Personality Theories

Prepared By

Manu Melwin Joy

Assistant Professor

lahia School of Management Studies

Kerala, India.
Phone 9744551114

Mail manu_melwinjoy@yahoo.com

Road to Success

1001 Skills

MMJs Management Skills Archive

The term personality is derived from the Latin

word persona meaning a

mask.

Synonyms for
personality
(noun)
1. The total of one's
nature

self, oneself, being;

2. Individual characteristics

disposition, nature, temper, temperament;

3. A notable person

celebrity, star, cynosure;

Personality is the dynamic organization within the

individual

of

determines his

that

psychophysical

system

unique adjustment

that
to his

environment.
- Gordon Allport

Personality is the sum total of

ways in which an individual

reacts and interacts with

others.

Personality is I We get a
good
idea
of
what
personality is by listening to
what we say when we use
"I". When you say I, you
are, in effect, summing up
everything about yourself your likes and dislikes, fears
and virtues, strengths and
weaknesses. The word I is
what defined you as an
individual, as a person
separate from all others.
Adams (1954, cited in

Approaches to
personality

Trait and type approaches.

Trait Theories

Type Theories

Dynamic approaches.

Psychoanalytical theories

Learning and behavioral approaches.

Behaviorist theories.

Social learning theories.

Cognitive theories.

Humanistic approaches

Trait theories

On the play ground, 6 year old

Sam pushes little Samantha off
her tricycle and rides away on it.
Why?

SAMANTH
A

SAM

Traits
Aggressive
Hot
Tempered
Undiscipline
d

personality traits are "enduring

patterns of perceiving, relating to,
and thinking about the environment
and oneself that are exhibited in a
wide range of social and personal
contexts."

A trait is what we call a characteristic way

in which an individual perceives, feels,
believes, or acts.

Theorists generally assume

1. Traits are relatively stable
over time,
2. Traits differ among
individuals
3. Traits are also bipolar and
4. Traits influence behavior.

Three trait theory

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that
one English-language dictionary alone contained
more than 4,000 words describing different
personality traits. He categorized these traits into
three levels.

Three trait theory

1. Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individuals whole life,
often to the point that the person becomes known specifically
for these traits. Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan,
Christ-like, etc.
2. Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form
the basic foundations of personality. Terms such as intelligent,
honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.
3. Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes
related to attitudes or preferences and often appear only in
certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some
examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group
or impatient while waiting in line.

16 personality factor
theory
Trait theorist Raymond
Cattell reduced the number
of main personality traits from All ports initial list of
over 4,000 down to 16 by means of a statistical
technique called factor analysis.

16 personality factor
theory
1.emotional,
easily upset vs. calm, stable
2.Intelligent
vs. unintelligent
3.suspicious
vs. trusting
4.reserved, unfriendly vs. outgoing,
friendly
5.assertive, dominant vs. not assertive,
humble
6.sober, serious
vs. happy-go-lucky
7.conscientious
vs. expedient
8.shy, timid
vs. venturesome
9.tender-minded
vs. tough-minded
10.practical
vs. imaginative
11.shrewd
vs. forthright
12.self-assured, placid vs. apprehensive
13.conservative
vs. experimenting
14.group oriented
vs. self-sufficient
15.undisciplined
vs. self-disciplined

Universal trait theory

British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a
model of personality based upon just three
universal traits were sufficient to describe
human personality. Differences between Cattell
and Eysenck emerged due to preferences for
different forms of factor analysis, with Cattell
using oblique, Eysenck orthogonal rotation to
analyze the factors that emerged when
personality questionnaires were subjected to

Universal trait theory

1. Introversion/Extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention on
inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention
outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in
introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in
extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.
2. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: This dimension of Eysencks trait
theory

is

related

to

moodiness

versus

even-temperedness.

Neuroticism refers to an individuals tendency to become upset or

emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally
constant.
3. Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental
illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism
to his trait theory. Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have
difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-

Big five model

Both Cattells and Eysencks theory have been the
subject of considerable research, which has led some
theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many
traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a
new trait theory often referred to as the "Big Five"
theory emerged. This five-factor model of personality
represents five core traits that interact to form human
personality. Lewis Goldberg proposed a five-dimension
personality model, nicknamed the Big five.

Big five model

1. Openness to Experience: the tendency to be imaginative,
independent, and interested in variety vs. practical, conforming,
and interested in routine.
2. Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, careful, and
disciplined vs. disorganized, careless, and impulsive.
3. Extraversion: the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and
affectionate vs. retiring, somber, and reserved.
4. Agreeableness: the tendency to be soft-hearted, trusting, and
helpful vs. ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative.
5. Neuroticism: the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs.
anxious, insecure, and self-pitying.

HEXACO model
Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee , in 2008, proposed a
six dimensional HEXACO model of personality structure.
Ashton and Lee especially emphasize the HonestyHumility (H) factor as differentiating the HEXACO model
from other personality frameworks. Specifically, the H
factor is described as sincere, honest, faithful/loyal,
modest/unassuming, fair-minded, VERSUS sly, deceitful,
greedy,
pretentious,
hypocritical,
boastful
and
pompous. The H factor has been linked to criminal,
materialistic, power-seeking and unethical tendencies.

HEXACO model
1.

Honesty-Humility

2.

Emotionality

3. Extraversion
4.

Agreeableness

5.

Conscientiousness

6.

Openness to Experience .

and

Criticisms of trait theories

1. being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of
the underlying causes of personality
2. Lead some people to accept oversimplified classifications
3. Underestimate the effect of specific situations on people's
behavior.
4. Poor predictors of behavior.

Type theories

SAMANTH
A

SAM

Type
Type A
Choleric

Types Vs Traits
Personality type refers to the
psychological classification
of different types of people

Personality trait refers to

psychological classification
of different levels or degrees

For example, according to type theories, there are two types of people,
introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories, introversion and
extroversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in
the middle.

4 Temperament theory
Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four
humors theory. It may have origins in ancient Egypt or
Mesopotamia, but it was the Greek physician
Hippocrates (460370 BC) who developed it into a
medical theory. Next, Galen (AD 131200) developed
the first typology of temperament. The word
"temperament" itself comes from Latin "temperare", "to
mix". In the ideal personality, the complementary
characteristics or warm-cool and dry-moist were
exquisitely balanced.

Temperament theory
4 humors
Blood

4
Temperaments
Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable)

Yellow bile

Choleric

Black bile

Melancholic

Phlegm.

Phlegmatic

(ambitious and leader-like)

(introverted and thoughtful)

(relaxed and quiet)

Sanguine

Phlegmatic

(pleasure-seeking and
sociable)

(relaxed and quiet)

4 Temperaments

Melancholic
(introverted and thoughtful)

Choleric
(ambitious and leaderlike)

5 Temperament theory
Five temperaments is a theory in psychology, that expands upon
the Four Temperaments proposed in ancient medical theory. The
development of a theory of five temperaments begins with the
Two-factor models of personality and the work of the late
William Schultz, and his FIRO-B program. It is a measure of
interpersonal relations orientations that calculates a person's
behavior patterns based on the scoring of a questionnaire.
Although FIRO-B does not speak in terms of "temperament," this
system of analysis graded questionnaires on two scales in three
dimensions of interpersonal relations. When paired with

5 Temperament theory
4 humors
Blood

5
Temperaments
Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable)

Yellow bile

Choleric

Black bile

Melancholic

Phlegm.

Phlegmatic
Supine

(ambitious and leader-like)

(introverted and thoughtful)

(relaxed and quiet)

(Low self esteem)

Sanguine

Phlegmatic

(pleasure-seeking and
sociable)

(relaxed and quiet)

Supine
(Low Self esteem)

Melancholic
(introverted and thoughtful)

Choleric
(ambitious and leaderlike)

Type A and Type B theory

Type A personality behavior was first described as a
potential risk factor for heart disease in the 1950s by
cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. After
a ten-year study of healthy men between the ages of
35 and 59, Friedman and Rosenman estimated that
Type A behavior doubles the risk of coronary heart
disease in otherwise healthy individuals.[

Type A and Type B theory

Type A
Ambitious,

Type B
organized,

Live at a lower stress level and

highly status conscious, can be

typically work steadily, enjoying

sensitive, care for other people,

achievements but not becoming

are truthful, impatient, always try

stressed

to help others, take on more than

achieved.

they

handle,

when

they

When

are

faced

not
with

want

other

competition, they do not mind

the

point,

losing and either enjoy the game

proactive, and obsessed with time

or back down. They are often

management. People with Type A

reflective,

personalities

outer

people

can

rigidly

to

get

thinking

and

inner

about

the

often

high-

"workaholics"

who

Furthermore, Type B personalities

multi-task, push themselves with

may have a poor sense of time

achieving

are

to

worlds.

Type D theory
Type D personality, a concept used in the field of
medical psychology, is defined as the joint tendency
towards negative affectivity (e.g. worry, irritability,
gloom) and social inhibition (e.g. reticence and a lack
of self-assurance). The letter D stands for 'distressed'.
Johan Denollet, professor of Medical Psychology at
Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands, developed
the construct based on clinical observations in cardiac
patients, empirical evidence, and existing theories of
personality.

Type D theory
1. Individuals with a Type D personality have the tendency to
experience increased negative emotions across time and
situations and tend not to share these emotions with
others, because of fear of rejection or disapproval.
2. The prevalence of Type D personality is 21% in the general
population and ranges between 18 to 53% in cardiac
patients.
3.

Type D is associated with a 4-fold increased risk of

mortality, recurrent myocardial infarction (MI), or sudden
cardiac death, independently of traditional risk factors, such

Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

This was one of the more influential ideas originated in
the theoretical work of Carl Jung as published in the
book Psychological Types. The original developers of
the personality inventory were Katharine Cook Briggs
and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers. these two,
having studied extensively the work of Jung, turned
their interest of human behavior into a devotion of
turning the theory of psychological types to practical

Enneagram of Personality
The Enneagram of Personality (or simply the
Enneagram, from the Greek words ennea [nine] and
gramma [something written or drawn]) is a model of
human personality which is principally used as a
typology of nine interconnected personality types.
Principally developed by Oscar Ichazo and Claudio
Naranjo, it is also partly based on earlier teachings of
G. I. Gurdjieff. The typology defines nine personality
types which are represented by the points of a
geometric figure called an enneagram.

Enneagram of Personality

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from

Venus

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus is a book written by
American author, and relationship counsellor, John Gray. The
book asserts that most of common relationship problems
between men and women are a result of fundamental
differences between the genders, which the author exemplifies
by means of the book's eponymous metaphor: that men and
women are from distinct planets men from Mars and women
from Venus and that each gender is acclimated to its own
planet's society and customs, but not those of the other.

1.

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from

Venus
When
men are stressed, they withdraw until they find

solution to the problem. When women are stressed their

natural reaction is to talk about issues (even if talking does
not solve the problem).

Psychoanalytical Theories

Unconsciou Thoughts
Feelings
s

SAMANTH
A

SAM

Displaced Anger

Psychoanalytical Theories

Psychoanalytic theories explain human behaviour in terms of the

interaction of various components of personality.

Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school.

Freud drew on the physics of his day (thermodynamics) to coin
the term psycho-dynamics.

Based on the idea of converting heat into mechanical energy, he

proposed psychic energy could be converted into behaviour.

Freud's theory places central importance on dynamic,

unconscious psychological conflicts.

Structural model of personality

The founder of psychoanalytic theory was Sigmund
Freud. The term psychoanalysis is used to refer to
many aspects of Freuds work and research, including
Freudian therapy and the research methodology he
used to develop his theories. Freud relied heavily upon
his observations and case studies of his patients when
he formed his theory of personality development.

Structural model of personality

According to Freud the mind can be

ivided

into two main parts:

The

conscious

mind

includes

everything that we are aware of. This

is

the

aspect

of

our

mental

processing that we can think and talk

about rationally.

The unconscious mind is a reservoir

of

feelings,

memories

thoughts,
that

urges,

outside

of

and
our

conscious awareness. Most of the

contents

of

the

unconscious

are

unacceptable or unpleasant, such as

Stages of Psychosexual
According to Development
Sigmund Freud, personality is

mostly
established by the age of five. Early experiences play a
large role in personality development and continue to
influence behavior later in life. Freud's theory of
psychosexual development is one of the best known,
but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed
that personality develops through a series of childhood
stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of
the id become focused on certain erogenous areas.

Sigmund Freud defined

libido as the instinct
energy
or
force,
contained
in
what
Freud called the id, the
largely
unconscious
structure
of
the
psyche. Building on
the
work
of
Karl
Abraham,
Freud
developed the idea of
a
series
of
developmental phases

Structural model of personality

Defence Mechanisms
The term got its start in psychoanalytic therapy, but it has
slowly worked its way into everyday language. In Sigmund
Freud's topographical model of personality, the ego is the
aspect of personality that deals with reality. While doing this,
the ego also has to cope with the conflicting demands of the id
and the superego. The id seeks to fulfil all wants, needs and
impulses while the superego tries to get the ego to act in an
idealistic and moral manner. What happens when the ego
cannot deal with the demands of our desires, the constraints of

Defence Mechanisms
According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state that
people seek to avoid. Anxiety acts as a signal to the ego that
things are not going right. Frued identified three types of anxiety:

Neurotic anxiety is the unconscious worry that we will lose

control

of

the

id's

urges,

resulting

in

punishment

for

inappropriate behavior.

Reality anxiety is fear of real-world events. The cause of this

anxiety is usually easily identified. For example, a person
might fear receiving a dog bite when they are near a
menacing dog. The most common way of reducing this anxiety
is to avoid the threatening object.

Moral anxiety involves a fear of violating our own moral

principles.

Defence Mechanisms

Denial - Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize

that something has occurred or is currently occurring. Drug
addicts or alcoholics often deny that they have a problem,
while victims of traumatic events may deny that the event
ever occurred.

Repression - Repression acts to keep information out of

conscious awareness. However, these memories don't just
disappear; they continue to influence our behavior. For
example, a person who has repressed memories of abuse
suffered

as a

child may later have

difficulty

forming

relationships.

Suppression - Sometimes we do this consciously by forcing

the unwanted information out of our awareness, which is

Defence Mechanisms

Displacement

Displacement

involves

taking

out

our

frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects that

are less threatening. Displaced aggression is a common
example of this defense mechanism.

Sublimation - Sublimation is a defence mechanism that allows

us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these
behaviours into a more acceptable form. For example, a
person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick-boxing
as a means of venting frustration.

Projection - Projection is a defense mechanism that involves

taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and
ascribing them to other people. For example, if you have a
strong dislike for someone, you might instead believe that he

Defence Mechanisms

Intellectualization - Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety

by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way. For example, a
person who has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness
might focus on learning everything about the disease in order
to avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the
situation.

Rationalization - Rationalization is a defense mechanism that

involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a
rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the
behavior. For example a student might blame a poor exam
score on the instructor rather than his or her lack of
preparation.

Regression - When confronted by stressful events, people

sometimes abandon coping strategies and revert to patterns of

Criticisms

The theory is focused almost entirely on male development

with little mention of female psychosexual development.

His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such

as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore
cannot be tested.

Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a

current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood
experience? The length of time between the cause and the
effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship
between the two variables.

Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical

research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections
of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of

Behaviorist theories

SAMANTH
A

SAM

Learned
Behavior

Previous aggressive
behavior rewarded

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my

own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors.

--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930

Behaviourist Theories
a. Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of
learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning.
b. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and
B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during
the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral
techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help
clients learn new skills and behaviors.
c. The school of behaviorism emerged in the 1910s, led by John B.
Watson.
d. Unlike

psychodynamic

theorists,

behaviorists

study

only

observable behavior.
e. Their explanations of personality focus on learning.
f. Skinner, Bandura, and Walter Mischel all proposed important

Assumptions of behaviorism
1. Learning occurs through interactions with the
environment.
2. The environment shapes behavior and
3. Taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings
and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining
behavior.

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov

was a noted Russian physiologist who

went on to win the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work

studying digestive processes. It was while studying
digestion in dogs that Pavlov noted an interesting
occurrence his canine subjects would begin to
salivate whenever an assistant entered the room.

Classical Conditioning
1. The Unconditioned Stimulus - The unconditioned stimulus is
one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers
a response.
2. The Unconditioned Response - The unconditioned response is
the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to
the unconditioned stimulus.
3. The Conditioned Stimulus -

The conditioned stimulus is

previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated

with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a
conditioned response.
4. The Conditioned Response - The conditioned response is the
learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena

associated with classical conditioning.
1.

Acquisition - Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a

response is first established and gradually strengthened.

2.

Extinction - Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned

response decrease or disappear.

3.

Spontaneous

Recovery

Spontaneous

Recovery

is

the

reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or

period of lessened response.
4.

Stimulus Generalization - Stimulus Generalization is the

tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses
after the response has been conditioned.

5.

Discrimination - Discrimination is the ability to differentiate

between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning was coined by behaviourist B.F.
Skinner.

As

behaviorist,

Skinner

believed

that

internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to

explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should
look only at the external, observable causes of human
behavior.

"The consequences of behavior determine

the probability that the behavior will occur
again"
-B. F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning
1. Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior
that

operates

upon

the

environment

to

generate

consequences.
2.

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the

behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:
a. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that
are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect
positive

reinforcement,

response

or

behavior

is

strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise

or a direct reward.
b. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable
events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In
these situations, a response is strengthened by the

Operant Conditioning
1. Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an
adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:
a. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment
by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable
event or outcome in order to weaken the response it
follows.
b. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by
removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is
removed after a behavior occurs.

Operant Conditioning
1. In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important
component of the learning process. When and how often we reinforce
a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the
response.
a. Continuous Reinforcement - In continuous reinforcement, the
desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.
Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of
learning in order to create a strong association between the
behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached,
reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement
schedule.
b. Partial Reinforcement - In partial reinforcement, the response is
reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired
more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more

Operant Conditioning
There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:
1. Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only
after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high,
steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of
the reinforcer.
2. Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an
unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high
steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good
examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is
rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This
schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the
interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of
the reinforcer.

Techniques in behaviorism
Some of the techniques used by behavior analysts include:
1. Chaining: This behavior techniques involves breaking a task down into
smaller components. The simplest or first task in the process is taught
first. Once that task has been learned, the next task can be taught.
This continues until the entire sequence is successfully chained
together.
2. Prompting: This approach involves using some type of prompt to
trigger a desired response. This might involve issues a verbal cue,
such as telling the person what to do, or a visual cue, such as
displaying a picture designed to cue the response.
3. Shaping:

This

strategy

involves

gradually

altering

behavior,

Stages to behavioural change

Stages to behavioural change

Stages to behavioural change

Stages to behavioural change

Stages to behavioural change

Stages to behavioural change

Criticisms of behaviorism
1.

Behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human

behavior and that behavioural theories do not account for free will
and internal influences such as moods, thoughts and feelings.

2.

Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially

learning

that

occurs

without

the

use

of

reinforcement

and

punishment.
3.

People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new
information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has
been established through reinforcement.

4.

Behaviourist researchers often do animal studies of behavior and

then generalize their results to human beings. Generalizing results in
this way can be misleading, since humans have complex thought
processes that affect behavior.

5.

Behaviourists often underestimate the importance of biological

Social Learning theories

Only Little
girls

Little boys

All boys pushing

samantha

Social Learning theory

social learning theory was proposed by Neal E. Miller and John
Dollard in 1941. The proposition of social learning was expanded
upon and theorized by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura
from 1962 until the present. . Bandura provided his concept of
self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the traditional learning
theory for understanding learning.

Social Learning theory

1. Social learning theory, used in psychology, education, and
communication, posits that portions of an individual's knowledge
acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the
context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media
influences.
2.

In other words, people do not learn new behaviours solely by

trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the
survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the
actions of others.

3.

People learn by observing others, with the environment,

behavior, and cognition all as the chief factors in influencing
development. These three factors are not static or independent
elements; rather, they are all reciprocal

Concepts
The main tenets of Albert Banduras
theory are that:

people learn by observing others

the same set of stimuli may

provoke different responses from
different people, or from the
same people at different times

the

world

and

persons

behaviour are interlinked

Personality
between

is
three

an

interaction

factors:

the

environment, behaviour, and a

persons
processes.

psychological

Observational learning
Bandura proposed a four step conceptual scheme of the process
involved in observational learning:

Step 1: This first step incorporates the attention processes that are
involved including certain model characteristics which may increase
the likelihood of the behaviour being attended to.

Step 2: The second step refers to retention processes including the

observer's ability to encode, to remember and to make sense of
what has been observed.

Step 3: The third step refers to motor reproduction processes

including the capabilities that the observer has to perform the
behaviours being observed.

Step 4: The final step refers to motivational processes including

external

reinforcement,

vicarious

reinforcement,

and

self-

reinforcement. If a behaviour is to be imitated, an observer must be

Reciprocal Determinism

According

to

Bandura,

behaviour

is

influenced

by

multiple

determinants.

The concept of reciprocal determinism proposes that these factors

have an interactive effect on each other and that they exist in the
environment as well as within the individual in the form of affect,
cognition, and constitutional disposition.

External rewards and punishments, internal beliefs and expectancies

all form part of a complex system.

Consistent with the principles of systems, a change in one aspect

requires a change in all others so that balance and equilibrium can

Self Efficacy
Bandura used the term self-efficacy to refer to a person's belief that he
or she can successfully carry "courses of action required to deal with
prospective situations containing many ambiguous, unpredictable, and
often stressful elements. Among the sources of self-efficacy are:

performance accomplishments: Past experiences of success and

failure in attempts to accomplish goals are the most important
regulators of self-efficacy;

vicarious experience: When individuals witness others' successes

and failures, they are provided with information which they can use
as a basis for comparison for their own personal competence in
similar situations;

verbal persuasion: Being told by others that one can or cannot

competently perform a particular behaviour can lead to increases or
decreases in self-efficacy;

emotional arousal: Levels of self-efficacy are also proposed to be

Criticisms

Behaviour has been found to be more consistent than is argued by

Bandura's theory which focuses a great deal on the situation. Some
researchers have argued that the theory lacks attention to biological
or hormonal processes.

Probably of most significance is the criticism that the theory is not

unified. Concepts and processes such as observational learning and
self-efficacy have been highly researched but there has been little
explanation about the relationship among the concepts

Cognitive theories

Other boys getting

away with aggression

Perception
Memory
Thinking

She is
weak

Cognitive theories
1. The term "cognitive psychology" was first used in 1967 by
American psychologist Ulric Neisser in his book Cognitive
Psychology.
2. According to Neisser, cognition involves "all processes by which
the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored,
recovered, and used.
3. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in
the

absence

of

relevant

stimulation,

as

in

images

and

hallucinations.
4. Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is
involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that
every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon."

How is Cognitive Psychology Different?

1. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors,
cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental states.
2. Unlike psychoanalysis, which relies heavily on subjective
perceptions, cognitive psychology uses scientific research
methods to study mental processes.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. After receiving
his doctoral degree at age 22, Piaget formally began a career
that would have a profound impact on both psychology and
education. After working with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed
an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based
upon his observations, he concluded that children were not
less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.

Stages of Cognitive
Development

1.

Sensorimotor Stage - The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from

birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant
trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor
stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her
sensory perceptions and motor activities
2.
Preoperational Stage - The preoperational stage occurs roughly
between the ages two and seven. Language development is one
of the hallmarks of this period. During the preoperational stage,
children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as
evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending.
3. Concrete Operational Stage - The concrete operational stage
begins around age seven and continues until approximately age
eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of
mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about
concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or
hypothetical concepts.
4. Formal Operational Stage - The formal operational stage begins
at approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood. During
this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract

Key Concepts
1. Schemas

Schemas

are

categories of knowledge that

help

us

to

interpret

and

understand the world.

2.

Assimilation - The process of

taking in new information into
our

previously

existing

schema's,
3. Accommodation - Another part
of adaptation involves changing
or altering our existing schemas
in light of new information.
4.

Equilibration Mechanism by

Criticisms
1. Problems With Research Methods - A major source of
inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his
own three children. In addition to this, the other children in
Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated
professionals of high socioeconomic status. Because of this
unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize his
findings to a larger population.
2. Problems With Formal Operations - Research has disputed
Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move
to the next stage of development as they mature. Some
data suggests that environmental factors may play a role in
the development of formal operations.
3. Underestimates Children's Abilities - Most researchers agree
that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age
than Piaget suspected. Recent theory of mind research has
found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather
sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes
as well as those of other people. For example, children of
this age have some ability to take the perspective of another

General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a
concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor.
After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a
number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that
scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who
performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on
other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to
score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general

Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing
theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a
single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven
different "primary mental abilities

Primary Mental Abilities

Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary
mental abilities." The abilities that he described were:
1. Verbal comprehension
2. Reasoning
3. Perceptual speed
4. Numerical ability
5. Word fluency
6. Associative memory
7. Spatial visualization

Multiple Intelligences
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's
theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the
analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical
expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate
depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct
intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are
valued within different cultures

Multiple Intelligences
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:
1. Visual-spatial Intelligence
2. Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
3. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
4. Logical-mathematical Intelligence
5. Interpersonal Intelligence
6. Musical Intelligence
7. Intra personal Intelligence
8. Naturalistic Intelligence

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental
activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and
shaping of, real-world environments relevant to ones life."
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader
than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of
Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg

proposed

what

he

refers

to

as

'successful

intelligence,' which is comprised of three different factors:

1. Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problemsolving abilities.
2. Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves
the ability to deal with new situations using past
experiences and current skills.
3. Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to
adapt to a changing environment.

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Gestalt psychology was founded by German thinkers Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka and focused on how people interpret
the world. The Gestalt perspective formed partially as a response to
the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt, who focused on breaking down
mental events and experiences to the smallest elements. Max
Wertheimer noted that rapid sequences of perceptual events, such as
rows of flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when there is
none. This is known as the phi phenomenon

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Humanistic theories

As matures, finds ways of

enhancing his self without
hurting others

Quest for
personal
competence
Achieveme
nt

Self
Esteem

Humanistic Theories
1. In humanistic psychology it is emphasized people have free
will and they play an active role in determining how they
behave.
2. Humanistic psychologists try to see peoples lives as those
people would see them. They tend to have an optimistic
perspective on human nature
3. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective
experiences of persons as opposed to forced, definitive
factors that determine behavior.
4.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were proponents of

Humanistic Theories
The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of
concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three
components:

Self worth what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed

feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were
formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and
father.

Self-image How we see ourselves, which is important to good

psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our
body image on inner personality.

Ideal self This is the person who we would like to be. It

consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic
i.e. forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the

Hierarchy of needs
Psychologist Abraham Maslow first introduced his concept of
a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human
Motivation"

and

his

subsequent

Personality.

This

hierarchy

book

suggests

Motivation

that

people

and
are

motivated to fulfil basic needs before moving on to other,

more advanced needs.

Person centered theory

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist agreed
with most of what Maslow believed, but added that for a person
to "grow", they need an environment that provides them with
genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being
seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being
listened to and understood).

Person centered theory

Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person:

Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted.

Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through

Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life,

avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully
appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to
the future

Trust feelings: feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to

and trusted. Peoples own decisions are the right ones and we should
trust ourselves to make the right choices.

Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of a persons

life. Person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to
adjust and change and seek new experiences.

Fulfilled life: person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking

You are different

Stop hiding behind the

mask

Dont
confuse
yourself
with the
mask

Drop the mask

Be
yourself..

Prepared By

Manu Melwin Joy

Assistant Professor

lahia School of Management Studies

Kerala, India.
Phone 9744551114

Mail manu_melwinjoy@yahoo.com

Thank you