Research Methodology
Research Methodology
Research Methodology
vddf
1-2
MEANING
Research is an endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the application of scientific method. Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge -Redman and Mory.
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
1-3
Meaning of Research
Systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge (Chambers 20th Century Dictionary)
It refers to a systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts ,analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions.
1-4
Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of scientific procedures. The objectives are: To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it Exploratory or Formulative Research. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group Descriptive Research. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else Diagnostic Research. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables Hypothesis-Testing Research.
1-5
Characteristics of Research
Research is directed towards the solution of a problem. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence. Research demands accurate observation and description. Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing data for a new purpose. Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures. Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation, search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered. Research is objective and logical applying every possible test to validate the data collected and conclusions reached. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems. Research requires courage. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
1-6
Wheel of Research
Improvement in theory and problem solving Interpretations and conclusions Observation and literature review
Problem Clarification
Data Analysis
Research Design
1-7
Research Methods :All the methods and techniques which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his/her research problem.
Research Methods
1-8
It may be stated as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. It involves not only the techniques and methods of research but also the logic behind it. It helps in designing the research
1-9
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Science refers to the body of systematic and organised knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire knowledge in a particular field of enquiry. Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts) and their theoretical treatment through proper observation, experimentation and interpretation.
Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation, and logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.
1-10
It relies on empirical evidence. It utilizes relevant concepts. It is committed to only objective considerations. It presupposes ethical neutrality. It results into probabilistic predictions. The methodology is made known. Aims at formulating scientific theories.
1-11
1-12
1-13
1-14
1-15
Provides the basis for all government policies in our economic system.
1-16
Helps social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. For students, research means a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.
1-17
For philosophers and thinkers, research means the outlet for new ideas and insights. For literary men and women, research means development of new styles and creative work. For analysts and intellectuals, research means generalizations of new theories.
1-18
PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
Not similar to science Uncontrollable variables Human tendencies Time and money Lack of computerization Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research Insufficient interaction between university research departments and business establishments Lack of confidence on the part of business units to give information
1-19
Contd
Poor library management and functioning Lack of code of conduct Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance Difficulty of timely availability of published data. Ignorance Research for the sake of research-limited practical utility though they may use high sounding business jargon.
1-20
Decision-making is the process of selecting the best alternative from the available set of alternatives. Management is chiefly concerned with decision-making and its implementation. These decisions should be based on appropriate studies, evaluations and observations. Research provides us with knowledge and skills needed to solve the problems and to meet the challenges of a fast paced decision-making environment.
1-21
1-22
INTERNAL FACTORS factors present inside an organisation such as resources, technology, trade unions, cash flow, manpower etc. EXTERNAL FACTORS factors present outside the organisation such as government policies, political factors, socio-economic factors, legal framework, geographic and cultural factors etc. QUANTITATIVE FACTORS factors that can be measured in quantities such as time, resources, cost factors etc.
1-23
QUALITATIVE FACTORS factors that cannot be measured in quantities such as organizational cohesiveness, sense of belonging of employees, risk of technological change etc. UNCERTAINITY FACTORS factors which cannot be predicted.
1-24
Types of Research
Descriptive vs Analytical Research
Descriptive Research is a fact finding investigation which is aimed at describing the characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or) describing the state of affairs as it exists at present.
Analytical Research is primarily concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or information already available.
1-25
1-26
1-27
1-28
1-29
Historical Research It is the study of past records and other information sources, with a view to find the origin and development of a phenomenon and to discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand the present and to anticipate the future.
1-30
RESEARCH PROCESS
Review the literature
Review Concepts And theories Review Previous Research findings
FF FF
Analyse Data (Test Hypothesis if any)
Formulate hypothesis
F V
F VII
III
IV
VI
II
1-31
STEP-1
1-32
Research Problem
What is a research problem? The term problem means a question or issue to be examined. Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
1-33
Customer complaints Conversation with company employees Observation of inappropriate behaviour or conditions in the firm Deviation from the business plan Success of the firms competitors Relevant reading of published material (trends, regulations) Company records and reports.
1-34
Step -1 contd
The first step in the research process definition of the problem involves two activities:
1-35
This step involves identification of a few problems and selection of one out of them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain selection criteria. Sources of Problems
Reading Academic Experience Daily Experience Exposure to Field Situations Consultations Brainstorming Research Intuition
1-36
Criteria of Selection
The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria. They are:
Internal / Personal criteria Researchers Interest, Researchers Competence, Researchers own Resource: finance and time. External Criteria or Factors Researchability of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research Personnel.
1-37
Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas into research questions and objectives. Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic/idea into a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying exactly what the research problem is. Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear, precise and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.
1-38
Statement of the problem in a general way. Understanding the nature of problem Surveying the available literature Developing ideas through discussions Rephrasing the research problem
1-39
Clear and Unambiguous Empirical Verifiable Interesting Novel and Original Availability of Guidance
1-40
Symptom Detection
Problem Definition
Statement of Research Objectives
1-41
Research Objectives are the specific components of the research problem, that youll be working to answer or complete, in order to answer the overall research problem. - Churchill, 2001 The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through the study. They indicate what we are trying to get from the study or the expected results / outcome of the study. Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they directly assist in answering the research problem. The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements or questions. Generally, they are written as statements, using the word to. (For example, to discover , to determine , to establish , etc. )
1-42
STEP-2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1-43
Review of Literature
Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher. The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those that need further investigation. It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of investigation. It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of study and how they have done so.
1-44
Purpose of Review
To gain a background knowledge of the research topic. To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to formulate researchable hypothesis. To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis. To identify data sources used by other researchers. To learn how others structured their reports.
1-45
1-46
Sources of Literature
Books and Journals Electronic Databases Bibliographic Databases Abstract Databases Full-Text Databases Govt. and Industry Reports Internet Research Dissertations / Thesis
1-47
There are several ways of presenting the ideas of others within the body of the paper. For Example; If you are referring the major influencing factors in the Sheths model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,
1. 2.
Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a number of influencing factors .. According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors..
1-48
In some models of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973). In some models of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors1.
1.
4.
Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.
1-49
Read relevant literature. Refer original works. Read with comprehension. Read in time. Index the literature.
1-50
STEP-3
FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
1-51
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement.
Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the theoretical framework formulated for the research study.
1-52
VARIABLES
Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable. A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc. Note: The values can differ at various times for the same object or person (or) at the same time for different objects or persons.
1-53
Variable / Attribute
A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).
For example; The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes Male and Female. The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.
1-54
Types of Variables
Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable are extraneous. Dependent vs Independent Variable The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another variable(s) is called dependent variable. The variable whose change results in the change in another variable is called an independent variable. OR An independent variable is the one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way.
1-55
HYPOTHESIS
Research
Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent variable and one dependent variable.
1-56
HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis
are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem. Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study. Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study. It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.
1-57
problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A problem can be scientifically investigated after converting it into a form of hypothesis.
1-58
Characteristics of Hypothesis
Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise. Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.
1-59
Characteristics of Hypothesis
Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms. Objectivity - It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any moral preaching.
Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a substantial body of established or known facts or existing theory.
Availability of Techniques Statistical methods should be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.
1-60
Sources of Hypothesis
Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
trends, peculiarities.
Review of similar studies. Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.
1-61
Types of Hypothesis
Descriptive Hypothesis
These are assumptions that describe the characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event.
Examples:
1-62
Types of Hypothesis
Descriptive Hypothesis
These are assumptions that describe the characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event.
Examples:
1-63
Types of Hypothesis
Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis] These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative or causal relationship.
Examples: Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation.
Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the dependent variable.
1-64
Types of Hypothesis
NULL Hypothesis When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null hypothesis. It is a no difference, no relationship hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the parameter and statistic being compared to or no relationship exists between the variables being compared. It is usually represented as HO or H0 .
Examples: H0: There is no relationship between a familys income and expenditure on recreation..
1-65
Types of Hypothesis
Alternate Hypothesis It is the hypothesis that describes the researchers prediction that, there exist a relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1.
Examples:
familys income
1-66
1-67
STEP-4
1-68
The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research purpose may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
1-69
Survey A group is questioned to reveal specific facts about themselves. Can be interviews, computer based, or face to face. Participant observation Researchers entering into a groups activities and observing the members. Experiment - investigation in which the variables being studied are controlled and the researcher obtains the results through precise observation and measurement. Secondary Analysis - process of making use of data that has been collected by others.
1-70
All the items under consideration in any field constitute a Universe or Population A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a census enquiry Since a complete census enquiry is not possible generally, we select a sample a few items from the universe for our study Researcher selects the sample by using sampling design a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected
1-71
Types of Sampling
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.
9.
Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Stratified Sampling Cluster/area Sampling Multi-stage Sampling Quota Sampling Convenience Sampling Judgmental Sampling Snowball Sampling
1-72
STEP-5
COLLECTION OF DATA
1-73
Need to collect appropriate data Primary data can be collected through experiment or survey In experiment, observer observes some quantitative measurements (data), with which the hypothesis is tested In Survey, data can be collected by the following methods:
i.
ii.
iii. iv. v.
1-74
The research study must be executed in a systematic manner to ensure that adequate and dependable data are collected. Should be rigorously methodological
1-75
STEP-6
ANALYSIS OF DATA
1-76
8. Analysis of Data
Requires that the data be necessarily condensed into manageable groups and tables for further analyses Should classify the new data into some purposeful and usable categories Coding is done at this stage Tabulation classified data are put into tables Analysis, after tabulation is based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc. by applying statistics Tests of significance would be applied wherever relevant
1-77
Hypothesis Testing
Do the data support the hypothesis or they contrary? Chi Square test, t-test, f-test are normally used Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it
1-78
STEP-7
1-79
To arrive at a generalization, that is, to build a theory Or to interpret the data in terms of existing state of knowledge (theories)
1-80
Preparation of Report/Thesis
1-81
1-82
1-83
1-84
The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly defined. The process to be clearly explained so that it can be reproduced and verified by other researchers. A thoroughly planned design that is as objective as possible. Highly ethical standards are applied. All limitations are documented. Data be adequately analyzed and explained. All findings are presented unambiguously and all conclusions be justified by sufficient evidence.
1-85
THANK YOU