtight?
 External Validity
• Are study’s findings generalizable beyond the immediate case
study?
• The external validity problem has been a major barrier in doing
case studies.
• Critics typically state that single cases offer a poor basis for
generalizing.
• Survey research relies on statistical generalization, whereas case
studies (as with experiments) rely on analytic generalization.
• In analytical generalization, the investigator is striving to
generalize a particular set of results to some broader theory.
• Theory that led to that case study.
• A theory must be tested by replicating the findings in a second or
even a third neighborhood, where the theory has specified that
the same results should occur.
 Reliability
• Doing the same case over again, not
“replicating” the results of one case by doing
another case study.
• The goal of reliability is to minimize the errors
and biases in a study.
• Need to document the procedures followed in
the earlier case.
• Without such documentation, one could not
even repeat one’s own work