“The First European”: The

Brilliance and Controversy of

Emperor Frederick II

Anthony Rosado

Dr. Katherine Allocco

HIS 508 Readings in Europe to 1500

4th December 2018

 The island of Sicily was the staging ground for a number of cultural and faith

based clashes since antiquity; by the time Italy had been forged as a united nation, the

island had seen occupation and incursion by various groups. In 1194, Constance de

Hauteville deposed her relative William III with the aid of her husband Henry VI, the

Holy Roman Emperor.1 Their son Frederick II would inherit not only the throne of Sicily

but would also be anointed Holy Roman Emperor after a series of conflicts and

disputes. Frederick II’s decades long reign centered in Sicily was to become something

of an enigma, and the character and demeanor of Frederick II himself was a shock to all

those around him. Friedrich Nietzsche referred to Frederick II as being “the first

European”, a title that he also says could be claimed by “perhaps Leonardo da Vinci.” 2

He was beloved by his Sicilian subjects yet treated with disdain and suspicion by the

German barons and the Pope, who labeled Frederick II the antichrist despite him

winning the city of Jerusalem for Christendom. Frederick II was known as stupor mundi

(the wonder of the world)3 for profoundly shattering the stereotype of the archetypical

medieval ruler.

Prior to Frederick II’s birth, his father Henry VI was involved in a struggle with a

number of enemies to maintain his position as emperor. Having fought in the campaigns

of his famed crusader father Frederick “Barbarossa”, Henry VI and his father pursued a

Hohenstaufen control of Italy; this was directly opposed by the Papal States and the

1
Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 1996), 62

2
Friedrich Nietzche. Beyond Good and Evil: Unabridged Edition (Dover Publications. 1997), 200
3
Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 1996), 63
coalition the pope supported known as the Lombard League. 4 By the time Henry VI

succeeded his father after his death while on crusade,5 he faced a number of

adversaries against his rule. His luck was renewed with the capture of Richard the

Lionheart by Henry IV’s ally Duke Leopold of Austria on his return from the Holy Land 6;

Richard had supported the coalition against Henry and with his capture, he was forced

to swear his allegiance to Henry IV as a vassal. He was also required to pay a massive

ransom in silver for his release (which would later bankrupt England and lead to the

Barons’ Wars.) With a renewed treasury and his enemies stymied in their plans, Henry

IV pressed his wife’s claim for Sicily. On Christmas Day in 1194, Henry IV and

Constance were crowned as co-rulers of Sicily after defeating the young William III de

Hauteville (Constance’s relative.) The day after Henry IV’s coronation, his wife

Constance gave birth to their only son Frederick II. The omens and questions of

legitimacy surrounding Frederick II began from the onset of his birth: his mother was

forty years old when she gave birth to him, and it was said that she gave birth in a public

market in order to prevent anyone from doubting Frederick II’s parentage because of

her perceived old age.7 The events surrounding this joining between the houses of

Hohenstaufen and Hauteville was made even more complicated by Henry IV’s death in

1197.8 Fearing for the safety of her only child, Constance had Frederick II returned to

her court at Sicily; she then attempted to renounce her son’s claim to the Holy Roman

4
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 8
5
Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 1996), 61
6
Ibid,, 62
7
Ibid,, 63
8
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 25
Empire and ensure Sicily’s independence once more. 9 Her attempted maneuvering was

left incomplete however, as she would die the year after her husband's death.10

The future of Sicily and Germany was unclear, and it was unknown if Henry IV’s

infant son was the proper choice for the imperial throne. In Germany, the nobles feuded

over whom would be the next emperor, with Philip Hohenstaufen (the youngest son of

Frederick “Barbarossa”) and Otto IV Welf the two candidates that were put forward.11

The papacy supported the Welfs in their pursuit of the imperial throne, stemming from a

land dispute with the Hohenstaufens who ruled adjacent Tuscany. 12 Despite being a

ward of Pope Innocent III, Innocent wanted to ensure the Papal States were not

surrounded by Hohenstaufen lands, and as such wanted to ensure Philip did not

succeed in his ploy, and that young Frederick II did not unite Sicily and Germany under

any circumstances.13 With the murder of Philip, Otto IV was anointed Holy Roman

Emperor, promising the pope extensive power in the German church hierarchy and to

remain out of Italian politics.14 These promises made to the papacy of dominant

authority in any religious dealings in the Holy Roman Empire would be a catalyst for

conflict much later on when Frederick II began to consolidate his rule. In fact, they

would be disregarded even sooner, as Otto IV soon forsook his promises made to Pope

Innocent III and invaded Italy, intending to reclaim the concessions made as well as
9
Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 1996), 63
10
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 26
11
-Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, King of
Sicily and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015),20
12
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 34
13
Ibid,, 35
14
Ibid,, 39
bring an end to the Concordat of Worms, which had retained papal authority over

German church decisions for nearly a century.15 Otto’s ambition and deceit led to his

excommunication by the Pope in 1210,16 and in turn a number of German lords rose up

against his rule after being faced with the possibility of interdict. Encouraged by the

pope (despite his dislike of the Hohenstaufens) and by King Philip Augustus of France,

the eighteen-year old Frederick II was declared the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope

Innocent III.17 In order to agree to such an arrangement, Innocent demanded

assurances that any agreements made prior to Frederick’ IIs ascension would remain

valid, and that Frederick II was susceptible to being deposed at any time if he earned

the pope’s disfavor. With Innocent’s blessing Frederick II embarked on a great journey

to the lands of his father and grandfather, in order to secure his place as Holy Roman

Emperor. In the words of Lionel Alshorn, a starry-eyed youth like Frederick II would not

have been able to resist the lure of adventure and glory that such an endeavor brought-

“What youth of gallant spirits and royal ambitions could turn a deaf ear to the
invitation which was laid before Frederick at his court of Palermo? Here were high
adventure and romantic effort, perilous journeyings and a great prize for goal. The soft
arms of his wife, who pleaded with him not to leave her and her babe for so dangerous
a quest, the discouragement of the Sicilian nobles who had no love for Germany and no
desire to see their Kingdom become a mere appanage of the German Crown, were
powerless to combat the allurements of the new enterprise. High destiny called
Frederick to the throne of the Cæsars, and with a stout heart but a scanty following he
started on his journey northwards in the March of 1212.”18

15
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita. Popes, kings, and endogenous institutions: the Concordat of Worms and
the origins of sovereignty. (International Studies Review, (2000)
16
Ernest F. Henderson. A History of Germany in the Middle Ages (Independent Publisher, 2017), 334

17
Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 1996), 64

18
Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, King of
Sicily and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015), 29
Frederick II’s ambitions throughout his reign could not be quelled or suppressed by

outside forces, and he would let no man or monarch stop him in his pursuit of whatever

attracted his attention at any given time.

Departing from Rome, Frederick II pushed on through Genoa and northern Italy,

having to evade anti-papal forces and lords still loyal to Otto IV; he on more than one

occasion had to travel at night in order to evade enemies.19 This epic adventure crossed

into Bavaria, where Frederick II learned that Otto IV had heard of his plans and was

swiftly advancing north to consolidate his forces. Leading a daring march through

treacherous mountain terrain, Frederick II arrived at the city of Constance a mere three

hours before Otto, and won the support of the Bishop of Constance.20 Frederick II’s

remaining journey north was a triumphant one, with his supporters flocking to his side

and leading him to his coronation at Mainz on December 9th, 1212.21 Despite this,

Frederick II lacked support in northern Germany, where Otto IV and his supporters fled

in order to prepare for a prolonged conflict. After forging an alliance with France,

Frederick II settled into the Hagenau Castle in Alsace, which was the ancestral home of

his father’s dynasty. In addition to this clear attempt to link himself with his celebrated

ancestors, Frederick II was said to enjoy this location for its bountiful hunting grounds

and its well established library22; both of these activities would earn him great renown

and respect in his later years as ruler. Although Otto IV was still threatening Frederick

19
Ibid,, 30
20
Ibid,, 31-32
21
Gwendolyn Smithson. The Statecraft of Frederick II: A Struggle for the Italian Peninsula (2018),
Location 35/391
22
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 52
II’s newly established power base (and in fact still held the imperial regalia), his fortunes

came to an end while supporting King John of England in his war against Frederick II’s

newfound French allies; the Battle of Bouvines led to the dispersal of his forces and a

massive loss of face.23 Disregarding his former adversary, Frederick II did not continue

in his pursuit of Otto, who died in 1218 “comforting his soul with a semblance of the

Imperial dignity he had lost and surrounded by a little Court who still hailed him as

Emperor.”24

With his primary opponent relegated to die in obscurity, Frederick II’s rule

seemed to be secured at long last. In order to further solidify his reign and to connect

himself with his illustrious predecessors, Frederick II captured the city of Aix-la-Chapelle

(or Aachen) from Welf loyalists; the city was said to be the favored city of the Frankish

emperor Charlemagne.25 He was there formally crowned as King of the Romans, sitting

in the same throne occupied by Charlemagne some four centuries prior. Barely out of

his twenties, the young and ambitious ruler could no doubt finally feel a sense of relief at

having totally secured his reign, and was able to now connect himself not only to

Charlemagne, but by extension the Roman emperors whom they both claimed to be the

successors of. This bold move would need to be backed by even bolder actions, and in

the midst of a terrible conflict enveloping Christians across Europe, Frederick II made a

23
Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge:Cambridge University
Press. 1996), 64

24
Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, King of
Sicily and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015), 35
25
Ibid,, 35
pledge that would “involve him in many troubles years later.”26 In order to maintain

continued support of the pope as well as to set a pious example for his potentially

distrustful new subjects, Frederick II made a vow to take the Cross and lead a crusader

army to the Levant, in order to reclaim Jerusalem. Frederick II was undertaking a costly

and time consuming endeavor, and his preparation for the crusade would coincide with

his attempts to bring order and stability to this large portion of Europe that he presumed

to rule.

“It was taken, however, by a young man of twenty, under the influence of a
mental exaltation, and each year as it went by brought fresh tasks to be performed,
which must take precedence of this chivalrous enterprise. He had to restore peace and
order in Germany, to secure and confirm the loyalty of his new subjects, and to ensure
the succession of his son to the dignities which death might wrest from himself when he
should embark upon this perilous war against the Infidel. After Germany there was Italy
to demand his attention.”27

Far too concerned with pursuing this ambition before considering the ramifications of it,

it was this brash and borderline egotistical aspect of his personality which would come

to dominate his later decision making. His attempts to fulfill both of these obligations

would prove to be highly difficult, even for someone as ambitious and capable as

Frederick II.

Frederick II’s plans for a crusade would experience a number of interruptions as

he attempted to rule his two kingdoms. Returning home to Sicily in 1120, Frederick II

learned from his wife and regent Constance that a number of local lords had taken his

absence as an opportunity to reassert their rights and to reclaim royal lands that had

26
Ibid,,35
27
Ibid,,36
been seized since the death of the last Norman kings. 28 He implemented the Assizes of

Capua that year, which led to a number of privileges given to the crown to be

scrutinized. This way, Frederick II had a legal basis to seize lands from those he

deemed disloyal, and to give it to his supporters.29 One year after his arrival, Frederick II

experienced a great personal tragedy with the death of his wife Constance. Of all the

wives that Frederick II had in his life, it was Constance whom he bestowed upon the

most responsibility and respect, and he grieved for some time after her burial.30 Despite

this there was still much work to do, and Frederick II would have to carry on without the

support of his faithful and able wife. Facing a possible revolt by Muslim guerillas,

Frederick II rounded up the numerous Muslims of the island and had them transported

to Lucera, in southern Italy. Instead of butchering or forcibly converting them as most

contemporary rulers would have, Frederick II isolated them to one settlement and for

the most part left them to their own devices, too concerned with readying for the

crusade to fight an internal war or forcibly convert the thousands. Despite Lucera

intending to be a forced settlement project, the city flourished and Frederick II even built

a palace there.31 As he was taking these steps, a crusader expedition to seize Egypt

had failed horribly, in part because of the lack of assistance that the crusaders were

expecting from Frederick II.32 In turn, Frederick II and Pope Honorius III met in 122333 in

order to ensure that the crusade would still proceed, and that Frederick II would be

28
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 62
29
Ibid,,62
30
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 65

31
Ibid,,67
32
Ibid,, 69-70
33
Ibid,, 69
taking a leading role in it as he had claimed at his coronation. In order to further this

agreement, Frederick II accepted his role as leader of the crusade, but would only do so

as the King of Jerusalem. To do this, Pope Honorius arranged a marriage between

Frederick II and Isabella II, the Queen of Jerusalem. Still despite this union Frederick II

delayed, and Honorius died in 122734, the fate of the crusade still uncertain.

The election of Honorius’ successor Gregory IX in 1227 was the start of a

spiritual dispute that would persist for the remainder of Frederick II’s reign. There had

been some members of the clergy who had felt that Honorius was far too lenient

towards Frederick II, and this may have been true given that a juvenile Frederick II was

Honorius’ ward before the latter ascended to the papacy.35 Pope Gregory IX again

reminded Frederick II of his obligations, and Frederick II once more promised to act

immediately. However, the reformation of the Lombard League in northern Italy forced

Frederick II to delay further. In order to secure their support for the crusade, Frederick II

and the Cardinal of Porto agreed to recognize the League as legitimate in exchange for

support for the crusade, and now Frederick II faced the same opponents that had

defeated his grandfather decades earlier.36 A deadline was established by Gregory, and

if Frederick II had still not embarked by September of 1227, he would be

excommunicated.37 Around this time, Frederick II reached out to the Sultan al-Kamil,

34
Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, King of
Sicily and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015), 56

35
Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge:Cambridge University
Press. 1996), 62
36
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 8
37
Ibid,, 76
who held Jerusalem at this time.38 Using his diplomatic skill and his peculiar affinity (at

least by European standards of the time) for Islamic cultures, Frederick II formed an

agreement with al-Kamil, who would gladly hand over Jerusalem and other settlements

without a fight so long as the crusaders respected the rights of the Muslims living within

the cities to be handed over.39 Before he could depart to meet with the sultan, Frederick

II became ill from a disease that had ravaged his military camps.40 He sent word to

Gregory IX informing him of the situation and promising to depart once he and his men

had recovered, but by this point the pope had seen the numerous excuses Frederick II

had made, and took this as an opportunity to remove the Hohenstaufen threat. By the

end of September Pope Gregory IX had Frederick II excommunicated, separating him

from the Catholic faith. Regardless of his status in the church, Frederick II was still

determined to negotiate for Jerusalem, and without the pope’s blessing he departed in

June of 1228.41 Frederick II’s success in securing Jerusalem may have been a profound

accomplishment considering a total lack of bloodshed, but Gregory was still adamant

about Frederick II’s excommunication. Until Gregory IX’s death in 1241, the two feuded

on and off not only in regard to religious disputes, but secular conflicts stemming from

the Sicilian lands in southern Italy as well.42

38
Ibid,, 76
39
Ibid,, 83-84
40
Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, King of Sicily
and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015), 59-60

41
Gwendolyn Smithson. The Statecraft of Frederick II: A Struggle for the Italian Peninsula (2018)
Location 74/391
42
Ibid,, Location 140/391
 During his reign one of Frederick II’s main goals was to reform the Kingdom of

Sicily (which consisted of the island itself and modern day Naples) into a more

centralized entity. To do this, he would have to regain the subservience of the local

lords and landowners, who had become unruly after a period of autonomy in the wake

of the ever changing regencies. Attempting to exert his legal right to dominion over

Calabria, Frederick II was said to have been slighted by local barons who he then had

arrested and executed; this lead a number of dissidents within the realm to flock to Otto

IV’s banner.43 Although he would succeed against Otto as mentioned above, it would

represent the beginning of a tense relationship with the individuals Frederick II

presumed to rule, and the extent he was willing to go to enforce is legal standing.

Frederick II was also quick to punish those who attempted to stand in his way. After the

Milanese had supported Otto IV, Frederick II had to carefully evade them on his way

north to claim his throne. In return for this treachery, Frederick II had an Imperial Ban

placed on the city.44 This ban prohibited Milan and its inhabitants from presenting

grievances to the emperor, and essentially made the city a target for other Imperial

Estates who were in Frederick II’s good graces. A key piece of legislature formulated by

Frederick II would not only attempt to cement his absolute rule, but would also shape

Sicilian law for hundreds of years to follow. In 1231 Frederick II and his councilors

drafted a continuation Assizes of Capua known as the Constitutions of Melfi (also

commonly referred to as the Liber Augustalis). This work was an attempted reform of

policies put in place by Frederick II’s Norman ancestors, who had drafted the work after

43
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 41

44
Ibid,, 60
their conquests of southern Italy.45 Frederick II presented himself as an emperor who

was issuing the decrees, but this was only done to give it further authority as the Liber

Augustalis was only intended to regulate his Sicilian domain. The legal code first and

foremost stated that Frederick II’s power and right to rule were bestowed upon him by

God, and therefore he needed no intermediary when dealing with any religious affairs.

After his recent dispute with the pope, to attempt to discredit him and diminish his

influence in Sicily was quite bold. The church as a whole was weakened as well, as the

priests and bishops were now subject to the decisions of the courts.46

There are two sections of the Liber Augustalis in particular which are of interest

to historians, stating the rights ands statuses of religious minorities in Sicily. While

Christian heretics were regarded as treasonous,47 Jews and Muslims (often referred to

as Saracens) on the island were to be presented with the right to initiate legal suits, and

the Sicilian courts were obligated to hear any grievances they made. Frederick II did not

only bolster their own rights, but ensured that people of any ethnicity living in Sicily were

to be treated on an equal basis, in the very least on legal terms.

“Thus we desire that all our subjects should know, under the terms of this law,
that we, who weigh on our scales each individual's right to justice, insist that no
distinction shall be made between persons in the judgment of the courts: justice is to be
administered with equal force for each person, be he a Frank, a Roman, or a Lombard,
be he plaintiff or defendant.”48

45
Ernest F. Henderson. A History of Germany in the Middle Ages (Independent Publisher, 2017), 368
46
Gwendolyn Smithson. The Statecraft of Frederick II: A Struggle for the Italian Peninsula (2018)
Location 140/391
47
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 62
48
Ibid,, 95
Such a position was no doubt unusual in the age fraught with religious conflict and

warfare, made even more strange by the fact that the former King of Jerusalem was

pursuing such policies in his own homeland. In response to the anger caused by his

overhaul of the bureaucracy in Sicily, Frederick II amassed a standing army of loyal

“Saracens” in the event that the local barons revolted against his decrees 49; Frederick II

even had Muslims serving in his royal bodyguard due to their trustworthiness.50 Here,

Frederick II demonstrates one of the most well-known and reviled aspects of his

personality. Frederick II, as a whole, favored individuals for their merit rather than the

holy books they read from or the ethnic groups they claimed to belong to. He was

known to invite Jews to his court in order to translate works, and he had a number of

Arabic translations of Aristotle Ptolemy at his court.51 Although Frederick II did not have

many Muslims at his court proper, he did maintain correspondence with Muslim

scholars in the east. He maintained his friendly diplomatic relations with al-Kamil, the

Sultan with whom he negotiated the handover of Jerusalem. Frederick II was also said

to participate in a scholarly activity that existed only in the Muslim world.

‘There was a diplomatic tradition at this time in Muslim circles of sending

intellectual questions to prominent scholars in other realms. Frederick II played this
game with vigor, the only Christian monarch known to have participated. He sent these
questions to learned men in Ceuta, Damascus, and Yemen.’52

Frederick II himself was also known to be fluent in Arabic,53 another rare trait for a

medieval Christian ruler. When Frederick II left for the Sixth Crusade, a number of

49
James M Powel. The Liber Augustalis, or Constitutions of Melfi Promulgated By the Emperor
Frederick II for the Kingdom of Sicily in 1231. (Syracuse University Press, 1971)
50
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 114
51
Ibid, 113
52
Ibid, 114
53
Ibid,, 28
Muslim soldiers were in his retinue. Much to the anger of the priests and bishops

accompanying the army, Frederick II allowed these men to freely pray while on route to

the Levant,54 which was no doubt a shocking decision given the purpose of the army

they marched in.

While Frederick II’s desire for learning was not entirely rare amongst monarchs of

his time period, his insatiable pursuit of knowledge was what contributed to his being

called stupor mundi. Frederick II’s curiosity in understanding the natural and spiritual

worlds was an additional catalyst for his disputes with the pope. In fact, his refusal to

adhere to church doctrine and his refusal to recognize the authority of the papacy led to

at least two excommunications55 56, and to Pope Innocent IV to refer to Frederick II as

the Antichrist.57 Frederick II greatly supported the liberal arts and natural sciences, and

founded the University of Naples in 1224.58 But support of them went far beyond the

role of a benefactor and patron. Outside of history, Frederick II is famous and esteemed

as one of the most accomplished falconers to ever have lived, and his book on the

subject De arte venandi cum avibus (On the Art of Hunting with Birds) is still used today

by enthusiasts of the sport.59 The book is filled with observations and experiments

54
Ibid,, 81
55
Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 1996), 64
56
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010), 149
57
Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, King of
Sicily and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015), 123

58
Ibid,, 85-86
59
Meera Subramanian. The art and culture of hunting with birds. (2011) Web article,
https://bidoun.org/articles/inglorious-bustards
conducted by Frederick II himself, and also translations from Arabic works which he had

collected in his personal library. When ordered to become a subject of the Mongol Batu

Khan, Frederick II himself had joked that he would make a good falconer at the Khan’s

court.60 Frederick II also supported the establishment of the Sicilian School of poetry,

which was one of the first formulated organizations to utilize and Italo-Romance

language, predating Italian by some decades.61 Frederick II conducted a number of

various experiments in order to test natural and spiritual phenomena, often partaking in

the experiments personally to observe their results- “ He fed two men most excellently

at dinner, one of whom he sent forthwith to sleep, and the other to hunt; and that same

evening he caused them to be disembowelled in his presence, wishing to know which

had digested the better: and it was judged by the physicians in favor of him who had

slept.”62 Frederick II’s curiosity was also not limited to observations he made on people

and within his lands, he also had a number of notable astrologists at his court whom he

consulted with, further provoking the ire of the clergy.63

Frederick II was as clever and ambitious as he was stubborn and controversial.

As the self-proclaimed the successor of Rome, Frederick II bestowed upon himself the

highest honors and set himself upon a path of glory and enlightenment. Despite his

60
Albericus Trium Fontium, Monumenta, scriptores, xxiii. 943.
61
Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, King of
Sicily and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015), 90

62
-Fordham University, Medieval Sourcebook: Salimbene: On Frederick II, 13th Century.
https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/salimbene1.asp

63
Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, King of
Sicily and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015), 101-102
many accomplishments, he could not successfully prepare his heirs to continue along

this path; the Hohenstaufen dynasty would not outlive Frederick II’s legacy. Sicily itself

would retain a fond memory of this truly enigmatic ruler, and over the years Frederick

II’s greatness became nothing short of myth. In the interregnum that followed his heir

Conrad’s death, a myth had started that Frederick II had not died, but in fact had retired

to a mountaintop. After many years, he would wake from his sleep and reform the great

empire he had once established.64 To have such a legend to be made about a person in

such a short time after their death, when there were still people who could attest to his

accomplishments and personality, is a clear indication that Frederick II was truly the

wonder of the world he lived in.

64
Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing LLC.
2010) 188-189
 Bibliography

Books and Journals-

-Albericus Trium Fontium, Monumenta.

-BruceBueno de Mesquita. Popes, kings, and endogenous institutions: the Concordat

of Worms and the origins of sovereignty. (International Studies Review, (2000)

Ernest F. Henderson. A History of Germany in the Middle Ages (Independent Publisher,

2017)

-Friedrich Nietzsche. Beyond Good and Evil: Unabridged Edition (Dover Publications.
1997)

-Gwendolyn Smithson. The Statecraft of Frederick II: A Struggle for the Italian Peninsula
(2018) Ebook format only

-Lionel Allshorn. Stupor Mundi: The Life and Times of Frederick II, Emperor of the
Romans, King of Sicily and Jerusalem (Perennial Press. 2015)

-Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. 1996)

-Peter Wende. A History of Germany (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. 2005)

-Richard Bressler. Frederick II, The Wonder of the World (Pennsylvania: Westholme
Publishing LLC. 2010)

Web Sources
-Fordham University, Medieval Sourcebook: Salimbene: On Frederick II, 13th Century.
https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/salimbene1.asp

- Meera Subramanian The art and culture of hunting with birds. (2011) Web article,
https://bidoun.org/articles/inglorious-bustards