Chapter 4 Motivation in Organization

Chapter 4
Motivation in
Organizations
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning Prepared by Charlie Cook

All rights reserved. The University of West Alabama
Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Characterize the nature of motivation, including its
importance and basic historical perspectives.
2. Identify and describe the need-based perspectives
on motivation.
3. Identify and describe the major process-based
perspectives on motivation.
4. Describe learning-based perspectives on motivation.
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–2

The Nature of Motivation
• Motivation
– The set of forces that leads people to behave in
particular ways
• The Importance of Motivation
– Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M),
ability, and environment (E)
•P = M + A + E

4.1 Motivational Framework

The Motivational Framework
• How Motivational Processes Occur:

– A need is anything an individual requires or wants
– A need deficiency leads to need to satisfy the need
– Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying
to satisfy their need deficiencies
– Rewards and punishments are consequences of the
goal-directed behavior

Historical Perspectives on Motivation
• The Traditional Approach

– “Scientific Management” (Frederick Taylor) assumes
that employees are motivated solely by money
• The Human Relations Approach
– Assumes employees’ needs outweigh money and that
fostering favorable employee attitudes (the illusion of
involvement) results in motivation
• The Human Resource Approach
– Assumes people want to make genuine contributions;
managers should encourage their participation by
providing the proper working environment conditions

Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation
• Need-Based Theories of Motivation
– Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior
• The Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)
– Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy
of importance.
• Basic (or deficiency) needs
– Physiological
– Security
– Belongingness
• Growth needs
– Esteem
– Self-actualization

4.2 The Hierarchy of Needs
Reference: Adapted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human

Motivation,” Psychological Review, 1943, vol. 50, pp. 374–396.
Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

– Describes existence (E), relatedness (R), and
growth (G) needs
• Assumptions:
– More than one need may motivate a person at the
same time
– Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression
components imply that a person may not stay at the
same level of need in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• The Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg)

– Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two
separate dimensions:
• Motivation factors which affect satisfaction
• Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction
– Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment
once hygiene factors are addressed
– Criticisms:
• May be both method and culture bound
• Fails to account for individual differences
• Factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions

4.3 The Dual-Structure Theory of Motivation

Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation
• Other Important Needs

– The Need for Achievement (David McClelland)
• The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than
was done in the past
– The Need for Affiliation

• The need for human companionship
– The Need for Power

• The desire to control the resources in one’s environment

Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• Focus of Process-Based Perspectives

– Why people choose certain behavioral options to
satisfy their needs
– How people evaluate their satisfaction after they
have attained these goals

• The Equity Theory of Motivation

– Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to
avoid perceived inequity
• Equity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated fairly in
relation to others
• Inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated unfairly
in relation to others
• The Equity Comparison

– Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (other)
Inputs (self) Inputs (other)

4.4 Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity

• The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom)

– Motivation depends on how much we want something and
how likely we think we are to get it
• Key Components
Effort-to-performance The perceived probability that effort will
expectancy lead to performance
Performance-to-outcome The perceived probability that performance

expectancy will lead to certain outcomes
Outcome Anything that results from performing

a behavior
Valence The degree of attractiveness or

unattractiveness (value) that a particular
outcome has for a person

4.5 The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Process-Based Perspectives…(cont’d)
• The Porter-Lawler Model

– Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and
performance
– Assumes that:
• If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead
to satisfaction.
• Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic
(intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance.

4.6 The Porter-Lawler Model

Guidelines for Using Expectancy Theory
• Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants
• Decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals
• Make sure the desired levels of performance are
possible
• Link desired outcomes and desired performance
• Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies
• Make sure the rewards are large enough
• Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone

Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation
• Learning
– A relatively permanent change in behavior or
behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect
experience
• How Learning Occurs
– Traditional View: Classical Conditioning
• A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response
with an unconditioned stimulus
– Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process
• Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how
they learn

Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• Reinforcement Theory and Learning

– Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
• Behavior is a function of its consequences
• Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior
– Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement A reward or other desirable consequence that
a person receives after exhibiting behavior
Negative reinforcement The opportunity to avoid or escape from an

(avoidance) unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior
Extinction Decreases the frequency of behavior by

eliminating a reward or desirable consequence
that follows that behavior
Punishment An unpleasant or aversive consequence that

results from behavior

4.1 Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedule of Reinforcement Nature of Reinforcement
Command Groups Task Groups

• Social Learning in Organizations

– Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others,
recognize their consequences, and alter their own
behavior as a result
– Conditions for social learning:
• Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively
simple
• Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not
intellectual
• Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed
behavior

• Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

– The application of reinforcement theory to people in
organizational settings
• Effectiveness of OB Mod
– Varying results in organizational applications
– Lack of “real world” use
• Ethics of OB Mod
– Individual freedom of choice
– Employee manipulation

4.7
Steps in
Organizational
Behavior
Modification

Organizational Behavior in Action
• After reading the chapter opening case:

– Which needs does working at Netapp fulfill for its
employees?
– Is it really possible to have an organization where
almost all employees are (or appear be) satisfied?
– What advantages does Netapp have when seeking
people for employment? Disadvantages?

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Chapter 4

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning Prepared by Charlie Cook

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–2

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–3

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–4

• How Motivational Processes Occur:

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–5

• The Traditional Approach

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–6

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–7

Reference: Adapted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human

• ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–9

• The Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg)

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–10

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–11

• Other Important Needs

– The Need for Affiliation

– The Need for Power

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–12

• Focus of Process-Based Perspectives

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–13

• The Equity Theory of Motivation

• The Equity Comparison

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–14

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–15

• The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom)

Performance-to-outcome The perceived probability that performance

Outcome Anything that results from performing

Valence The degree of attractiveness or

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–16

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–17

• The Porter-Lawler Model

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–18

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–19

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–20

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–21

• Reinforcement Theory and Learning

Negative reinforcement The opportunity to avoid or escape from an

Extinction Decreases the frequency of behavior by

Punishment An unpleasant or aversive consequence that

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–22

Schedule of Reinforcement Nature of Reinforcement

Command Groups Task Groups

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–23

• Social Learning in Organizations

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–24

• Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–25

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–26

• After reading the chapter opening case:

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–27

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