Biology Education B 2017

Thursday School Management

Class

Group 1. Individuals in School

Rania Az-Zahra (1304617042)

Frena Nurfitriani (1304617034)
Ulmia lesty K (1304517064)
Putri Septianingrum (1304617065)
INDIVIDUALS IN SCHOOLS

Individuals in schools are motivated by their needs,

beliefs and goals
NEEDS

 Needs are internal states of disequilibrium that cause individuals to pursue certain
courses of action in order to regain internal equilibrium
 The concept of needs explain at a most basic level why living organism behave as
they do, and it is the standard to judge whether a specific action is healthy or not
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS : BASIC NEEDS
1. Which consist of such fundamental biological
functions as hunger and thirst
2. Derive from the desire for a peaceful,
smoothly running, stable society
3. Belonging, love and social needs are
extremely important in modern society
4. Reflect the desire to be highly regarded by
others. Achievement, competence, status and
recognition satisfy esteem needs
5. That it is the need to be what an individual
want to be to achieve fulfilment of life goals
and to realize the potential of his/her
Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory personality.
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory, then is based on three fundamental postulates
(Cherrington, 1991)
 Individual need are universal and arranged in a hierarchy
 Unfilled needs lead individuals to focus exclusively on those needs
 Lower – level needs must be largely satisfied before higher – level needs can be felt
and persued
NEEDS AND WORKER SATISFACTION
 Frederick Herzberg and his colleagues developed a theory of motivation and job
satisfaction.
 The theory has several basic assumptions :
1. There are two separate sets of factors in explaining work satisfaction as
dissatisfaction
2. Motivators tend to produce satisfaction, and hygiene factors tend to produce
dissatisfaction
3. Work satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but rather separate and
distinct dimensions
HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION – HYGIENE THEORY

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT : AN ACQUIRED NEED

• David C. McClelland’s (1961, 1965, 1985) Achievement motivation theory is

commonly called need achievement or n-achievement theory
• The need to accomplish hard tasks, to overcome difficulties and obstructions and to
excel is the need for achievement

Hypothesized that individuals who are high in achievement motivation have three key
characteristics :
1. They have strong desire to assume personal responsibility for performing a task or
solving a problem.
2. Those with high achievement needs tend to set moderately difficult goals ang take
intermediate levels of risk
3. People with high achievement needs have a strong desire for performance feedback
NEED FOR AUTONOMY

• The need for autonomy or sels-determinations the desire to have choice in what
we do and how we do it.
• In other words, it is the desire to act independently, rather than to have external
pressures and reward determine our actions

Needs for autonomy and self-determination can be enhanced by encouraging

individuals to :
• Make their own choices
• Plan their own courses of action
• Accept responsibility for the consequences of their own choices
 Individuals act on their beliefs.
 Beliefs are general understanding or generalizations about the world,
they are what individuals hold to be true.
 Beliefs play a pivotal role in motivating individuals to act.
 Individual beliefs about causality, fairness, intelligence, the
consequences of our actions, and our ability to control our own destiny
are few of the pivotal beliefs that influence behavior.
 Examples: why did I fail the final examination? Was it because of lack of
effort? Or am I not smart enough to understand the material?
 Based on such observations and questions, Bernard Weiner (uses the
notion of attribution to create a model of motivation.
Attribution theory deals with causal explanations that individuals make about
past behaviors, especially in regard to achievement efforts and expectancies.
Attribution theorists assume that individuals naturally search for
understanding about why events happen, especially when the outcome
is important or un expected (Stipek, 1993).

When people make causal attributions,

People attribute successes they are essentially seeking or creating
and failures to such factors beliefs about what happened and why.
as ability, luck, effort, mood, Once they create the explanation,
individuals can often use it to better
interest, and unfair manage themselves and their
procedures. environment.
Weiner (1985, 1986, 1992, 1994a, 1994b, 2000) argues that most of the causes to
which individuals attribute their successes and failures can be characterized in terms of
three dimensions of causality—locus, stability, and responsibility.
1. Locus (internal VS external) defines the location of the cause.
 Ability and effort are the most common internal factors on the locus dimension.
 Task difficulty and luck are common external determinants of outcomes.

2. Stability (stable VS variable) designates causes as constant or varying over time.

 Ability is stable because an individual’s aptitude for a task is thought to be relatively fixed,
whereas
 effort is variable because people can vary their labor from one situation to another.

3. Responsibility (controllable VS uncontrollable) refers to personal responsibility,

that is, whether the person can control the the cause.
 Effort is controllable because individuals are thought to be responsible for how hard they try.
 In contrast, ability and luck are generally believed to be beyond personal control (Weiner,
1986, 2000; Kanfer, 1990; Graham, 1991)
 Each of these three dimensions has important implications for motivation
because then tend to generate emotional reactions to success and failure.
For examples:
1. Internal-external locus seems to be closely related to self-esteem
(Weiner, 2010). If success or failure is attributed to internal factors, then
 success typically produces pride,
 whereas failure diminishes self-esteem.

2. The stability dimension is linked to emotions that implicate future

expectations.
 For instance, stable causes for failure produce hopelessness, apathy, and resignation.

3. The responsibility dimension is linked to a set of social emotions that

includes guilt, shame, pity, and anger.
 We feel guilty when the causes of personal failure are due to factors under our control
such as lack of effort and deciding not to take responsibility for action;
 we are proud if we succeed.
 Skeches two attribution of failure:

Failure Failure

Attributed Attributed
to lack • which is seen • which is seen as
as controllable to lack uncontrollable
ofeffort ofability

Individual feels Individual

responsible does not feel
and guilty responsible

Behavior to
improve
Avoid the
performance task
 Failures

Lacks of effort Lack of ability

Controllable Uncontrollable

Responsible Not responsible

Guilt Embarrassment

Engagement Avoidance

Performance Performance
Improves declines
 Students, teachers, and administrators will be highly motivated when
they know the cause of the outcomes and these causes are internal
(locus), amenable to change (variable), and under their control
(controllable).
 Using attribution theory there are many explanations for poor job
performance/ for examples:
 Internal External

Stable Variable Stable Variable

Controllable Typical effort Preparation Observer bias Help from team

Uncontrollable Ability Mood Task difficulty Luck

Dimension classification Reason for poor performance

• Internal-stable-uncontrollable • Low ability

• Internal-stable-controllable • Typical effort insufficient

• Internal-variable-uncontrollable • Bad mood at time of observation

• Internal-variable-controllable • Not prepared for the task

• External stable-uncontrollable • Task was too difficult

• External stable-controllable • Observer was biased

• External-variable-uncontrollable • Bad luck

• External-variable-controllable • Teammates failed to help
 Some of the most powerful attributions that effect motivation and
behavior are beliefs about ability.
 Adults have two general views of ability—stable and incremental (Elliot
and Dweck, 2005) and ability can be improved.
An incremental view of ability
A stable view (sometimes called an (sometimes called a growth view),
entity view) of ability assumes that ability assumes that ability is unstable
is a stable and uncontrollable trait, that and controllable—an expanding
is, a characteristic of an individual that reservoir of knowledge and skills.
cannot be changed (Dweck and Thus, people with an incremental
Bempechat, 1938). Accordingly, some view believe that by hard work,
people have more ability that others and persistence, study, and practice,
the ability level is fixed. knowledge can be increased and
ability can be improved.
 For examples:

In early grades in elementary About the age of 12,

school,
 Students begin to differentiate
 Most students believe that effort between effort and ability.
is the same as intelligence.
 Students begin to realize that
 Smart people try hard and trying some people achieve without
hard makes you smarter. working hard and these are
 So if you don’t do well, you are not smart people.
smart because you did not try hard
enough. At this point, beliefs about ability
 If you do well, you mush be a smart,
began to influence motivation
hard worker (Spitek, 1993, 2002). (Anderman and Maehr, 1994).
 People who hold a stable view of
intelligence tent to set performance
goals.
 Individuals with an incremental view of
 They seek situations where they will look intelligence, tend to set learning goals and
good and protect their self-esteem. seek situations in which they can learn and
 Such individuals would rather not try
progress because improvement means
increasing their ability.
than fail; in fact if you don’t try, no one
can accuse you of being dumb.  To such people, children or adults, failure
is not devasting; it merely suggest that
 When you fail, the reason is obvious— more work is needed to improve.
you just didn’t prepare or try hard.
 Ability is not threatened by failure; in fact,
 So not trying or preparing becomes a often failure is accepted as a challenge to
strategy for protecting oneself from work harder (Woolfolk, 2004,2010).
failure and looking dumb.
 People with an incremental view of ability
 Such strategies do protect one’s self- are most likely to set challenging but
esteem, but they do not enhance realistic goals, and as we have seen, such
learning. goals are effective motivators.
 In brief, one’s beliefs about ability play an important role in motivation
and performance in students, teachers, or administrators.

On the contrary, those who hold

a stable, fixed view of ability are
more likely to set performance
Those individuals who believe that goals that are either very easy
they can improve their ability are or very difficult because they
more likely to set learning goals are concerned with self in the
that are moderately difficult and eyes of others.
challenging and are concerned They want to look good and
with mastering the task at hand. avoid anything that would
threaten that image.
Indeed, they often equate high
effort with low capabilities.
 Basic unfairness in the workplace is what some theorists call an inequity,
and it brings us to yet another perspective on motivation called equity
theory, which focuses on perspective fairness—individuals’ beliefs about
whether they are being treated fairly or not. The perceived fairness of
the procedures used to allocate resources is called procedural justice and
is the key concept in equity theory.
 Equity theory suggest that the key mechanism for such decisions is social
comparison; we compare ourselves with others.
 In more technical terms, we compare our ratio of inputs (contributions) to
outputs (rewards) to the input/otput ratio of others (Kulik and ambrose,
1992).
 Equity theory explains that,
If the input/output ratios are about the same for those with whom we compare
ourselves, then we view our treatment as fair.
If, however, the rations are not roughly equal, we believe that we have not
been treated fairly and a sense of inequity develops.
 Inequities are annoying and we try to eliminate them.
One of the potential consequences of feelings of inequity is reduced
motivation.
 Baron (1998) explains that feeling of inequity interfere with work
motivation and individuals attempt to reduce such feelings in
three ways:
1. They try to increase their outcomes—they seek increased
benefits such as a raise or other reward.
2. They try to leave—they quit and find another job.
3. They reduce their inputs—they expend less effort on the job
 Three more issues should be noted about the theory:

Individuals judgments about fairness

aresubjective.
• They are in the eye of beholder.
• The individual does the comparing and makes the judgment
about equity.

Individuals are more sensitive to receiving less

that they deserve rather that more.
• It is easier to rationalize receipt of more rather than less than
one deserves, but over time receiving more that one deserves
also has the potential to reduce motivation.
• but over time receiving more that one deserves also has the
potential to reduce motivation.

1.Equity and justice areimportant

motivatingforces to many individuals.
 My ratio of Colleague’s ratio
inputs to outputs inputs to outputs
contribution contributions
rewards rewards

Perceived Equity
Negative Balanced Positive
Balanced Balanced

Rewards
Unfair Fair More that
Treatment Treatment Equitable

General Decreased
Decreased Reduced Satisfaction
Leave Job Motivation
Motivation Effort (motivated)
In sum, when students, teachers, or administrators conclude
that they are being treated unfairly, their performance
motivation often declines dramatically, and they my plan to
“even the score” by cheating or engaging in other
questionable practices.
 Organizational justice is organizational members’ perceptions of fairness in the
organization and includes both distributive justice—the fairness of the distribution of
resources—and procedural justice—the fairness of the procedures for distributing
resources.
 In brief, a sense of organizational justice in the school workplace is dependent upon
administrative behavior that is equitable, sensitive, respectful, consistent, free of self-
interest, honest, and ethical.
 In addition, voice, egalitarianism, and representativeness are crucial in any attempt to
empower teachers.
 Teachers want to participate in decisions that affect them (voice), but they must be
willing to put the interest of the school ahead of their own (egalitarianism) and feel
that their views are being authentically represented in the process of deciding
(representativeness).
 Finally, principals must have the good sense and confidence to reverse and correct
poor decisions as they get feedback and new and more accurate information.
 Pinciples of organizational justice

Equity principle Rewards should be proportional to contributions

Perception principle Individual perceptions of fairness define justice

The voice principle Participation in decitions enhances fairness

Interpersonal justice principle Dignified and respectful treatment promotes fairness

Consistency principle Consistently fair behavior promotes a sense of justice

Eqalitarian principle Self-interest should be subordinated to the good of the whole

Correction principle Faulty decisions shoul be quicly corrected

Accuracy principle Decisions should be anchored in accurate information

The representative principle Decisions must represent those concerned

Ethical principle Prevailing moral and ethical standards should be followed

Belief about outcomes : Expectancy Theory
Expentancy theory is one of the most reliable and valid
explanation of what motivates people to work. and have a very long
history such as :
Vroom (1964) His model was developed to predict choices
among jobs, tasks and effort levels that yield the highest percieved
benefits.
During the late 1960's through early 1980's This theory in
literature clearly indicates it's centrality to research on motivation in
organisations
Expentancy Theory have two fundamental premises
1. Individuals make decisions about their own behavior in organisations
using their abilities to think, reason and anticipates future events.
2. Individual values and attitudes interact with environmental
components, such as role expetations and school culture, to infuence
behavior.
 Expectancy Theory have 3 fundamental concepts

Expectancy is extent Instrumentality is

to which an individual percieved probability
believe that hard that good
work will lead to performance will be
inproved noticed and
performance rewarded.

Valence is the prcieved

value or attractiveness of
reward. valence have the
same concept of value.
 Expectancy

Force Of
Instrumentality Motivations
Expectancy Theory
Valence M = f(E x I x V)
In 1984, 1998 Pinder concludes that there are grounds of optimism the
theory is a valid model because of work behavior. the following
conclusion are

• Expetancy theory is an exellent predictor job satisfaction.

• Expectancy theory predict performance but not as well as it
predict satisfaction
• Expentancy theory demonstrates that people work hard when
they think that working hard is likely too lead to desirable
outcomes.
 Beliefs about capabilities :
self efficacy theory

Self efficacy is a person's judgment about his or her capability to

organize and execute a course of action that is reqired to attain a
certain level of performance (Bandura, 1986, 1991, 1997, 2005).
Development of self- efficacy
Self effiecy expetation develop from a variety of sources,
including performance feedback, previous history and social influence.
There is four primary sources of experiance for self efficacy :

Mastery experience is the percormance that successes and faluires (an actual
experience) in compliting tasks have strong effect in self-efficacy.
Modeling and vicarious experience effect in two way.
1. provides knoledge.
2. people partly judge their capabiliies using social comparisons

Verbal persuation is widely used to try to talk people into believing that
they have the capacity to achieve what they want to accomplish.
Physiological and affective states parly give their an information to
judge their capability.
Self- efficacy of Theachers
Teacher efficacy as type of self- efficacy the outcome of a
cognitive process in which people construct beliefs about their capacity
to perform well. These beliefs affect how much effort people expend,
How long they will persist in the face of difficulties, their resilience in
dealing with failures and the stress they experiance in coping with
demanding situation.
-Bandura, 1997
 A model of Percieved efficacy for
teaching
Sources Of efficacy analysis of the
• physiological cues teaching task
• verbal persuation Cognitive Teacher
• vicarious experiance processing efficacy
Assesment of
(modeling)
teaching
• mastery experiance
competence

Consequences of
teacher efficacy
Performance • Effort
• Persistence
• Success
GOAL SETTING THEORY

 Although the historical origins of goals as important aspect of motivation date to the early 20th century, Edwin A.
Locke and his associate Gary P. Latham ( Locke, 1968; Locke and Latham, 1984, 1990, 2005, 2009; Latham,2000)
are generally recognized for the development of contemporary goal setting theory. Actually, goal setting theory
did not begin as a theory but was one of those cases in which an interesting research triggered the search for an
explanation, and hence the significance of goal-setting theory.
LOCK AND LATHAM (1990)

First, goals must be

specific

Second, goals must

be challenging

Third, goals must be

attainable

Finnaly, individuals must be

committed to the goals
 Feedback is also important in making goal setting an effective motivating
force.
Feedback helps individuals evaluate their progress.
When the feedback highlights accomplishment, the tendency is for the
individual’s self-confidence, analytic thinking, and performance to improve
In particular, three generalization from goal theory continue to enjoy
substantial research support.

 First, difficult goals, if accepted, result in higher levels of performance than

easy ones.
 Second, specific goals produce higher levels of performance than such
vague goals as “do your best” or no goals at all.
A third and controversial generalization deals with the source of goals,
commitment, and performance.
GOAL SETTING THEORY

Goal mechanism
Charateristics of effective  Focus attention
goals Mobilize effort
 Specific Enhance persistence
Challenging attainable performance
Develop specific task
embraced strategis

Feedback
Actual versus desired
behavior
 INTERINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Motivation is generally defined as an internal state that stimulates, directs, and maintains behavior.
Psychologists who study motivation have focused on fire basic aspects : choices, initiation, persistence, and
reaction. (Graham and Weiner, 1996).

Interinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek and accept

Interinsic challanges as we pursue personal interests and exercise
Motivation capabilities. (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Reeve,1996; Deci, Kostener and
Ryan, 1999; Deci and Ryan, 2002; Reeve, Deci and Ryan, 2004).
Motivation
Exterinsic motivation is a behavioral perspective on motivation
Extrinsic because it explains motivation and behavior in terms of rewards
Motivation and punishment. Extrinsic motivation stimulates us to act with
incentives and disincentives.
THANK YOU