Birds of The World (Colins) PDF
Birds of The World (Colins) PDF
Birds of The World (Colins) PDF
I.'-lrctrated by
D.{\'ID NURNEY
lOH)i SILL
FR.\\K KNIGHT
3RIAN SMALL
F{. DOUGLAS PRATT
rOHN GALE
D.{\'ID BEADLE
DI.{NE PIERCE
D.\\ LANE
loHN o'NEILL
\OR}TAN ARLOTT
{ Collins
O zoo6 Les Beletsky
All rights reserved. Published zoo6
Printed in China on acid-free paper
9 8 7 6 513 2 r
zoog zoo8 zooT zoo6
HupcrCollins Publishcrs
77-85 Fulham Palace Road
London
w6 81n
Preprrrcd by
Scott clc NLx, Inc.
r5o West z8th Street
Suite rro3
New York, New York rooor-6ro4
www.scottandnLx.com
ISBN-ro o oo 724236 o
Raguins 2I NewWorldQrail 87
Raguins 2I NewWorldQrail 87
Owls 17r
Lyrebirds;Scrub-birds 265
Nightjars 175
Bowerbirds 269
AI CONTENTS
23 ',\-:" nlsu-allows 309 Babblers; Rockfowl 397
5j Palmchat 339
WoodWarblers 443
CONTENTS ,7)
tt
Preface
:,-r rrild animals, often in the guise of wild bird sightings, may also help
PREFACE ,x
This book is an introduction to the birds of the world. It is to let birders
and others know"what else is out there,"in terms ofbird families and species,
and where, generally, these birds are located.It is not an encyclopedia of
ornithology, nor is it a catalog of or visual guide to all the world's bird species.
The main text,which tells aboutbird families,provides the essentials about
bird groups,but only a small fraction ofthe rich and extensive information
now available about the general ecology and behavior ofa substantial
proportion of the world's birds. And the illustration plates provide field-
guide-like images of a good sampling of species-more than thirteen
hundred total- found in each avian family. But ifthis book's introduction to
the world's birds sufficiently raises one's interest level, then there are myriad
other books that can further that interest, including bird encyclopedias,
country-by-country field guides, and even volumes devoted to single
bird families.
Many books ofthis kind offer, as an introduction, a primer of ornithology,
defining the characteristics ofbirds and telling generallv of their ecology and
behavior. Instead, in keeping with the "birds of the world" emphasis, at the
end of the book I discuss two basic, interrelated questions: how many types
of birds are there? and where do birds occur geographical\'? Also, because
bird diversityis increasinglvjeopardized,I discuss some ofthe major threats
faced bybirds.
My hope for this book is that it stimulates some readers rvho have only a
mild interest in birds orwildlife to further that interest and perhaps become
frequent or serious wildlife watchers, and that it propels some newer birders,
who have the time and resources, to begin exploring the world's birds-not
just in the pages of books, but in the field.
PREFACE
ers
tes,
.1,-I n o'c'ledgme nts
of
res.
)ut
on
ial
rd-
en
rto
ird
t1S,
qle
ACKNowLEDGMENTS xi
Introduction
' Birds are mainly d ay - actrve animalsl like most of us, they are
out and about during daylight hours and asleep at night. Many
other kinds of large animals-especially mammals-are more
active at night,which makes finding and observing them much
more difficult.
INTRODUCTION
do not always depart with all due haste after being spotted,
as is common with most other types ofvertebrate animals.
Their abiliry to fly, and thus easily evade our grasp, permits
many birds when confronted with people to leisurely go about
their business (albeit keeping one eye on us at all times), often
allowing extensive time to watch them.
' 3::c. ere innocuous. Typically the worst that can happen
::, :r anv encounter is a soiled shirt. Contrast that with
: - -close, potentially dangerous meetings with certain
:.::i1es (r,enomous snakes, crocodiles), amphibians (frogs
.:-; silamanders with toxic skin secretions), fish (shark
j,rqers), and mammals (bears or big cats).While it is true
::-.jr an Ostrich or cassowary can injure with a swift kick, such
:,1-irging encounters are extremely rareinthe wild. Safety
-: doubtedly contributes to birds being the most frequently
',,. :rched wildlife.
I NT RODUCTI ON
GENERAL PLAN OF THE BOOK
AND TERMS USED IN THE TEXT
Introductory Comments
Classf.cation
I NT RODUCTION
pH y L u M : Chordata, Subphylum Vertebrata, with more than
47,ooo sPecies
- - ,., itt,
es and
rching
I- = '.,,.-.rds diperse and dioersity areused in different ways in various scientific
..- : :=;hnical fields. Here, a diverse group, such as a diverse family, means one
These
,,- relatively high number of species. Thus, the loon family (Gaviidae),
:-. .
rde all
-obins,
,, global total of5 species, is not very diverse; the duck, geese, and swan
- : --
=
: Seflne
- *-,
--r' -\natidae), with 47 species, has a high degree of diversity. Diversiry
,, .-..:- -ised in this context, is similar to the term biodiversity,whrchrefers
refCent
- :- : Jifferent types of animals, plants, and other life forms found within
alf the
. A group or family that is "ecologicaliy diverse" is one that exhibits
r : .--,r o .
, about jitTerent
have a
- .:', adaptations to the environments inwhich its members occur.
lratory
- : .:.tance, an ecologically diverse groupr such as the jay and crow family
i more -- :-,-idae), might occur in several different habitat types, eat various types
:': , ,Js, and employ a variety of foraging methods.
ds and
\\'hen I provide a definite number of species in a given family, such as
:rs, and '---.::: J.re ro species of motmotsi'I mean there are ro living species;recently
,'-eight
: -:-:-.t species are not included in these totals. Often I do not give exact
e ratlte
- -::.ie rs of species; instead I give approximations, such as "there are about
counts
: - :':ecies in the jay and crow family." For reasons I detail in the book s
rirds.
arlingr
- ..:luding essay, exact species numbers are sometimes problematic.
pe and
sPecles
refe afe
riversal
I NT RODUCTI ON
Distribution
ie these sections I describe some ofwhat is known about the basic activities
: rrsued by each group. Much of the information relates to the habitat qpes
:nvironments) the birds occupy,when and where the birds are usually active,
-,r'hat they eat, and how they forage.Arboreal birds pursue life and food in
::ees or shrubs; terrestrial ones pursue life and food on the ground.Whether
:irds tend to stay in social groups is also noted.
INTRODIICTION
Breeding Behaaior
Conseruation Status
'each
rctors
pecies
ations
'ee on
lowed
tirds of
a bird
brmal
INTRODUCTION
.( . l.
OSTRICH
Slt rlhto tnnc/Lrs
6; ro6 5 in (r7o z7o cnr)
Africa
,- srRrcH, EMU, cAS sowARIos, and RHEAs are huge flightless Distribution:
outh Anterica, A.fi'ica,
:::ds mainly relegated to the Southern Hemisphere. K I w I s are smaller S
ralia/Neu;
1l u.;/ G u in ea,
:::htless birds ofNew Zealard.Together, these birds comprise the world's Netr Zealand
::r species of ratites, birds with flat, raftlike (ratite) sternums. Other birds
No oJ Liring
-:.:.r'e sternums with deep keels, upon which the breast flight muscles attach Speties: to
:::ink of the deep keel to which attaches the main portion ofwhite meat in
No oJ'Spccics
: rckens and turkeys).The ratites, flightless birds that run along the ground, Vulncrable,
---.r-e no need of thick, powerful flight muscles, so have no keel. Biologists Dndangarcd:5, o
:elieve that Ostrich, Emu, cassowaries, and rheas lost their ability to fly No. oJ-Species Dxtinct
r€ c aus e they followed an evolutio nary p athw ay to become very large, which Sintc t6oo: z
-.0..:.s
beneficial for them; with their long legs, great weight, and sometimes
'i{ressive natures, they could run rapidly and defend themselves. But as
:::ev evolved to be larger, flying became more and more difficult and was
-e . s needed to escape predators; eventually it was lost. As for New Zealand's
-ru'is and some other flightless birds, such as some island-dwelling pigeons
:rd rails, they rrray have lost the power of flight because they evolved in
',1'hat were essentially predator-free zones, where large, powerful wings and
st and . :---:r vegetation, fruit, seeds, flowers, and insects, and occur alone, in pairs,
t.7 m) : -:- groups of four to nine. A typical day in the life of Emus consists
'mall
:r (5.6 : ==rlr- morning foraging, followed in late morning by a slow amble toward
black i .\'::er source, feeding as they go. Afternoons are also spent foraging, but
males .: . .lorver pace; in hot weather, parts of afternoons are spent in tree shade.
OCCUT
I :. -rs, rvhich can move along at a quite respectable 3o miles per hour (48
entral !::- \l-hen they are in a hurry, are considered nomadic wanderers, at least in
other . ::--e of their populations. Having no real territories, they are very mobile,
flight : - rs'ing food availability. Populations in western Australia are known to
body. - -.'e over distances of 3oo+ miles (5oo+ km) in a year. These birds are very
,teady ---:'- rus and sometimes approach or even follow people. Aboriginal people
r hour
many : -:
j'. attention by waving objects or flashing it with a mirror, then spear it
, their ' --.n it approached.
rvhich -\tier mating, a female Emu lays eggs in a nest of twigs and crushed
:ckfor :.::lation in a depression on the ground, then departs; she may later mate
)ne,ln "--:-- other males.The male incubates the eggs and, after hatching, the male
-e,
and - .:=. tbr the young for up to ayear or more by leading them and, when they
C near .:= .nall,brooding them at night in his feathers.
Enus didwell in Australia until European colonization.Theywere killed
rically '::r abandon by early settlers for their meat and oil (for lamps), and their
Ll nest, : r-.> \r'ere collected and eaten. (They were eliminated in Tasmania by the
1s. The -: j-nineteenth century.) Later, farmers killed them because the birds ate
br-the -=1r crops. However, Emus survived and eventually even benefited to a
rtched : : <::e e from development, because, with new sources of open water provided
)strich -', irmers and ranchers, they could occupy many semiarid regions in the
loss to -::-:er of Australia that previously had been closed to them. Emus are now
r 1s not -::-mon,buttheyarestillpersecutedinagriculturalareasforbreakingfences
rlmost .:- j raiding crops.They are farmed in Australia and some other countries for
valued :- -:rr leather, oil, feathers, and low-cholesterol meat.
to large, secretive, flightless brown birds. They are now so much a part of
the New Zealatd national consciousness that New Zealanders traveling
overseas refer to themselves as Kiwis. The three l<rwis (kizai is sometimes
_:;*
LI1'TLE TINATIOI]
UNDULATED TINAMOU
Cryt2ttrdlus soui
Crylterr/lu: tndu/alur
9 in (23 cu)
rzin(3ocrn)
South Amer ica, Cen n aJ Arnericrt, Nl exico
South Aner ica
Tinamous
TINAMou s are secretive, usually elusive, chickenlike birds that are Di.;/ rih u/ io n.
occasionally seen walking along forest trails in Central and South America. Ntotrofics
They apparently represent an ancient group ofbirds, most closely related to No o.l'l,iring
rhe rheas of South America,large, fightless birds in the Ostrich mold.The Sptrit:r. ohout q.y
TI NA MOUS t9
attired in understated, protective colors such as browns, grays, and olives and
are often marked with dark spots or bars. Males and females look alike, with
females being slightly larger.
Tinamous inhabit avariety of environments, including grasslands and
thickets, but most commonly they are forest birds. Except during breeding,
they lead a solitary existence.They are among the most terrestriat of birds,
foragrng,breeding, and usually sleeping on the ground (some larger forest
species roost in trees). Very poor flyers, they take fight onlywhen alarmed
bypredators or surprised, and then only for short distances; their main form
of locomotion is running.The tinamou diet consists chiefly of fruit and
seeds,but they also take insects such as caterpillars,beetles, and ants, and
occasionally, small vertebrates such as mice. Some South American species
dig to feed on roots and termites.Tinamous avoid being eaten themselves
primarily by staying still, easily blending in with surrounding vegetation,
and bywalking slowly and cautiously.If approached closely, tinamous will
fy upward in a burst of loud wing-beating and fy, usually less than r5o feet
(+5
-), to a new hiding spot in the undergrowth, often colJiding with trees
and branches as they go.
Unusual mating systems are characteristic oftinamous, the most intriguing
ofwhich is a kind of group polyandry (one female mates with several males
during a breeding season). One or more females will mate with a male and
lay clutches of eggs in the same nest for the male to incubate and care for.
The females then move on to repeat the process with other males of their
choosing.Apparentlyin all tinamous the male incubates the eggs and defends
the young. Nests are simple indentations in the ground, hidden in a thicket or
at the base of a tree. F'rom hatching, the young feed themselves.
Outside of protected areas, all tinamous are hunted extensively for food.
Tinamou meat is considered tender and tasry albeit a bit strange-looking; it has
been described variously as greenish and transparent. Still, tinamous'cryptic
coloring and secretive behavior must serve the birds well because, although
hunted, many species still maintain healthy populations. Some are known to
be able to move readily from old, uncut forest to secondary, recently cut forest,
demonstrating an adaptability that should allow these birds to thrive even amid
major habitat alterations such as deforestation. Currently five South American
species are considered vulnerable.Two others, Colombia's MagdalenaTinamou
and Peru's Kalinowski's Tinamou, are critically endangered and,with no recent
sightings, are most likely extinct.
:lves
:10n, pE NGUI N s have some paradoxical relationships with people.With their D itl ri h tr tion
will :nique shape, black and white coloring, and the adoption of their image into Artturtlic, Soulhtrtt
HLn i;lhtrt
feet :opular culture, penguins are among the most widely recognizable types of
:rees rirds, along with ducks, parrots, pigeons, and some others. However, they No ot'I-i''ittg
Slttias't7
rre relatively rarely seen in the wild; close encounters are usually limited
ulng :o zoos. This is because penguins'natural home is the remote cooler waters No of'Sp,:cir:s
hr/rt arahl,:,
rales .rt the southern oceans.The majority of species breed in Antarctic or sub-
Enrlongeretl: 7,.1
and -\ntarctic regions-areas unpopulated or only lightly visited by humans.
No. oJ'Speci cs Ex t i tt t t
: for. -\nother powerful penguin paradox is that we know them best for their land Sirtc,: t6oo.' o
:heir ictivities,theiroft-photographed densebreedingcolonies and their awkward
ends rsaddling walk. But the majoriry of the penguins'lives are spent at sea; they
et or .;.re superbly graceful, streamlined swimming and diving ocean animals,
essentially "flying"underwater, behavior that is increasingly appreciated by
bod. reople atzoos and aquariums equipped with glass-walled penguin tanks.
t has The onlylocation people regularly encounter penguins face to face in the sea
iptic :. in the Galipagos Islands,where fortunate tourists, entering the equatorial
rugh Pacific to snorkel or dive, are sometimes approached by the small, inquisitive
,'n to Galdpagos Penguin, the world's northernmost species.
)rest, The seventeen penguin species (family Spheniscidae) are restricted to the
rmid Southern Hemisphere.The largest species, the Emperor, stands 3 feet (r m)
:lcan :ell; the smallest, the Little, only 16 inches (4o cm). All are flightless and use
mou :heir highly modified wings (flippers) for propulsion underwater.These wings
:cent ere unique in that, unlike in other birds, the bones are fused together and the
rvings cannot be folded. Penguin feet are placed far back on the body, and
PENGUINS 2I
their toes are webbed.The feet are used for steering and braking underwater
and for clambering up steep and slippery slopes when going ashore. Penguins
are well adapted to cold, having short overlapping feathers (that actually
look more like large scales than proper feathers) for waterproofing, a I ayer of
down, and beneath the skin, a thick layer of insulating fat.
Most species are highly social, great numbers of individuals foraging
together at sea and breeding in colonies (a few, such as the Little Penguin,
often feed alone).They eat fish, squid, and crustaceans (often shrimplike
krill),which are captured in their strong, sharp bills after underwater pursuit.
Their mouths are lined with rear-facing spines that help them hold onto
and swallow slippery,wigglingprey. Some large species in the Antarctic can
dive to depths of nearly 9oo feet (r7S and stay under for almost twenty
^)
minutes; smaller penguins stay under for briefer periods and dive only to
about zoo feet (6o m). Larger marine predators such as KillerWhales and
Leopard Seals include penguins in their diets. Penguins are monogamous;
they nest in burrows or natural cavities such as holes under rocks; two species,
King and Emperor Penguins, make no nest.
Some penguins receive more attention than others because they are
sometimes encountered bv or, indeed, marketed to, tourists and bird-watchers.
These include the Galdpagos Penguin; the Jackass Penguin, endemic to the
coast of southern Africa and named for its strange braving call; New Zealand's
endemic Yellow-eyed Penguin; the four Antarctic species (Adelie, E,mperor,
Chinstrap, and Gentoo),larger penguins whose breeding colonies are often
destinations for nature tours; and the Little Penguin, endemic to Australia and
New Zealand, mainly because of the famous "Penguin Parade" on southeast
Australia's Phillip Island,
daily event in which tourists line up to watch the
a
penguins emerge from the ocean and waddle to their nearby burrows.
Many penguins are secure, with several species, including Magellanic,
Macaroni, Royal, Chinstrap, Rockhopper, King, and Adelie Penguins, having
total populations of more than a million individuals. However, seven species
are considered rulnerable owing to declining or already small populations.
Three others are endangered, due to highly restricted ranges and, for two of
them, tiny populations: the Erect-crested Penguin, which breeds only on
two small islands offNew Zealand; the Yellow-eyed Penguin,which breeds
only over small areas of New Zealand and has a population of fewer than
five thousand; and the Galfpagos Penguin, which is down to between fwo
thousand and five thousand individuals.
;lng
uin,
like
'uit. IIUIIBOLDT PENCUI^.- LTTTLE PE^-CUIN
,nto SphLniseut buntboldti ninor
Eud.yptula
are
INI}I
lers.
the
nd's
tror,
Iten
and
e ast
the SOCKHOPPER PENGUIN ADELIE PENGUIN YELLO!V-EYED PEN_GUIN
I ) t,l.y,ptes chry otome Plgottelis adeliat Megddyptet anti?ode\
:: ;-:.1 5 in (S;-62 crn) :8 in (7r cm) 26-lo in (66-76 cm)
. ut]rcrn ocearts r\n rarctica Nerv Zealand
ntc,
'rng
cles
) ns.
rof
'on
'eds
hrrn
nvo
COIIN]ON LOON
Cni,ia intnet
lz in (8r crn)
North Aroeric,t, Europe
Loons (Divers)
F
L o o N s, considered by many bird enthusiasts to be the earth's most beautiful Di';tribution:
waterbirds, are divers specialized for life spent foraging underwater.Their
a North temptratc tnd
Arc/ic regions
elegant black and white patterned plumage makes them a favorite subject of
wildlife artists and photographers. But loons are best known for inhabiting No o.l'Liting
Spctic.r:5
waters of the far north and for their loud,long, haunting vocalizations
given during breeding seasons, often at night, from otherwise quiet lakes No ol'Sperias
Vu / nerabla,
of northern New England, northern Minnesota, Canada, and Alaska.The Endan,qered: o, o
five loon species, called divers in Europe, comprise family Gaviidae (placed
No of Speciat Extinct
in its own order, Gaviiformes). They breed across the northern reaches of Si ncc r6oo: o
Eurasia and North America and winter as far south as the temperate waters
offMexico, Florida, Spain, and China.
Large and heavily built,loons range in length from zt to 36 inches (53
to 9r cm) and weigh up to 13 pounds (6 kg).Although bulky, their bodies
are streamlined, facilitating speedy swimming.They have thick necks,long,
sharply pointed bills, relatively small wings, short tails, and short legs.Their
feet are modified for underwater propulsion, set far back on the body and with
webbed toes. AII have dark bills (except the Yellow-billed Loon) and reddish
eyes.They have bright, contrasting breeding plumage and dull, brown to black
nonbreeding plumage. Like many animals that pursue prey underwater, they
are countershaded, dark above and light below.With light coming from
above, the back of a countershaded animal is illuminated and the underside
shadowed, causing them to blend in with the water, thus rendering them
harder for prey to detect. Being specialized for living on and under the water
LooNS (orvens) 25
makes life in the terrestrial world difficult for loons. Because of the structure
of their legs and feet, they essentiallv cannot walk; thev move about on land,
when necessary,by messily hopping and flopping about. (The word loon may
come from an old Scandinavian word meaning "clumsy.")
Loons spend much of theiryear on saltwater, mostly in coastal areas and
bays,where the surface remains unfrozen in winter; theybreed on freshwater.
Loons are amazingly fast and accomplished underwater swimmers, where
they pursue and capture fast-moving fish. Most fish are captured 5 to 30
feet (z to ro m) down. Loons disappear below the surface with a thrust of
their powerful feet and typically reappear far away.When in deeper water,
they typicallyjump into the air at the beginning of a dive, to provide added
momentum.In addition to fish, they sometimes eat crustaceans, mollusks,
frogs, and even occasionally some plant material. Small fish are swallowed
underwater; larger ones and spiny ones are brought to the surface to be
disabled and positioned advantageously prior to swallowing. Outside the
breeding season, loons gather to feed and roost in flocks ofhundreds or
even thousands. They are strong fliers. Sometimes they nest on fishless
lakes, so parents must make continual flights to other lakes to find food for
themselves and their young.
Loons are monogamous and usually pair for life. Mates may remain
together during winter or, if separated, typically reunite for the next breeding
season when they encounter one another at their breeding lake. They
have elaborate courtship behaviors, pairs displaying in flight and moving
synchronously on or under the water. Nests are piles of aquatic vegetation
on the water or at its edge. Pairs share in nest building, egg incubation, and
feeding young,which are provisioned until they are able to fly.These large
birds consume a lot of fish; one estimate is that a rypical pair and their two
chicks consume about a ton (9oo kg) of fish during the r5-week breeding
season. Eventually the young follow the adults in migration from breeding
lakes to the ocean.
None of the loons are currently considered at risk. However, wildlife
conservationists worry about them because their preferred habitat of remote,
little-disturbed northern lakes is likely to be reduced in the future, as people
penetrate ever deeper into wilderness regions. Loons are also very susceptible
to water pollution. Large numbers ofYellow-billed Loons, for instance, were
killed duringAlaska's 1989 Eto<on Valdezoil spill.
GREBES 27
WHITE-TUETDD GREBE GREAT CRES]'ED GREBE
Podieps chilentis Podire2s tiiatut
9 5-r4in (24 36 cm) 18 zj 5 ir (46 6o cm)
Sourh Anrerica Eurasia, Afiica, Australia
GREBES 29
;-niT #
WAVED ALBAl'ROSS B I.AC K- FOOl' ED A t-BA1' ROSS
Dioncdea irrorata Diomcdn nigriptr
33 5-36 5 in (85-qj cnr) z7-u 9 in ((r8 74 cnr)
Peci6c rvarers ofl northero Sourh Anrcrica Norrhern Prcific
S IIORT.]';\ ILE D AI.BA I RoSS \1'AN I)ER] NC ALBA f ROSS BI,ACK BRO\\ ED ALBATROSS
Diomedu tlbatrut Diott.Llca cntlanr D io tt tl ea nt t h n o ph r.v s
Lords of the ocean skies and the globe's largest seabirds, a r B AT R o s s E s Distrihution:
Southern oceans,
are among the world's most respected birds. Sailors have long venerated
nortbern Pacific
these huge soaring birds (historically because they believed albatrosses
No. of Liting
contained the souls of lost comrades), and many cultures frown on killing
Speties: r4
them, perhaps in awe of their ar.rrazirrg flight capabilities. Albatrosses
No. of Species
are included in the seabird order Procellariiformes along with the other
Vulnerahle,
"rubenosed seabirds," the shearwaters, petrels, and storm-petrels. A11 lead
Endungered: B, r
a pelagic existence; except for island nesting, they spend their entire lives at
No oJ'Specier Extinct
sea. (Most stay far from continents, so seeing them requires an ocean cruise Since 16oo: o
or a visit to remote islands.)They are called tube-nosed because their nostrils
emerge through tubes on the top or sides of their distinctly hooked upper
bil1s (see p.33). FamilyDiomedeidae contains the fourteen albatross species,
distributed over the world's southern oceans and the northern Pacific.They
with very longwings and long, hear.ybills.The largest is
are large, heal,y birds
the Wandering Albatross, about 3.5 feet (r.r m) long,with a wingspan to rr.5
teet Q.5 m).Most albatrosses have pale orwhitish heads andunderparts but
dark tails and wing-tops;faces can be gray,white, oryellowish.Two species
are mainly a chocolate brown color.
Albatrosses feed, either solitarily or in small groups, and often at night,
on fish, squid, and other invertebrates (crabs, krill) near the surface. Larger
species sit on the water and seize prey in their bills; smaller, more agile
species also seize prey from the surface while flying. Flying involves a tyPe
of nonflapping flight known as dynamic soaring,which takes advantage of
ALBATROSSES 3r
strong winds blowing across the ocean's surface. This efficient but peculiar
flight takes them in huge loops from high above the ocean,where the wind
is fastest, down toward the surface,where friction slows the wind, and then
up into the faster wind again to give them lift for the next loop-a kind
of roller-coaster flight that requires virtually no wing flapping. Albatross
wings are so long and narrow that these birds literally need wind to help
them fly, and on absolutely calm days (which,luckily, are rare on the open
ocean) they must wait out windless hours sitting on the sea's surface.To take
flight in windy conditions they need only spread theirwings, and the wind
provides sufficient lift to make them airborne. But in lowwinds, they must
face into the wind (like an airplane taking off) and make a takeoffrun; at
island breeding colonies, often there are actual runways, long, clear paths
on the islands'windier sides, usually on slopes, alongwhich they make their
downhill takeoff runs. Albatrosses are nicknamed "gooney birds"because
they are awkrarard on land and often make untidy takeoffs and landings.
Monogamous breeders, most albatrosses apparently mate for life. On
their remote breeding islands they engage in elaborate courtship dances in
which male and female face each other, flick their wings, bounce their heads
up and down, and clack their bills together. Nests are scrapes on the bare
ground sometimes surrounded byvegetation and pebbles. Male and female
alternately incubate eggs and brood young.The other adult flies out to sea,
sometimes for days, and searches for food. When it returns, it feeds the
chick regurgitated fish, squid, and stomach oil. When the chick's demand
for food becomes overwhelming, both adults leave it for long periods as they
search vast areas of ocean for enough food. A nestling albatross, at times,
can actually weigh more than its parents. They take 5 to 7 years to mature,
staying at sea during this period before finally returning to their birthplace
to breed. Many do not breed until they are Z to 9 years old; some live more
than 4o years.
Because they cannot become airborne readily from land, albatrosses are
easy victims for humans and introduced predators. During the r8oos and
early rgoos they were widely killed for their feathers, and entire breeding
colonies were destroyed. Currently eight species are considered mlnerable,
and one, the Amsterdam Albatross, is endangered;it has a population of
only about one hundred and breeds on a single Indian Ocean island.
(.,:,
Pacific u,aters offSoulh America Pacific witers oft Sourh Ailcrica Northern Prcific
legs than the closely related petrels and shearwaters. Like other tubenoses, No. oJ'S2ecies Extintt
they are often dark above and lighter below,with colors limited to black, Since r6oo: t
sToRM-PETRELS; DrvrNG-PETRELS 37
crustaceans, but also squid and small fish. Although occasionally making
shallow dives from the air, the classic storm-petrel feeding method is to
pluck prey from the surface of the sea while using their wings to flutter and
hover,with their legs dangling, just above the water. Some species actually
patter their feet along the water's surface, the tiny splashes or the act of
dragging their feet in the water perhaps aiding their feeding in some way.
To people, the pattering often makes it look like the birds are trying to walk
on the water, and this may point to the origin of the wordp etre/'. the Greek
word ?etras and the tr'rench word peterelle refer to the biblical disciple Peteq
who tried to walkonwater. Storm-petrels, alongwith other tubenoses,have
perhaps the best developed sense of smell of any birds (probably related to
the long tubular nostrils).Theyuse this ability to locate nest sites and young
when returning from extended foraging trips and probably use it to locate
some types offood.
Storm-petrels are hole- or burrow-nesters that breed monogamously
I)irt rihtrtion
Sr, tt 1 /lc t tt o, ttt tt t,
in colonies of a few dozenpairs to tens of thousands.The burrow or cavity
ur t i rt /.y', i ri tr nt lo/l t is reused each year by the same pair. To reduce predation by day-active
t\o of Lit.:irtp
predators such as gulls, skuas, and raptors, adults ofall but one species visit
Spttitr I breeding colonies only at night.The single chick is fed a partially digested
No ,tl S?,'tits paste of small fish and crustaceans, eventually growing to outweigh its
14r/nLtthlt, parents. One night,when it is 7 to rr weeks old, it leaves the nest burrow,flies
litr,/turyl L,/. ,t, t out to sea, and probably does not return to land for z to 4 years, when first
No ol 51,,';i1s Jia1i11s1 ready to breed.
Sitttt r(tc',o-rL Because of their often restricted nesting sites on small islands and
r,ulnerability to predators during nesting, some storm-petrels are at risk.
One, the Polynesian Storm-petrel, with a small population, is considered
r,n-rlnerable. Mexico's Guadalupe Storm-petrel, owing mainly to predation
by feral cats on its nesting island, recently became extinct.
DI vI NG- P E T R E t-s, familv Pelecanoididae, are four species of small,
stocky, tube-nosed seabirds that use theirwings like paddles, penguinlike, to
feed on planktonic crustaceans underwater.Th"y have a pouch under their
tongues in which they store food to eat later or to bring back to their young
at the nest. Diving-petrels occur over the southern oceans. One species,
the Peruvian Diving-petrel, which breeds on four small islands off South
America's western coast, is endangered.
of F'rigatebirds
'zy.
alk
:ek
ter,
lVe
Ito
lng
ate
Lnd :re air or on the sea), and webbed feet. They range from z8 to 59 inches long
isk. -o to ro5 cm; about half ofwhich is tail streamer) and have wingspans of
red :bout 3.3 feet (r m). Frigatebirds are very large soaring birds (28 to 45 inches,
ion -o to rr4 cm,long), black or black and white, with huge pointed wings that
:ran up to 6.5 feet (z m) and long forked tails. Males have large red throat
rall, :ouches that they inflate, balloonlike, during courtship displays.
l,to Tropicbirds are often seen flying alone or in pairs over the ocean or
reir :ear shore, or inland circling in valleys and canyons.They eat fish, squid,
rn8 they obtain by flying high over the water, spotting
"nd crustaceans,which
ies, :ood, hovering a bit, then plunging into the water to catch the meal.They
uth :rrelv feed within sight of land, preferring the open ocean.They travel far
ind rvide on oceanic winds; for instance, individuals banded in Hawaii have
'reen spotted at sea
5,ooo miles (8,ooo km) away.Tiopicbirds do alight on
TROPICBIRDS; FRIGATEBIRDS 39
RED-H] t,LEI) IROPICts] RD RI]D 1'AI I ED'f ROIICBI ItD
P/:tr/hor att/:,rtn I)/,att/:on t tth i,ttt,l,t
l; i-.tr S i[ (9o ]oi.rrr) 3r 5 in (So crn)
I'roprcrl ocerrs 'l'ropicrl J'jrrci6c enJ lnJirn Occans
,
\\ [lt u- fl]l Ftr) rRoPtcBtRD
l)hulhon /tpltrr ttt
r:i lriiu(;o-s:crn)
'l r opic.rl oceirns
-- ::iqatebirds, in trees or shrubs. Both nest on bare ground ifpreferred sites are
..ravailable, and both are monogamous, mated males and females sharing
::. nest building, incubation, and feeding young. Frigatebirds exhibit some
- : the longest-duration parental care among seabirds, with some parents
-:e ding theiryoung at the breeding colonyfor 15 to r8 months.These seabirds
::rch sexual maturity slowly (7 or more years in frigatebirds) and live long
:','es (zo years or more in frigatebirds).
Tropicbirds and some frigatebirds are abundant, but two of the
::iqatebirds are in jeopardy:the Christmas Island Frigatebird, critically
- rJangered, with a total population of about three thousand, breeds only
-r
part of a single tiny island located between Indonesia and Australia; and
::.e Ascension Frigatebird, considered vulnerable,likewise breeds solely on
. re tiny island.
TROPICBIRDS; FRIGATEBIRDS 4I
lXlXt
tsRD
.._--\
....*.....,]'
1
CREAT WH]TE PEI-ICAN PINK-BACKED PEI-ICAN
Pt/tctnut onotrotalus Pth,antr rttJitrens
-58 5-69 in
(r4li r75 cm) 4q 1z iil (r:i-r3u crr)
ELtrasi:r, Airicir Aiiica
/
Pclicans
PELICANS 43
from the lower mandible, and the upper mandible acts as a lid. Captured
fish are quickly swallowed because the water in the sac with the fish usually
weighs enough to prohibit the bird's lifting offfrom the water. Often, groups
of swimming pelicans cooperate in herding fish, trapping them between
birds, and then lunging. Brown Pelicans, common in the United States, are
the only ones that also plunge from the air, sometimes from a considerable
altitude (to 65 feet fzo m]) to dive for meals. Although pelicans eat fish
almost exclusively, some crustaceans are also taken.
Pelicans eat a lot, in some species up to ro percent of their body weight
per day; older nestling pelicans take fish up to r.3 pounds (6oo g) in weight.
As a necessary result of such intake, pelicans produce a lot of droppings,
or guano, which accumulates at some traditional breeding colonies into
huge deposits. Guano, rich in phosphates, is a valuable fertilizer and has
been long mined in various parts of the world. The Peruvian Pelican, a
close relative of the Brown Pelican that is limited to Peru and Chile, is one
of a triumvirate of famed "guano birds" (along with the Peruvian Booby
and Guanay Cormorant). Over the centuries, these birds laid down thick
reserves of guano on their small breeding islands, reserves that supported a
very profitable guano industry.
Pelicans usually breed in large colonies on small islands or in places on
the mainland that have few mammal predators. Nests are on the ground or
in trees or bushes. Monogamy is the rule, mated males and females sharing
in nest building, incubation, and feeding the young; at least in some species,
a new mate is found each year. Pelicans lay up to five eggs, but often only one
;h
It
It.
'c
io
AS
BOoBTES n ND GANNETS 47
t,LtcH I I tiss cok\toR \\ f (iUl\,\\ coRNI()tt1\1 RIiD I I:(i(iED Co iNIORI\ I RI]D.E,\L :D COR]IoRA\ I
t{()tIGH tr \cED s L\G \ t,o f'f u t) s tlA(; oRL]'N Ir\L DIKI L]R
l)l',t/o.t o,ct,rt ,ti rrtt, tr/t / :t l)ht/n, t ,),.),t \ lu )t, /tt I tti I D /: t n,l, t, t, /ti tl t,i, t' t, )
Dl (1,+-;+.r)l)
r; -rg ll i ls irr i3; 9;.rrr)
Ncr Ze.tl,rnJ Ncu Zc,rlrnJ \irie,r \'i,r .\rr.t,.,lir
Cormorants;
Anhingas
LN
\
that the birds get more fish than they do and demand that legislators do No. o.l-Spacitt
something about it. Cormorants, known as shags in some regions, have a Vt/tttrahla,
long historical association with people. Early European seafarers gave them Dn,ltng:rcrl. 8, z
the name Corutus marinus,or sea raven; the word cormorant derives from this No. o.f SVui's Extirrtt
term. Cormorants have been used for centuries inJapan, China, and Central Sincc t6oo. r
CORMORANTS; ANHINGAS 49
tropical and subtropical regions.They are also large Qr to in [8o to 97 cm);
38
wingspan to 4 feet [r.z m]),darkwithwhite or silverypatches, and have long
necks with long, sharply pointed bills.
Diving from the surface of lakes, rivers, lagoons, and coastal saltwater
areas, cormorants and anhingas pursue fish underwater. To propel them
rapidly through the depths, they have powerful feet set well back on the
body and webbed toes. Cormorants, which take crustaceans also, catch
food in their bills; anhingas, which also take other aquatic animals such as
small turtles, baby crocodiles, and snakes, use their sharply pointed bills to
spear their prey. Cormorants dive to at least r65 feet (5o m).They are social
birds, foraging, roosting, and nesting in groups (sometimes with hundreds
ofthousands ofindividuals);anhingas are less social and sometimes solitary.
After swimming, cormorants and anhingas are known for standing on
,\\ M\(;,\S
logs, trees, or other surfaces and spreading their wings, presumably to dry
them (they may also be warming their bodies in the sun following dives
l)i'trihtrti,tn
.,ll/ ,otr/itrtnl; , t' tltl
into cold water.)
,'l tt ltn t/ ir tt Cormorants usually breed in large colonies on islands or in isolated
No, o.l I-ii,irr,q
mainland areas. On islands and in coastal areas, they typically nest on the
S2,', i,', -r
ground but sometimes on cliffb or ledges; inland, they tend to nest in trees
or bushes, often near or surrounded bywater.They are monogamous, mated
.\'o of'SlLiitt
I1rItt,'t tr/t/L, males and females sharing in nest building, incubation, and feeding young.
) )n,lrtttyLt,',1. o Usually the male chooses the nest site and brings nesting material (seaweed,
Yo r,l SlttiLt Lt,littt/ plant materials) and the female arranges it. Anhingas, also monogamous,
Sitt, t thoo ct
usually nest solitarily or in small groups, and sometimes in association with
cormorants, herons, storks, or ibises.
Anhingas and most of the cormorants are very abundant birds.
Nonetheless, eight cormorant species are considered r,rrlnerable and two are
endangered.The major threats are human disturbance at or around breeding
colonies and coastal development on breeding islands. New Zealand's
Chatham Island Shag, which is endangered, has a small population and
is restricted to three small islands.The other endangered species is the
Flightless Cormorant, a larger species with tiny, nonfunctional wings;
it is endemic to the Galdpagos Islands and has a total population of one
thousand or less. A similar species, the Spectacled Cormorant, which had
limited flying abiliry was hunted to extinction by people about roo vears
after it was first discovered on islands in the Bering Sea.
n*
r'
SHOEBlLL HANIERKOP
Balaenirc4s rex Sco?uJ ufrtbre/ta
.17in (rzo cm) 19 5 zz in (5o 56 cm)
Atiic a Atiica, Nladagascar, -\rrbia
Storks; Shocbill;
Hamcrkop
same order as herons (Ciconiiformes; alongwith the ibises and spoonbills), Anturdicn
rvhich they resemble generally. However, they differ in significant ways, No. ofLiring
both structurally (being overall heavier birds with more massive bills) and Spttie.r. t9
behaviorally (by flyingwith the neck extended, not retracted as in herons, and No. oJ-Spatics
high in the sky on their broad wings). Storks are represented
of ten soaring Vr lnerahlc,
Endongeril: 2,3
in the United States solely by the Wood Stork, seen mainly in Florida.
Nonetheless, storks are well known to Americans, at least by reputation, No of'Spuias Exlirtct
Si ntt 16oo o
because ofthe legends of storks delivering newborn babies. Such stories have
eristed for 5oo years or more and are traceable to northern Europe, where
the EuropeanWhite Storkoften nests on rooftops and is one ofthe region's
most famous and celebrated birds.
Most storks are white with black wing patches, but some are pre-
dominantly dark and many have patches of red or yellow on head, bill, andl
or legs. Africas Marabou, the largest, stands up to 5 feet (r.5 m) tall and has
a rvingspan up to 9.5 feet (2.9 m), placing it among the largest flying birds.
te Spoonbills
)n
re
rd
ar
)n
)g
"rs
:h I BISEs and spooNBILLS are largish, strange-looking,long-legged Distribution.
rd wading birds that, although a bit alien to most Americans, are quite common 11 l/ ron tinen t.;,:xccpt
and conspicuous in many parts of the world. There are a total, of twenty-six llrtt a rctica
le ibis species and six spoonbills (together comprising familyThreskiornithidae; No. ol-Living
ES in order Ciconiiformes, along with herons and storks).They are globally Spacics jj
to distributed, but only four species occur in the United States, all but one of No. of'Spacies
rk them mainly in eastern coastal regions.The anatomical feature that renders Vrr lncrah/c,
Dnlangerel: t, 6
3r, the appearance of these birds strange, and allows one to rapidly distinguish
n, them from other large waders, is the bill: very long, thin, and down-curved No oJ'Speciu Dxtinct
Sinrc 16oo: o
in ibises;long and expanded at the end like a flattened spoon in spoonbills.
These are medium to large birds, zo to 43 inches (5o to rro cm) long;the
largest have wingspans of up to 4. 4 feet $ 35m). Most ibises are white, brown,
or blackish, often with a glossy patch on the wings, and have bare heads. Most
spoonbills are all or mainlywhite.As with manyotherbirds adapted to walk
and feed in swamps, marshes, wet fields, and along waterways, ibises and
spoonbills have long legs and very long toes that distribute the birds'weight,
allowing them to walk among marsh plants and across floating vegetation
without sinking.Within a species male and female ibises and spoonbills look
alike. Although the two groups look different because oftheir bills, they are
very closely related; there have even been instances of an ibis mating with a
spoonbill and producing hybrid young.
Ibises and spoonbills are day-active gregarious birds that feed in marshes,
swamps, coastal lagoons, shallow bays,lakes, and mangroves. Ibises insert
14y
lxlxl
.f,
-:s
BRD
&q
T
GREATER FLANIINCO CHII,EAN FLA}lINCO
Phoeiliio?/crL[ rLtbu Phoen i cop/eru tbi /e nsis
47 in (rzo crn) 4r 5 in (ro5 crl)
Eurasia, Aliica, Cerl trill Alnericir, South Arnerica, Sourh Arnerica
West Indies
LESSER FLA}lINGO
Phoeniconaias ninor
3r5-35 5 in (8o-9o cm)
Africa,southern Asia
Approaching remote lakes in some parts ofthe world, one may be bewildered
when, from afar,it appears as if the water is covered by a pink froth. As the Distribution;
lake is neared, bewilderment turns to wonder as the froth is revealed to be -41/ continents except
dense concentrations oflarge,slender,pinkwadingbirds,r lau I N co s.The ,4 u s t ra I i a, An tarc ti ca
five species offlamingos (family Phoenicopteridae) have a broad but highly No. aJ'Ltuing
Species:5
specialized distribution, occurring in parts ofMexico, the Caribbean, South
America, and the OldWorld,but only in shallowlakes,lagoons, or estuaries No. of Species
Vulnerable,
with very high salt concentrations or those that are strongly alkaline. The
Endangered. r, o
'American Flamingo" occurs naturally in various parts of the United States
but does not breed here; it is actually a subspecies of the Greater Flamingo, No. of Species Extinct
Since 16oo: o
the world's most widely distributed species (which occurs in both the Old
andNewWorlds).
Flamingos have long necks, long legs, and heavy, black-tipped,
conspicuously down-curved bills.The sexes look the same, but males are
often a bit larger. They stand T to 59 inches (S5 to r5o cm) tall and are pink,
pink and crimson, or pink and white.The Greater Flamingo, a shocking
pink, is the largest and pinkest of the group.
Aside from their striking coloration and long-legged beaury flamingos
are best known for their filter feeding. A flamingo eats by lowering its bill into
the water, resting it upside down on the bottom, and sucking in water, mud,
and bottom debris.The materials are pushed through comblike billfilters,
which catch the flamingo's meal: tiny crustaceans such as brine shrimp.Th.
flamingos'food explains their choice of habitats, as salty or brackish waters
FLAMINGoS;SCREAMERS 6I
usually have high densities of tiny invertebrate animals. Flamingos are highly
social, occurring sometimes,where they have healthy populations, in groups
of thousands-which again, given tl eir coloring, makes for quite a sight.
They nest in colonies, each pair building a mud-mound nest on top ofwhich
the single egg is placed. Both male and female incubate the egg and feed the
chickwith a millcy fluid produced by glands in their digestive tracts.
TWo flamingos whose distributions are restricted to high altitude salt
lakes in the Andes Mountains, the Andean and Puna Flamingos, have
seriously declining populations, and the former species is considered
vulnerable.The flamingo feeding method, dredging the bottom sediment
from shallowwater, makes them vulnerable to toxic chemicals in the mud,
such as lead from the lead shot used in shotguns.The Lesser Flamingo,with
its main abundance in Africa, is the most numerous species, with a total
population ofperhaps 4 to 6 million.
'i",,')),i),', s c R EAM E R s are large,stockybirds that on the ground looklike plump
Neotropics
blackish geese or chickenlike birds, but while flying resemble eagles with
long legs.The three species belong to a uniquely South American family,
No. of Liring
Anhimidae, which is related to the duck family. They range in length from
Spctits:,1
30 to 37 inches (75 to 95 cm),weigh up to rr pounds (S kg), and have smallish
No. oJ-STccicr
Vu lnerab/c,
chickenlike heads.
l')ndangercd: o, o The Northern Screamer is limited to northern Colombia and Venezuela,
o.f'52etics Dxtinct
but the Horned and Southern Screamers have broad South American
Since t(too: o distributions. Screamers are essentiallywaterbirds but they spend much of
their time out of lakes and marshes, feeding in other open habitats such as
meadows and flooded savanna.They gr^ze mainly on aquatic vegetation,
consuming roots,leaves, flowers, and seeds. Surprisingly for large waterbirds,
they often perch in treetops to give their loud calls. Screamers are strong
fliers and frequently soar to great heights. Unlike many ducks, and more in
keeping with geese and swans, they may mate for life. Their nests, made of
sticks, reeds, and other vegetation, are in or near shallowwater.
None ofthe screamer species are currentlythreatened,but the Northern
Screamer is heading in that direction. Its total population may now be under
ten thousand, and it suffers from habitat loss (draining of its wetlands for
agriculture),hunting, egg collection, and even from capture as pets. Horned
Screamer populations in the Amazon region fell dramatically in the r98os
and 199os, probably owing to increased hunting.
ht.
Ducks,Geese,
lch
lhe
and Swans
ialt
IVC
:ed
ent
ud,
.ith
>tal
DUC KS, GEESE, and swANS are amongtheworld's mostfamiliar and I) is t rih trti o tt:
mp :ecognized birds.They have been objects of people's attention since ancient Wor/datile
,ith ::mes, chiefly as food sources.They typically have tasty flesh, are fairly large No of'|,i.-ing
rily, rnd therefore economical to hunt, and are easier and less dangerous to catch Sptrit: t57
'om
:h an many other animals. They also domesticate easily and breed in captivity. No oJ'Spetiu
lish S everal species have been domesticated for thousands ofyears.The Muscovy
Vu/nerah/c,
Entlongered. tq, r:
Duck, native to South America, in its domesticated form is a common
Lela, :ermvard inhabitant in many parts of the world, including Africa, and white No. of S2atiet Iixtintr
can -domestic ducks" (there are other color forms as well) are descendants of the Sinrc 16oo: I
hof -\ I allard, the world's most abundant wild duck. Wild ducks adjust well to the
has ::oximity of people, to the point of taking food from them, a behavior that
ion, .:n'iving artworks show has been occurring for at least z,ooo years. Hunting
i.rds, : -rcks and geese for sport is alsolong-practiced tradition. As a consequence
a
ong rf these long interactions, and the research on these animals engendered
:e in :r'their use in agriculture and sport, substantial scientific information has
le of reen collected on the group; some ducks and geese are among the most
',*'ell-known ofbirds. Many species have beautiful markings, and the group
)ern ,. a rvhole is a favorite with bird-watchers.
:rder The r5o or so species of ducks,geese, and swans (familyAnatidae),known
s for ;ollectively as waterfowl, are distributed throughout the globe in habitats
:ned :anging from open seas to high mountain lakes. Although an abundant,
98os Jiverse group throughoutmosttemperate regions,representation is relatively
-imited in tropical areas. These birds vary quite a bit in coloring and size
- ,+"r_+-€*
IORREN I DIJCK
+ffi PI N,{ TEAL ECIP'Ir\aioosll
-Vtrgdn!11n nt iltd/d ,4ilntlrtd ,llofo' bil ntSVtitu r\
L;, rr (45 cnr) r6 -; in (42 cm) :E I ir (-z crr)
South Americr SoLtth r\merica Atrice
Pltrt r op ttr t t gt nt fu n s i s
s Siili li tt ti i t nt r/t
t1 o tol
:9 ; lq i in (;; roo c,r) :: zq i in (;6 -; cnr)
Af ric.t Sourir r\rrericr,,\fr ica, SotLther n Asia
Z -:
I
F
f,]NG VL]Ll'L] RE
Stnoritnif)LtLi ?iln
:S 1: iI l-r-Er ct|)
Centrrl \mer Lc,r. Srnrtlr,\rre) i.i
Birds at the very pinnacle of their profession, eating dead animals, Dist rihution:
v u LT u R E s are highly conspicuous and among the most frequently seen Nctt World
birds in many regions of South and Central America, Mexico, and parts of No of-l-i,Lting
the United States and southern Canada.That they feast on rotting flesh does Spatias: 7
not reduce the majesty of these large, soaring birds as they circle for hours No. of'STeties
high over field and forest.The family of American urltures, Cathartidae, Vulntruble,
Enlttngcred. o, r
has only seven species; several are abundant animals with broad, continent-
wide distributions.The two largest are known as condors, the California No. of Speties Extinct
Sinrc 16oo: o
and Andean Condors. Tiaditional classifications place the family within
order Falconiformes,with the hawks, eagles, and falcons,but some biologists
believe the group is more closely related to storks. (Birds called urltures in
Eurasia and Africa, members of the hawk and eagle family,are only distantly
related to NewWorld vultures.)
Vultures (excluding the huge condors) range from 22 to 32 inches (56 to
8r cm) long, with wingspans to 6.5 ft (z m). The two condors range up to 5r
inches (r3o cm), and the largest, the Andean, has a wingspan up to ro.5 feet
(:., rn). Generally black or brown, urltures have hooked bills and curious,
feathedess heads, usually with the bare skin colored red, yellow, or orange,
or some combination of these. The Tirrkey Vulture, the United States' most
widespread species, is named for its red head, which reminds people of a
turkey head.The r,ultures'bare heads probably aid them in preventing gore
from accumulating on feathe rs there, which might interfere with seeing,
hearing, and breathing. Male and female vultures look alike; males are
slightly larger than females.
WORLD VULTURES 69
Although r,rrltures suryive entirely or almost entirely on carrion, a few,
such as Black and King Vultures, occasionally kill and eat small animals,
usually newborn or those otherwise defenseless; some, especially the
Black Vulture, also take fruit.The latter species, one of the most frequently
encountered birds of tropical America, is also very common at trash dumps.
Indeed, r,rrltures are important scavengers around South and Central
American towns and villages, helping to clean up garbage and remove dead
animals from highways. (Aside from esthetic and safety considerations,
such work is important ecologically, quickly recycling back into food webs
energy and nutrients trapped in animal carcasses.) Most'r,rrltures soar during
the day in groups,looking for and, in at least some species, perhaps sniffing
for, food. Turkey Vultures can find carcasses in deep forest and also buried
carcasses, strongly implicating smell, as opposed to vision, as the method of
discovery. Vultures can cover huge areas and survey great expanses ofhabitat
each day in their search for dead animals.
Vultures are monogamous breeders. Both sexes incubate eggs, which
are placed on the ground in protected places or on the floor ofa caye or tree
caviry and both sexes feed young regurgitated carrion for z to 5 months
until they can fly. Young vultures at the nest very rarely become food for
other animals, and it maybe that the odor of the birds and the site, awash as
it is in decaying animal flesh, keeps predators away. Also,when threatened,
,,ultures may spit up partially digested carrion, which, we can assume, is a
strong defense against harassment.
Most NewWorld lrrltures are somewhat common or yery common
birds.The onlyspecies in dire trouble is the California Condor,nowcritically
endangered; for a time it was extinct in the wild. The main causes of the
decline of these condors were hunting (they were persecuted especially
because ranchers believed they ate newborn cattle and other domesticated
animals); their ingestion of poisonous lead shot from the carcasses they
fed on; and the thinning of their eggshells owing to the accumulation of
pesticides (o or ) in their bodies.The last few free-ranging individuals were
caught during the mid-r98os in southern Californian for use in captive
breeding programs.The total captive population is now more than one
hundred, and several have been released back into the wild in California
and Arizona, with varying success. The Andean Condor has undergone
considerable population declines (for similar reasons) and is now rare in its
high Andean habitats.
i,
e
Hawks, Eagles,
v
S. and Kitcs; Orprey;
il
d
S,
Secrctatybird
rs
U
b
C
b
d
,f
rt
HAw Ks, EAGLE s,and KIT E s are raptors,orbirds ofprey,birds thatmake IIAWKS, EAGLES,
their living hunting, killing, and eating other animals.When one hears the AND KITES
term raptor, one usually thinks of soaring hawks and eagles that swoop to l)ittribution.
catch unsuspecting rodents, but the feeding behavior of these birds is quite lilor/duid,:
diverse.The two main raptor families (both included in order Falconiformes) No ofLiting
are theAccipitridae, containing the hawks, kites, and eagles (accipitrids), and Spccics: zq6
the Falconidae, containing the falcons.In addition to birds called hawks, Na ofSpecier
\
,
D RK ( LIA\11N(] COSH \\VK sECRE]'\RYtsI1ID
,llt/icrtr rt/altt,, ,\'t,tlitt,tt itrt ;tt 7tntnt irr;
L- -; iLr t+; c r) .19-;9 in (r:; r;ocnr)
-\tr icr
OSPREY GOLDEN EAGLE NORTHERN GOSHAWK
Pandion haliaetus Aquila chrlsaetot ,4tipiter genti/is
:3 in (58 cm) z9 5-j5 5 in (75-9o cm) 19 z7 in (48 - 68 cm)
Worldwide North America, Eurasia, Africa Norrh America, Eurasia
B.
D
S
WHISTLING KITE
Haliastrr tphenurus
zo z3 in (5r-59 crn)
SoLrthern A'i:r, Arr'trrlir, Nrrr Cuirea Australir. Nerv (]uiner
,i t't)'' -
\1/EDCE-TAILED EAGLE SPOI"fED HARR]ER
Aquila ar,lax Cirtut a*itnilis
r 3:-4r iLr (tr-ro.1 cnr) 19 5 :4 in (-;o - 6r cm)
r\ust :rliir, Nel, Guincn Australir. Jndonesir
that rise from the sun-warmed ground oSPRIiY
day, using the currents of heated air
to support and propel them as they search for meals. But they are found in Dit/ rihrr/iotr
E all qpes of habitats, includingwoodlands, forests, and rainforests'They are / l/ to tt ti tt,' tt l.t,' xtilt
/
meat-eaters. Most hunt and eat live prey, but many will also eat carrion.
They usually hunt alone, although, when mated, the mate is often close by' No,Lf'l.ii'itrt
SpttiLr t
l*r* Ilost take mainlyvertebrate animals, including some larger items such as
large rodents, rabbits, monkeys, and, in Australia, even small kangaroos. A -\',,,,..'S7t,iLt
l'rr/tttrnItlt,
number of species specialize on reptiles, including snakes. Some, such as the ):rt,lottgtrL,l. o, o
Bald Eagle, eat fish. About fifty species exist solely or largely on insects, and
,\'/o. o.f',\1, iLr l:rl ittct
some at least occasionally eat fruit. Prey is snatched with talons first, then SitttL t(tctL> ,-t
killed and ripped apart with the bill. Many raptors are territorial, solitary
individuals or breeding pairs defending an areafor feeding and, during the
S I.lC R fl'l;\ li Y B I t{ 1)
breeding season, for reproduction. Displays that advertise a territory and
mavbe used in courtship consist of spectacular aerial twists,loops, and other l.) i ;t rih trt io t t
,\' u h- S' t h tr t rr tt / f) : t.r
,rcrobatic maneuvers.
Nests are constructed of sticks that both sexes Place in a tree or on a rock lt'o of-Lirirt,1
Sy'r'r i", r
ledge.Usuallyonlythe female incubates andgives food to the nestlings.The
n-rale hunts, bringing food to the nest for the female and for her to provide .Yo ol'.\2,',itt
I'tr/tttr rtblL,
to nestlings. Both sexes feed the young when they get a bit older; they can llttdn tt,gLrL,l. o, ct
nrst fly at +to more than r5 weeks of age, depending on sPecies size. After
No o.f'SpL; i ;1 L) t," tt t/
rledging,young remain with the parents for several more weeks or months Slrrc r(roo o
'rntil they can hunt on their own.
Atthough many raptors are common birds, they tend to occur at low
densities. Most species are secure, but some are threatened by habitat
Jestruction, and large raptors such as eagles are Persecuted by ranchers for
ellegedly kilting livestock. Conservation is difficult because raptors roam
r-en'large areas, some breeding and wintering on different continents, and
:or many, insufficient information exists about their ecology and behavior.
Globally, twenty-two accipitrids are I'ulnerable; four are endangered; and
eight are critically endangered.
Two accipitrid relatives are the oSpREy (family Pandionidae,with one
.pecies), alarge (zz inches [S6 cm]) fish-eating raPtor of coastal areas and
.ome inland lakes and rivers that occurs worldwide; and the long-legged
sECRETARyrlno (family Sagittariidae, with one species), a terrestrial
-\trican eagle (to 59 inches [r5o cm]) that strides about open grassland and
i.1\'annas, foraging for its prey of rodents, insects, and small rePtiles.
G^
FALCONS 77
useful for their fast, aerial pursuit and capture offlying birds: they are
birdhawks. Most people are familiar with stories of Peregrines diving
through the atmosphere (called stooping) at speeds aboye roo mph (16o
kph) to stun, grab, or knock from the sky an unsuspecting bird. But some
falcons eat more rodents than birds, and some even take insects. For example,
the small kestrels perch on trees, rocks, or wires, scanning the ground for
large insects or small mammals, birds,lizards, or snakes. Kestrels also have
the ability to hover over a site where prey has been sighted. Some falcons
specialize on particular prey. Latin America's Laughing F alcon, a bird of
open fields and forest edge, specializes on snakes. After grabbing its dinner,
it immediatelybites offthe head, a smart move because it even takes highly
venomous snakes.Another species specializes on catchingbats on thewing
at dawn and dusk. Caracaras, slow flyers, have long legs and often forage by
walking on the ground; some forest dwellers consume mainlywasps and
fruit. Forest-falcons perch motionless for long periods on tree branches,
waiting to ambush prey such as birds and lizards. Falcons usually live and
hunt alone or in solitary pairs.
Falcons nest on cliffedges, in rock cavities, in tree hollows, or in old
stick nests of other birds; some make a stick nest, others apparently make
no construction. In most, the male hunts for and feeds the female while
she lays eggs and incubates them; both sexes feed nestlings. The parents
continue to feed the youngsters for several weeks after fledging until they are
proficient hunters.
Four falcon species are considered r,ulnerable, three of them Old World
kestrels; no falcons are currently endangered. Only one New World species
may be at risk, southern South America's Striated Caracara.Conservation of
falcons and other raptors is difficult because the birds are often persecuted for a
number of reasons (hunting, pet trade, ranchers protecting livestock), and they
roam verylarge areas. Peregrine Falcons disappeared from the eastern United
States by the mid-r97os, a consequence mainly of decades of exposure to
pesticides like D D T , which caused their eggshells to thin and break. After o o r
was banned, Peregrines eventually returned to many oftheir old haunts.These
beautiful falcons have been introduced to cities such as Chicago by people
seeking to reestablish populations in areas from which they disappeared.They
roost on slyscrapers, breed on high building ledges or bridges, and maintain
themselves, and keep the cities cleaner, by eating pigeons.
.e,
)r
te
IS
cf
)f,
ly
rg
)y
rd The u E GA p o D E s, or mound-builders, ofthe Australia/New Guinea region l)irtrihtr/iott
]S,
are some of the world's most intriguing birds and a staple subject of nature /l ttro /o ri t
tr ,
M EGAPODE S
NIALLEEFOWL ORANCE-FOOTED SCRUBFOWL
Leipoa orellata Megapodius reinuardt
z3 5 in (6o cnr) I4 r8 5 in (35-47 cnr)
Australia Ausrralia, New Guinea. Indonesia
MALEO
Macrocephalon malco
zr 5 in (55 cm)
Sularvesi
AIso known generally as mound-birds, thermometer birds, incubator
birds, and in Australia, as scrubfowl and brush-turkeys, megapodes are
mostly omnivores. Australia's three species, the Orange-footed Scrubfowl,
Australian Brush-turkey, and Malleefowl, are the best known of the group.
They eat a lot of plant material such as seeds, shoots, roots, buds of herbs,
fruit, and berries, but also small invertebrates such as insects and worms.
They are ground-dwelling birds, seldom flying unless given no other choice.
They are usually shy and inconspicuous, but individuals in parks and other
public areas, familiar with people, show themselves readily. Scrubfowl are
usually seen in pairs (they may mate for life),which usually appear to have
territories that are defended from other scrubfowl. Brush-turkeys are often
solitary in most of their daily activities, but when food is plentiful (such as
around picnic areas), groups ofup to twenty or more may gather. Male brush-
turkeys are strongly territorial, defending the area around their breeding
mounds with aggressive displays, chasing, and deep,boomingvocalizations.
They are sedentary, the same males, for example, owning the same territories
for several years. Malleefowl are quiet, inconspicuous birds that, in pairs,
occupy large territories that may contain several nest mounds (but only one
is used each breeding season).
One major problem for mound-building megapodes is that huge
mounds of dirt and vegetation are easy to detect. In Australia, for instance,
monitor lizards and foxes take advantage of this,locating mounds and
excavating eggs.In New Guinea, people also get involved.Tiaditionally,
a mound belongs to the person who finds it. He may decide to dig up all
the eggs at once, or gather them slowly, over a period of time to keep them
fresh longer.
Nine megapode species or subspecies are vulnerable or already
endangered. The Australian Brush-turkey and Orange-footed S crubfowl
are secure, but Australia's endemic Malleefowl is considered r,rrlnerable,
its population declining, mainly from habitat loss and predation on adults
and eggs by foxes.The Polynesian Megapode, endemic to Tonga, and the
Micronesian Megapode, of Palau and the United States' Northern M arrana
Islands, are both endangered, the Polynesian species critically so. Both are
restricted to small islands and have tiny populations. Adults ofboth species
are sometimes still hunted by people, and adults and eggs are preyed upon
by a variety ofintroduced predators including rats, cats, dogs, and pigs.
MEGAPODES 8r
SCALY-BREASTED PARTRIDCE CR]II SON-HDADED PARTRIDGE
,4rbot oThila chloroput f hefr d tor t)r \ a n gui. n ; re? j
rz in (3o crn) roin(:5crn)
Sourheasr,{sia Borneo
GREAT ARCUS
,4rgurhnut argrt
28 j 78 5 iD (7: zoo crn)
Southcast Asia
game birds. But the main familyofthese chickenlike birds, Phasianidae,with Distribution:
a natural OldWorld distribution, contains some of the globe's mostvisually Old World
striking larger birds, chiefly among the pheasants,like the Silver Pheasant, No. of Liring
Crested Fireback, and Common Peafowl illustrated here.The most historically Specie.r: t15
(and gastronomically) significant, if usually unheralded, member of the group No. of Sptcies
RedJunglefowl, the wild ancestor of domestic chickens.
is Asia's Vu/nerable,
Endangered: jz,
All chickenlike birds (except buttonquail) are contained in order 9
Galliformes.In the past, most (excluding the megapodes and curassows) No. oJ'Species Extinct
Since r6oo:3
were included in family Phasianidae,but more recently, the grouse (treated
here), which occur over North America and northern Eurasia, have been
separated into their own family of r8 species,Tetraonidae, and the New
World quail into their own family (treated on p. 87). Phasianidae itself now
contains including partridges, francolins,junglefowl, OldWorld
r55 species,
quail, and pheasants. Several Old World species, such as Chukar, Gray
Partridge, and Ring-necked Pheasant,were introduced to North America
as game birds and are now common here.
Birds in these groups are stocky, with short, broad, rounded wings;
long, heavy toes with claws adapted for ground-scratching; short, thick,
chickenlike bills; and short or long tails, some of the pheasants having tails
to 5 feet (r.S -) long. Some small quails, such as the Harlequin Qrail, are
only about 6 inches (r5 cm) long. Many species, particularly among the
pheasants, are exquisitely marked with bright colors and intricate patterns,
-4'
RUFFED GROUSE SPRUCE GROUSD ROCK PTARMIGAN
Bonasa umbel/us h-a I cipenni s c ana den sis Ldgo?us mulut
17-19 in (4j 48 cm) r5 rTin (38 4j cm) r3-r-5 in (33-38 cm)
North America N-orth America North America, Eurasia
NON-BRD
l.) rt ltr rt,,4t rti. t, r nest, follow parents, and feed themselves.
In the grouse family, one species is r,ulnerable and one, the Gunnison
No o/ Si1>trtts I',.ttitt,t
Sitttt thcto. o Sage Grouse (restricted to Colorado and Utah), is endangered.Within the
pheasants and partridges, more than thirty species are r,.ulnerable and nine
are endangered. About half of these are pheasants, which all occur in Asia.
Because they are forest birds at a time when Asian forests are increasingly
being cleared, and because they are desirable game birds, the large, shor.r,y
pheasants will remain a conservation problem for some time.
B urroNeuAI r looklike small quail but differ in foot structure, in
having more pointed wings, and because males are considerably smaller than
females.The group is actually more closelyrelated to rails and cranes than to
any ofthe quails, and, indeed, the small buttonquail family (Turnicidae,with
sixteen species) is included in the raillcrane order, Gruiformes. Buttonquail,
which occur in Africa, southern Asia, and Australia, inhabit grassy areas,
eating grass seeds and small insects from the ground. Breeding behavior is
peculiar in that many of the roles of the sexes are reversed, and one female
mates with several males (polyandry).Two buttonquail species are urlnerable
and one, in Australia, is endangered.
US,
\ E w wo R LD euAI t-,fairly small chickenlike game birds of North, Di;tribtt/ iott.
ES, Neu [,[/or/t/
Central, and South America, are included in order Galliformes with other,
,es.
.rmilar birds-pheasants, partridges, grouse, guineafowl, and turkeys. The No. of Lititrp
on S1tcie:
-milv, Odontophoridae, has thirty-one species, variously called quail, .it
tSS.
::ee-quail, wood-quail, wood-partridges, and bobwhites. M any are drably No ol 57,:cit.t
:he /n,:nrh/t,
;trlored-various shades of brown and gray with black and white spots and [4r
Endan,ryrc,l. q, t
.:reaks, colors and patterns that serve them well as camouflage in their on-
on No. t; L,rt i nct
:re-ground lifestyles. But some have exquisitely marked faces and heads, o.f- SVIL i
f ,.t,
rre such tasty prey for so many carnivorous birds and mammals, they can fly
rt less than z weeks, giving them a better chance of survival.
New World quail have been food sources for people for many centuries
rnd they are still widely hunted.This, combined with habitat destruction, has
1ed to sharp reductions in some species. Four, in Mexico and South America,
rre rulnerable. One species, Colombia's Gorgeted Wood-Qrail, is critically
e ndangered, with a tiny range and a total population below a thousand.
\orth American species are generally in good shape and many are common
rilrgets of hunters.The Northern Bobwhite, for example, known throughout
rhe eastern United States for the male's sharp "bob-white" call, has a huge
population; an estimated zo million per year are taken by hunters.
LAW-ka") of chachalaca males, which are some of the most characteristic Ertdartge rtrl: 7, 7
background sounds of tropical American forests; and the fact that, owing No of'Sfaciat l:rtirttt
to forest destruction and hunting, fully z5 percent of the fifty species in the Sitttt r6oo: t (txtitrct in
tamily are currently on conservation watch lists. The family, Cracidae, is
included in order Galliformes, along with other chickenlike birds such as
pheasants, partridges, quail, grouse, and turkeys.
Members ofthe familyrange in length from about 16 to 36 inches (4o to
9z cm); the largestofthegroup,the GreatCurassow,the size ofa small turkey,
rveighs up to 9.5 pounds (+.: kS).Chachalacas are the smallest; curassows
and some of the guans, the largest. All have long legs and long, heavy toes.
llany have conspicuous crests.The colors oftheirbodies are generally drab,
rvith gray, brown, olive, or black and white ; some appear glossy in the right
light.They typically have small patches of bright coloring such as yellow,
red, or orange on parts oftheir bills, their cheeks, or on a hanging throat sac.
)Iale Great Curassows, for instance, all black above and white below, have
a bright yellow knob on the top of the bill; and Horned Guans, also black
'e
e
TUrkeys
IS
d
.e
'e
o
b
o
:y
1l
rs
GUI N EAF ow L and r u R KEys are medium-size tolarge chickenlike game
d birds that sometimes are included in a huge, catch-all familywith pheasants, Distrihution
S.
quail, grouse, and partridges,but they are also sometimes separated into their Afrim
own families, and some recent research supports this view.All are contained No. oJ'Liting
in order Galliformes. The six guineafowl species (family Numididae) are Species: 6
)S native to Africa. However, owing to their use as domesticated food sources No. of Species
d and ornamental birds, guineafowl have been spread far and wide; the Vu/nerable,
ly Helmeted Guineafowl now occurs in feral populations in such far-flung Endangered. t, o
d sites as Madagascar,Yemen, the West Indies, and Florida. No. of Species Extinct
n Guineafowl are heavy-bodied with strong, rather short legs and short, Since 16oo: o
;o arched bills. Their heads and necks are mostly featherless, the bare skin
a1 often red or blue. Some have bushy crests, and the Helmeted Guineafowl
ls sports a bony knob on its head. Plumage is highly distinctive-black or dark
gray heavily marked with white spots. The spotting is unseen at a distance,
P, but up close, the effect is quite beautiful. The spotted plumage gives rise to
IC the Latin name of the Helmeted Guineafowl,Numida meleagris (and also
1e to the family and genus names of turkeys): Meleager was a Greek hero
le whose death so distressed his relatives that they turned into birds, the tears
rS they shed forming white spots on their dark mourning clothes. Guineafowl
le range in length from 16 to z8 inches (4o to 7z cm); the largest, the Vulturine
,d Guineafowl,weighs up to 3.5 pounds (r.6 kg).
Favoring lightlywooded and savanna habitats, guineafowl feed on the
ground, snapping up seeds,leaves, fruit, insects, spiders, and even small
GUTNEAFOWL; TURKEYS 93
LIELMEl'ED GUIN EAFOWI- VULTURINE CU]NEAEOWL
Nunida ncltagris Acr1, I /i ant 1 a/ 7 ryi r rr,r,
zr z5 in (53 6 I cm) z3 5-zt 5 in (6o-;: cm)
Afr ica
CRESIED CUINEAFO\1 L
() ullcrt purhcrdn i
,/ ...
+-a.:t"-, ----.eT*
OCELLATED TURKEY
Mcleagris ou//ata
zE j6 in (7r 9r crn)
Central AnLerica
frogs.They use their powerful legs and feet to scratch the ground in search
of food and to dig for roots and bulbs. Although reluctant to take to the air,
they invariably fly up into tree branches to sleep at night; theywill also fly to
escape predators.
Guineafowl are apparently monogamous. Nests consist of simple shallow
scrapes in soil under dense foliage or long grass, perhaps lined with leaves or a
little grass.The female incubates alone while the male stays Protectively nearby.
Young leave the nest soon after hatching and can feed themselves but stay close
to their parents for protection. Most guineafowl species are secure; one,West
Africa's White-breasted Guineafowl, is considered vulnerable, owing to a
rapidly declining population and deforestation ofits rainforest habitat.
There are only two turkeys (family Meleagrididae): the Wild Turkey
of the United States and northern Mexico and the Ocellated Tirrkey of
Mexico's Yucatin Peninsula (including northern Guatemala and Belize). TURKEYS
Tirrkeys, however, actuallyroam more widelybecause people have introduced
Distribution:
the former species to such diverse spots as Hawaii, Europe, Australia, and North and Central
New Zealand. Ground dwellers, turkeys are unmistakable because of their America
large size, generally dull (but iridescent) plumage, and bare heads and necks No. ofLitting
with bright red or blue skin and hanging wattles. They range up to 3.6 feet Speries; z
(r.r m) tall, and weigh up to zz pounds (ro kg).The Ocellated's name arises
No. of Species
with the eyelike images (ocelli) adorning the birds'plumage. Vu/nerable,
Ocellated Tirrkeys are primarily birds of low-elevation wet forests Endangered: o, o
and clearings, but they can also be found in open, brushy areas. Usually in No. of Species Extinct
small groups, they feed on seeds, berries, nuts, and insects. Wild Turkeys Sinte 16oo: o
cUTNEAFOWL; TURKEYS 95
CRAY-NECKED WOOD-RAIL PURPLE CALLINULE EURASIAN COOT
Aramides cajanea Por2byru/a martiniu
13-15 5 in (3j-4o cm) ro 5-r4in (27- j6 cm) 15 in (38 cm)
Central America, South Anrerica North America. Sourh America Errrasia, Africa, Australia
'E-
....-:_:+
PURPLE SWANlPH EN B LACK-TA I LED r"ATlvE- H EN BLACK CRAKE
PorVhyrio 2orphyrio Gallinula aentralis A ma uro r n i t jl a-o ir os / ris
regrans
Gruiformes, with the cranes, bustards, and buttonquail), has r34 species;
it includes wood-rails, crakes, cALLI N uLE s, moorhens, and co or s. No. ofLioing
Specics: 134
Rails are known among bird-watchers for the elusiveness of some of their
kind, especially marsh-dwelling species that are often heard but hardly No. of Species
E. Vulnerable,
ever seen. Ornithologists appreciate rails for a seeming paradox: although
Endangered: r7, t5
apparentlylveak flyers, some make migrations betvveen continents, and rails
No. of Species Extintt
have successfully colonized many remote oceanic islands.The family is also
Since 16oo: zz
distinguished for its conservation status. Fully a quarter of living species
are currently r,rrlnerable or already endangered, and about 15 have become
extinct during the past 20o years, more than in almost any other avian family.
A major factor contributing to this dismal record is that many island species,
removed as theywere from mammalian predators, evolved flightlessness,
which rendered them highlymlnerablewhen people and their mammalian
pets and pests reached their isolated outposts.
Most rails make their living swimming and stalking about marshes
and other wetlands (mostly freshwater but also brackish water, mangroves,
and salt marshes), seeking plant and animal foods, with the emphasis on
animal, including insects, cray6sh, frogs, and snakes. Some, such as coots,
are vegetarians, feeding at the surface and diving for leaves and stems of
aquatic plants. Chieftraits permitting the rails'aquatic lifestyle are long legs
and very long toes that distribute the birds'weight, allowing them to walk
ny
en
:d.
rys
ral
nd
US:
tly
ter c RAN E s,large,long-necked,long-leggedwadingbirds, have been admired Distribution:
en bypeople for millennia.Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans had strong Old World ani North
America
or ties to these birds, as evidenced by surviving artwork and literature. Eastern
Na. of Ltuing
civilizations such as China andJapanhave long associatedcraneswithpositive
Speties: 15
tic attributes and emotions: longeviry happiness,luck, and more recently peace.
les Crane characteristics that atftact human attention are the size of the birds No. of Species
)ve Vulnerab/e,
(some approach the height ofpeople), their graceful movement and elegant
Endangered: 6,3
en appearance (Africa's crowned cranes being particularly beautiful), their
No. of Species Extinct
ng soaring flight capabilities, and their renowned courtship dances.In North Sinte 16oo. o
SO
America, cranes are also recognized for their role in the emergence of the
wildlife conservation movement and remain symbols of conservation.
tre Cranes (fifteen species, family Gruidae; in order Gruiformes, with rails
he and bustards) occur on all continents but South America and Antarctica.Two,
[or Sandhill andWhooping Cranes, occur in North America. Cranes range in
AS
length from 3to 5.2 feet(o.9 to r.75 m);the largest, the Sarus Crane ofAsia and
'ey.
Australia, has a wingspan up to g.z feet (2.8 m). Colored mainly gray, white,
ric and black, most cranes have a patch of red, naked skin on top of their head.
)SS,
Bills generalTy are longish but relatively delicate, especiallywhen compared
ric with those ofthe similar-looking storks. Cranes have special ornamental inner
nd wing feathers that hang down over a short tail, often giving the appearance of
ng a bustle.Within a species, male and female cranes look alike.
'ed
Primarilywetland and open-country birds, cranes forage bywalking
ric slowly and steadily in water or on swamPy ground, searching for food; they
CRANES 99
SANDH]LL CRANE WHOOPING CRANE
Grut canadensis Grut ameriana
39 5-+7in (roo-rzo cm) 5r-63 in (r3o 16o cm)
North America, Cuba North America
B RO LGA
Grut rubiunda
3r 5-5r in (8o-13o cm)
Australia, New Guinea
CRANES
LI}I P KIN GRAY-WINCED TRUMPETER
Aramus guatauna oe?;tdnr
P.to?b;d
zz-zB in (56-7r crn) r/5 205in(45-52cm)
Central Arner'Lca, South America, South America
West Indies, Florida
of rails and cranes with mainly tropical and subtropical distributions Distribution:
in the Americasl they are included, along with the rails and cranes, in Florida, West Indies,
Central and South
order Gruiformes.
America
Limpkins, family Aramidae, are large wading birds, smaller than cranes
but having much the same shape,with longlegs, neck, and bill. Camouflage No. ofLiving
Species: t
coloring-brown with whitish markings-renders them highly suited for
No. of Species
their lives among tall marsh vegetation.The single species,which ranges in
Vulnerable,
length from zz to z8 inches (56 to 7r cm), occurs from Florida to northern Endangered: o, o
Argentina. Limpkin sexes look alike.
No. of Speties Extinct
Inhabiting marshes,ponds, swamps,riversides, and mangroves, Limpkins Since 16oo: o
eat mainly snails, but also take freshwater mussels. They forage by poking
around in shallow water, finding snails by touch, then cracking open their
shells to devour the inhabitants. Limpkins, usually monogamous, build a
nest ofleaves and twigs on the ground, in a marsh, or in trees. Parental duties
are shared. Soon after young hatch they are mobile, able to follow parents
and run from predators. By z months ofage,young can fly and can open
snails themselves.The Limpkin is common in manyparts ofits large range.
However, following decades ofintensive hunting as a game bird, Limpkins
in some areas, such as Florida and the West Indies, were at risk by the
early twentieth century, but with conservation measures, their populations
have rebounded.
A little smaller and bulkier than Limpkins, trumPeters are terrestrial
n
ly
rS
The best known members oforder Gruiformes are the cranes and rails,both SUNGREBES
r8
with near-global distributionsl but the order encompasses a wide variety of Distribution:
re
other birds, including a number of small families that each have only one Africa, southern Asia,
lr to three species, including the sungrebes (finfoots), Sunbittern, Kagu, and Centra/ and South
tS America
mesites (treated here) and the Limpkin, trumpeters, and seriemas (treated
:S.
in another account). These groups consist mainly of ground-living birds No. ofLiting
n Species; j
that prefer walking (or swimming) to flying (with one, the Kagu, being
flightless), and most are shy and retiring midsize or large birds with relatively No. of Species
d Vulnerable,
limited distributions. Endangered: t, o
ty fhe suNGREBB and two species of rINFoors comprise family
No. of Species Extinct
Y, Heliornithidae. Ranging in lengh from ro to z3 inches (26 to 59 cm), they Since 16oo: o
)r are dark above,light below; with long necks, slender bodies,longish tails,
ta and sharply pointed yellow or orange bills.The Sungrebe occurs in South
h and Central America, while one finfoot occurs in Africa and the other in
n Southeast Asia. Despite the Sungrebe's name, the group is not closely related
rO
'b to grebes,but are ducklike and largely aquatic. Sungrebes and finfoots swim
among the roots and overhanging leaves of thick vegetation along lakes,
tk rivers, and streams, where they feed on insects, snails, worms, crustaceans,
ty and the occasional frog.They do not dive, but instead take their food from
d riverbanks and vegetation.They take cover in vegetation at the slightest
[. hint of danger and will "run" across the surface of the water and fly low to
ir escape predators.The Sungrebe and finfoots make flat nests of sticks and
g. reeds, often on branches ofdead trees low over the water. Parents share
SUNBITTERN
Dury2yga helias
17-175 in (4j 45 crn)
Central America, South America
The r e c u is a largish (zz inches [55 cm] ) white and gray bird endemic to No of'Lit,ing
Sl,:t i,'s r
the island of New Caledonia, west ofAustralia. It looks like a cross between a
heron and rail, and is placed in its own family, Rhynochetidae.Its plumage
a No. ol'SlLcits
Vl /n t ra h/t,
color,long reddish legs and bill, and large red eyes make it unmistakable.
Enlangtrtl. o, t
Although fightless, the Kagu often uses its wings to help move through its
forest and shrubland habitats, flapping to move faster when, for example, No oJ'Sptti,:t Extintt
Sinu 16oo ct
running from predators.The Kagu eats only animal food, including insects,
spiders, centipedes, snails, worms, and lizards. It is monogamous; the sexes
share breeding duties. Nests, on the ground, are simple affairs ofleaves.The NIHSI'I'ES
midsize (rz inches [f o cm]) ground birds offorests,woodlands, and thickets, No. oJ'Lit,in,q
Speci,:t:
all restricted to Madagascar.Theyhave long,thicktails, short,roundedwings, -i
and are brownish with lighter underparts.They eat seeds, insects, and fruit. No. oJ'52,:ri,:t
In the past, some of the mesites were thought to be flightless, but all can fly, Vulntrubl,:,
I)ninrtgtr,:r1.3, o
albeit weakly. Little is known about mesite breeding. A stick nest is built in
a bush, tree, or clump ofvegetation. Depending on species, the female only
No. af'Spcticr Lxtintt
Since r6oo: o
or both parents incubate eggs and care for the young. Madagascar's mesites
are considered one of the world's most threatened bird families; the three
species are all vulnerable, suffering from habitat loss and degradation.
the twenty-five species occur (seventeen being endemic there).The famlly, No. ol Lit,irrg
Otididae, is included in the order Gruiformes with the cranes and rails. .!,'rl,'.r'-u.;
Despite the size and frequent conspicuousness of some of the species, No. of'SVnitr
[1t /n,:rn hlL,
bustards are not awell known or particularly appreciated group.Their coloring
Etrdrtrttttttl. t,,i
(patterns mainly of brown, gray, black, and white), especially from afar,
makes them seem rather drab, and bustards historically have not had close No of'SlttiLt l')t/ i ni/
Sirttt t6oo o
associations with people, other than as game birds. But they are recognized by
the ecologically knowledgeable for their highly meritorious effect on many
agricultural and other pests; they consume enormous numbers of harmful
insects (locusts, grasshoppers, beetles, termites) and small rodents. Also,
bustards are known among animal behaviorists for their courtship displays
and nonmonogamous breeding.Two species from southern Asia are called
floricans and, in southern Africa,where eleven species occur, many are called
korhaans (crowing hens), for their croaking, clattering calls.
Like their cousins the cranes, bustards are long-necked and long-legged,
but theyhave stockybodies and short,sharp bills.Theyrange in length from
16 to 47 inches (4o to rzo cm), and the largest,Africa's Kori Bustard,weighs
up to 42 pounds (r9 kg), thus making it one of the world's heaviest flying
birds. Males tend to be larger and more boldly marked than females.
Bustards prefer dry, open habitats.The Australian Bustard, for instance,
that continent's only species, inhabits grassland and savanna areas. Bustards
BUSTARDS IO9
spend almost all their time on the ground even though, with their long,
broad wings, they are fairly strong fliers.To avoid detection, they often lie
flat on the ground, their cryptic coloration providing superb camouflage.
When disturbed, they stalk furtively away, only reluctantly taking flight
when pressed. Smaller bustards especially are shy and usually very hard to
spot or approach. Some bustards lead relatively solitary lives; others remain
in year-round pairs or small family groups; in several, focks of up to fifty
birds occasionally gather. Bustards forage by walking methodically and
stopping to peck at food items on the ground and in foliage.They take plant
materials including leaves, seeds, fowers, berries, and roots, and animals
such as insects, lizards, and mice, as well as eggs and young of small ground
birds. At brush fires, they wait for prey fleeing flames; after afire, they stalk
about looking for heat-killed bugs.
Bustards may breed monogamously or, more commonly, polygamously.
In the latter, males during the breeding season occupy traditional lek sites,
where they gather to advertise themselves to females. After a female selects
a male and mates, she departs and nests on her own; no pair-bonds are
formed between the sexes.The advertising displays of male bustards can be
spectacular.In southern Africa's Red-crested Bustard, a male utters a series of
increasinglyloudwhistles interspersedwith tongue clicks, then dramatically
launches himselfinto the air to a height ofperhaps 5o to 65 feet (r5 to zo m),
closes his wings, and falls back to the ground. Males of some species grow
elongated chest feathers that are puffed out during displays, briefly turning
themselves into seeming "bird balls."Males also inflate throat sacs during
displays, furthering their rounded images. After mating, a female lays eggs
in a simple depression or scrape in the ground and incubates them. Young
bustards leave the nest within a few hours but stay with the mother fo r 4to 6
weeks.In monogamous species, such as the Blue Bustard, pairs (sometimes
with offspring from previous years) live in permanently defended territories;
only females incubate, but both sexes care for the young.
Although bustards are generally in decline because of hunting and
habitat loss to agriculture, only a few are currently threatened: one species is
considered r,'ulnerable and three others, restricted to India and its environs,
are endangered.The Australian Bustard has been eliminated from some
parts ofits range by human settlement and byuse ofits grassland habitats by
sheep. Also, some bustards are in demand for training falcons to kill, notably
in the Middle East.
'ly. I -\ c A N A s are small to medium-size waterbirds that occur in freshwater Ditt t ilrtion:
9S,
u'etlands throughout tropical and many subtropical regions of the world. [,[/or/lui l,: tro]>i rs a n d
lts rtrhtt opict
Thev are usually fairly abundant near shore in marshes, swamps, shallow parts
.re ,,rf lakes, and even in artificial wetlands in and around human settlements. No. ol-Litting
be 52,'ii,rs 8
Ou'ing to this, to their aquatic-plant-hopping ways, and to their striking
of ;oloration, they are conspicuous, often-watched birds.Jacanas are best No o/ Spccic:
llv irown among biologists as one of the few bird groups that routinely practice
Vu /t t,: ra b/,:,
Enrhngcrr:tl: o
n),
:olvandry, a mating system in which one female mates with several males.
)w No. of Spetics Extinct
The family,Jacanidae,with eight species, manywith broad distributions, is SirtLa t6oo: o
rg :ncluded in order Charadriiformes,with shorebirds and gulls.The name
ng
'.t;ttnais derivedfrom a native Brazrlranname for theWattledJacana, South
gs
-\merica's sole species.
ng
Outstanding physical characteristics ofjacanas are their long legs and
)6 :ncrediblylongtoes and claws,which distribute the birds'weight,permitting
tes
ihem to walk among marsh plants and across floating vegetation without
ES;
.inking (they are called lily-trotters in various parts ofthe world).They range
in length from 6 to z3 inches (r5 to 58 cm); a good part of the length of the
rd largest species, southern Asia's Pheasant-tailedJacana, resides in its elongate
;is rail.Jacana bodies are relatively narrow, making it easier for them to push
15,
through dense vegetation, and they have short tails (all but the Pheasant-
ne
tailed) and rounded wings. Most have brown or blackish bodies but come
by equipped with bright yellow or blue bills and red or blue foreheads; some
>ly
have striking white or yellow markings. Some species spread their wings
JACANAS
NORTHERN IACAN
6 1 9 ir (r7-zl cLr)
NIerico, Central Arnerica, West lnclies
!
," .-- -_ *="jL-
rammals.They do not rely heavily on flight but rather swim in the water or
..r'ilk on and through vegetation near the water. Several species have a sharp
:pur on each wing that is used for fighting other jacanas and predators.
Africa's LesserJacana, the smallest in the farrrtly,is a monogamous
rreeder, but the other species employ polyandry, the rarest type of mating
svstem among birds. In a breeding season, a female mates with several
:nales, and the males then carry out most of the breeding chores. Males
each defend small territories from other males; each female has a larger
:e rritory that encompasses several male territories. Males build nests of
ioating, compacted aquatic vegetation. Following mating, the female lays
e3:gs in the nest, after which the male incubates them and then leads and
f rotects the chicks; the young feed themselves. Females sometimes remain
:lear nests and attackpredators that approach chicks.Jacana fathers are able
io move their young chicks in case of flooding or danger by holding them
under their closed wings and running to safery. Young are dependent on
lhe father for up to 3 months. Meanwhile, the female has mated with other
males in her territory and provided each with a clutch of eggs to attend.
None of the jacanas are currently considered at risk (but little is known
about populations of the small and secretive LesserJacana). The main
threat to these waterbirds is the destruction or degradation of their wetland
habitats,which occurs with increasing frequency throughout their range.
]larshes are drained for agricultural development, and sometimes floating
aquatic vegetation in lakes is removed for navigation or aesthetic purposes,
rendering habitat unsuitable for jacanas. On the plus side, some jacanas do
u'ellin agricultural areas, especiallywet fields and rice paddies.
JACANAS I13
SPOTTED SANDPTPER SANDERLINC
Actitis macularia Calidrtu a/ba
7 5 in (r9 cm) 8in (zo cm)
North America, South America Worldrvide
striking plumage, shorebirds such as sandpipers nonetheless provide some of J., lt t ltt n.r't' t t't/ (t, 1
nature's most compelling sights as their flocks rise from sandbar or mudflat
No ol Sl,p,', it; ]')tt intl
to fly fast and low over the ocean surf wheeling quickly in the air as if they \itt,t t(trto :
were a single organism.
More than ten families can be considered to contain shorebirds, all
included in order Charadriiformes with gulls and puffins. The largest, with
a worldwide distribution, is the s A N D p I p E R group (family Scolopacidae),
BRD
:
DUNLIN WILSON S PHALAROPE UPLA\.-D SA\..DPLPER
Calidris alpina Phalaropus lt itclot Bartrania longiaudn
6 5-8 5 in (16 zz crn) 9ir (zj cm) ro r:5 Ln (26-3: cnr)
North Arnericr, Eu rasia,l\liicr North Arnerica. Sorrh,\rner ica Norrh Arner ica, South America
they often prefer running to flying away.-Ihey pick their food up offthe
\" ,t \l',,, ground or use their bills to probe for it in mud or sand, taking insects and
['t,'t ',t1,1,.
other srnall invertebrates,parricularlv crustaceans. Species with curved bills
|,tt,/tt rr,t1, t . ,f rt. ,t
tend to forage more by probing into holes and creyices. Some also snatch
.t,t, i,i , ,
bugs from the air as theywalk and from the water's surface as theywade or
\, ,
swim. Larger, more land-dwelling species) such as curlews, also eat small
amphibians, reptiles, and rodents. Most shorebirds breed in the Northern
Hemisphere, manyon the arctic tundra, and make long migrations to distant
wintering sites, often in the Southern Hemisphere.
Many shorebirds breed in monogamous pairs that defend small breeding
territories. Others, such as phalaropes, practice polyandry, in which some
females have more than one mate. In these species, the normal sex roles of
breeding birds are reversed: the female establishes a territory on a lakeshore
that she defends against other females. More than one male settles within
the territory, either at the same time or sequentiallv during a breeding season.
After mating, the female lays a clutch of eggs for each male. The males
incubate their clutches and care for the young. Females may help care for
some of the broods. Most shorebird nests are simply small depressions in the
ground inwhich eggs are placed;some ofthese scrapes are linedwith shells,
pebbles, or vegetation. Shorebird young are able to run from predators and
feed themselves soon after they hatch. Parents usually staywith the young to
guard them at least until they can fly, perhaps 3 to 6 weeks after hatching.
Owing mainly to habitat loss and, in the case ofisland-dwelling species,
to the invasion of breeding or wintering sites by introduced predators (such
as cats and rats), six sandpipers are l.ulnerable and four are endangered, two
ofthem critically.
PAI NTED- s NI PE s,family Rostratulidae, are midsize (8 to rr inches
Izo to z8 cm]),long-billed wading birds of swamps and wet grasslands.
They eat seeds and small invertebrates such as insects, worms, and snails.
fhere are only two, the Greater Painted-snipe, broadly distributed in the
OldWorld, and the South American Painted-snipe, restricted to southern
South America; neither is threatened.
)S
Plovcrs and
1t
t, Lupwings
e
d
ls
h
rf
I
n
rt
p LovE ns and LApwI NG s comprise a family ofsmall to medium-size Distribution:
o
b All rontinents except
birds that,with a total ofabout sixty-seven species,is the second most diverse
e Antarctita
group of shorebirds, after the sandpipers.The family, Charadriidae (included
tf in order Charadriiformes with gulls and puffins), is distributed in open No. ofLioing
,e Species'67 (inrludes
habitats essentiallyworldwide. Plovers and lapwings in the past were widely Mage//anic Plover)
n hunted and were celebrated primarily for the meals they and their eggs could
1. No. of Species
provide.Today they are known mainly as ever-vigilant denizens of shorelines Vulnerab/e,
:S
and other open habitats; some, such as North America's Killdeer (a plover), Endangered:5, j
)r
Eurasia's Northern Lapwing, southern Asia's Red-wattled Lapwing, and No. of Species Extinct
.e
Australia's Masked Lapwing, are common, conspicuous inhabitants of Since 16oo: r
s,
suburban parks, grassy fields, and agricultural sites.
d Plovers and lapwings,5 to 15 inches (rz to 38 cm) long, are similar in form,
o
having relatively large eyes, large rounded heads, short thick necks, and
fairly short, usually straight bills. Most are brownish above and light below
s,
Many have dark eye stripes and darkbands on chest or neck.The twenty-
h
five species of lapwings, which typically are larger than plovers and have
o
longer legs, are also more boldly marked; many have head decorations such
as a crest orwattles. Some species have wing spurs (sharp bonyprotrusions
)S
on the shoulders, used in fighting). Male and female look alike or nearly so.
S.
Perhaps the oddest species in the family is the Wrybill, a small, gray plover
S.
endemic to New Zealand,which has a long darkbill that curves to the right;
e
the sideways-curving bill aids the birds in probing for insects under small
n rocks. The Magellanic Plover, a small (8 inches fzo cm]), pale gray species
-.- -+:a*'
i.:
',#+.i
AFRICAN WATTLED LAPWING BLACK-HEADED LAPW]NC MACELLANIC PLOVER
Vanel/ut senegal/us Vane//us tectus Plurianellus pcia/is
r3 5 in (34 cm) ro io (25 crn) 8 5 in (zr cm)
Aiiica A1-rica Southern South Arnerica
with short legs,which is restricted to southern South America, is different
enough from other plovers in form and behavior that some authorities place
it in a separate single-species family, Pluvianellidae.
Plovers and lapwings occupy an array of open habitats, being common on
beaches and around manykinds ofwetlands; theyare also found in grasslands,
tundra, and semidesert areas. Feeding day or night on insects, spiders,worms,
small crustaceans, and the odd berry or seed,plovers and lapwings are known
for their "run, stop, and pecli'foraging behavior: they typically run or walk a
few steps, then stop with head held high, presumably scanning for prey and
predators, then move again or bend to peck at food spotted on the ground.
Many species maintain feeding territories during nonbreeding periods, small
areas that they defend from others oftheir species for a few days up to a few
months. In the air, lapwings, on broad wings, fly somewhat slowly; plovers,
with pointed wings, fly fast and straight. Some of the plovers are among
the globe's champion long-distance migrants. Many make long journeys
over vast expanses of open ocean, a good example being the Pacific Golden
RUFOUS-BELLIED SEEDSN]PE
,4ttagit gafi
rr 5 io (29 cm)
South America
les
nd
nd
ler
Lth
:ky
e).
oy s r RCATC H E R s are striking medium-size gull-like birds, blackish
E OYSTERCA'TCIIERS
Js.
or blackish and white, with long orange-red bills. The daggerlike bills are Distributiort:
nd
flattened side to side and used like shucking knives to open clams and other Wor/duidt
;ed
mollusks. The family, Haematopodidae (in the order Charadriiformes No. of'I-it,ing
nd
rvith shorebirds, terns, and gulls), occurs almost worldwide, mainly along Sl,cties'rrt
tly
seacoasts, but is not represented in polar regions or in some parts ofAfrica or No. oJ'Spuits
SA
Asia.There seem to be ten species, but the classification of the group is very Vulnera hle,
ne Endangtrcd: o, t
controversial, especially because some of the species are nearly identical in
ng
appearance. Other than being appreciated by bird-watchers for their bright, No. of-Spticr Ex/irrt/
)es
contrasting coloring, oystercatchers' relationships with people are mainly Since r6cto' t
competitive; they take oysters and other shellfish that Homo sapienswould
td
rather consume themselves, but their economic impact is probably minor.
ly,
Sixteen to zo inches (4o to 5o cm) long, oystercatchers, in addition to
;a
their striking plumage and bills, are identifiable by their pinkish legs and red
rrt
eve-rings (one species has a yellow eye-ring). Old World oystercatchers all
rst
have blackbacks,but three ofthe four NewWorld species have brown backs.
it The conspicuous bills ofthese birds average about3 inches (S cm) in length,
)n
but range in some species up to about 4 inches (ro cm).
CS
Along seacoasts, oystercatchers use their strong, flattened bills to pry open
te
ovsters, clams, and other bivalve mollusks, and also to pryvarious other marine
rg
invertebrates (gastropods, crustaceans such as crabs, some echinoderms)
rS
from rocky shorelines and dismember them; they occasionally take small
re
fish. Where they occur inland, such as in some grasslands and freshwater
rvetlands, they feed chiefly on insects and worms. During nonbreeding
P] ED OY51'DRCATC H ER
Haemd ta?6 lan,qit orlrit
r9 5 in (5o cm)
Australia, Nerv Guinea
+'
Fourteen to 19 inches (35 to 48 cm) long, stilts and avocets are striking
with their pied plumage, mostly involving patches of black and white,
although three species have areas of reddish brown on head or chest. The
widely ranging Black-winged Stilt differs in form geographically, from white
rvith black back and wings to having varying amounts of additional black
on the head and neck (three ofthe birds shown,labeled Black-necked Stilt,
Black-winged Stilt, and Hawaiian Stilt, illustrate some of this variation).
Stilts, usually in small groups but sometimes in aggregations in the
v
)f
n
:S
h
n
p RAT I N c o L E s and c o u R s E R s are a somewh
atbizarre group of smallish i)' t;1',,,';,1,
il ()i,t u',,ti,t
to midsize Old World shorebirds. Pratincoles especially are ptzzling
o
curiosities to North American bird-watchers who view them for the first \,, .i / r:i,rl
time when visiting Africa, for instance because, when initially spotted, often 'i'' , ' r,
k
on river beach, they seem to resemble terns. But when they run, they move
a ,\'. 17 \'7,, 1, ,
t.
fast along the ground,like plovers, and when they fly, their forked tail and
v /,ti,i,tt.q , ,/ ..', i
long pointed wings give them the look of large swallows (they used to be
I called swallow-plovers).The family, Glareolidae, contains seventeen species, \r r/\/,,,,,.1,'.t;,
e \,,,
twelve of which are distributed wholly or partly in Africa; others occur
j
in Eurasia and two occur in Australia.The family is included in the order
n
Charadriiformes, with the sandpipers and gulls.
Mainly brownish and grayish, many pratincoles and coursers are
handsomely marked with black and/or white eye stripes, and some have
dark neck or chest bands. Even with their bold markings, however, most
species are highly cryptic on the ground, fading quickly into the brown soils
of their native habitats. Bills are arched and fairly short, and either all dark
(coursers; two have partlyyellowish bills) or reddish at the base with dark
tips (pratincoles). Length varies from 6.5 to u.5 inches (LZ to 29 cm).The
sexes look alike or nearly so.
Pratincoles are usually found near and along inland waterways and
sometimes around estuaries.They may chase insect prey on sand and mud
beaches by running, but more commonly they pursue flying insects on
the wing, usually at dusk and typically in flocks.Their short bills open to
]F
Lt
TEMMINCK SCOURSER DOUBLE BANDED COURSER
Oursorius lemminckii Smutsornit aJriranus
8 in (zo cm) 8 5 in (zz cm)
Africa A[rica
ic
'-<F+ii a' -*
G LA! COI] S GULL SABINE SCULL HEERtrlANN S GULL
Larut hlperboreus Xtnt sabini Lartrs hetrnmnni
z-5-3o 5 in (64 77 cm) ro -5-r3 in (27-33 cm) 17-r9 5 in (+t-+q cro)
Nor rh America, Eurasia Norrh Arnerica, Sortth America, North America
Alrica, norrhern Asia
NON BRD
BRI)
nc NON-BRD
BRD
cuLLs and rERNS are the most common and conspicuous birds over I)itt t ibtr/iotr
mainland seacoasts and near-shore and offshore islands. These highly lfo t /l .r'ida
gregarious seabirds-they feed, roost, and breed in large groups-are also No ol'l .i'c,ing
common in offshore waters and even, in certain species, inland. Gulls, of 'SJ,tt itt r).i
course, are known among the uninitiated as seagulls, a generic designation No ol ,\Tttits
that evokes shudders and protests from most bird-watchers. Family Laridae, lit/tr, nth/t,
Ettt/lttg,:r Ltd. 6, z
which is allied with the shorebirds in order Charadriiformes, includes the
gulls (a few ofwhich are known as kittiwakes) and terns (some ofwhich are No o./'STtci ct l)t t i rt t t
Sirt,L rtioo: o
called noddies). The fi fty-one species of gulls are distributed worldwide, but
they are mainly birds of cooler ocean waters, and even ofinland continental
areas. Few occur in the tropics or around isolated, oceanic islands. Gulls (ro
to 3r inches 125 to 79 cm] , long) generally are large white and gray seabirds
with fairlylong, narrowwings, squarish tails, and sturdy, slightly hooked bills.
Many have a blackish head, or hood, during breeding seasons. The forty-four
tern species are distributed throughout the world's oceans. Terns (8 to zz
inches Izo to 56 cm] long) are often smaller and more delicate-looking than
gulls.They have a slender light build, long pointed wings, deeply forked tail,
slender tapered bill, and webbed feet.They are often gray above and white
below, with a blackish head during breeding. Noddies are dark birds with
lighter crowns and have broader wings and tails than other terns.
Gulls feed on fish and other sea life snatched from shallowwater and on
crabs and other invertebrates found on mudflats and beaches. Also, they are
not above visiting garbage dumps or following fishing boats to grab whatever
€
%
d
Skuas; Skimmers;
v.
.e
It
Sheathbills
]S
:y
re
n
ar
e,
;t.
St
sKuAs , sometimes called jaegers, are medium to large seabirds that, owing SKUAS
)f to their brown plumage, heavy, hooked bills, and predatory natures, might Di r/ rihu / ia rr.
be mistaken for hawks, but are acrually closely related to gulls. Skuas are .4/1 o,nrts
n
1S
known chiefly for their feeding, being predators on small rodents and, No. af'Lirtin,q
)r especially, on seabird eggs and young, and for their kleptoparasitism- Spttits:7
re
stealing prey from other birds that have already captured it. In nature No. of'SVttit:
films, skuas are often seen dragging squirming penguin chicks from their 14rltrtrohlt,
n,
, defenseless parents. Sometimes skuas are included in family Laridae with EtttltrttgLrc,/: o, o
:S
the gulls, but many recent classifications place the seven skuas in a separate No. of- Sl,'t i,' t E t / i tr, 1
.n
al
family, S tercorariidae (within order Charadriiformes). Long-winged, Sitrrt t(too'ct
long-distance fliers, skuas occur in all the world's oceans.They are brown
ie
or sooty gray, sometimes with white or yellowish patches, 16 to z5 inches
(4tto 64cm) long.
n
o Skuas occupy all kinds of marine habitats, including far out at sea;
b
s
they breed on tundra or other short-vegetation habitats in the far north, in
o
Antarctica, or on sub-Antarctic islands. On breeding grounds, skuas prey on
.e lemmings and bird eggs and young. Along migration routes and in r,r.intering
areas, they are unsurpassed kleptoparasites. For instance, the Pomarine Skua
x
"parasitizes" gulls and shearwaters at sea, and the Parasitic Jaeger pursues
n
gulls and terns feeding near shore.When a skua sees a bird capture prey, such
as a fish, it approaches rapidly, often catching the bird unaware. The skua,
usually larger, has an advantage, and the original captor often drops its prey
quickly after a brief chase. Small gulls and terns often attempt escape, but it
i
I
duties. Young remain at or near the nest, being fed by the adults, for z or
l.tt,l,tii11,', I :.,
more months, until they can fly. Parents are highly aggressive around their
nests, flying at and repeatedly striking any animal they regard as a potential -\2 ,,i ,\7,,. i, , / i,rrii,,
,\rii,, lr'rr,,; l
predator (including humans and, in northern Europe, grazing sheep). None
ofthe skuas are threatened.
Also closely related to the gulls but placed in their own family, slil,r ,\ilililtI\
Rynchopidae, are the three species of s xr M M E R s, medium-size (r4 to 18 J),:',':il)tt,,,,'
inches,36 to 46 cm) ternlike waterbirds that occur mainlyin the tropics and .tl l,', t t, / i, t! t i, / \' I t l')
subtropics. Being black and white and having huge red bills and, in flight,
long arched wings, they are perhaps the most bizarre-looking ofall the gull-
like birds. Skimmers use their peculiar bill (the lower part extends beyond the
tip of the upper part) to pluck fish and large invertebrates from the water's
surface.They fly low over water (mostly large rivers inland, but also some
coastal areas) with their bladelike bills open and the lower part skimming
the surface (hence, their name).When they strike a fish or small crustacean,
they quickly close the bill to catch it. Skimmers are quite social, roosting
and breeding monogamously, in groups. One, the Indian Skimmer, is
considered vulnerable,
The naro s H EAT H n t r r spe cies (family Chionidae) are medium -size(t3
to 16 inches, 3+to 4rcm),white,pigeonlike birdswithbill sheaths and fleshy
wattles at the base ofthe bill.They occur in parts ofAntarctica and on some
sub-Antarctic islands; when not breeding, some wander to southern South
America. Sheathbills are terrestrial, inhabiting coastal areas and foraging
along shorelines.In flocks of up to fifry they are omnivorous scavengers,
taking, among other foods, penguin eggs and chicks (often their main foods),
carrion, animal feces, insects, intertidal invertebrates, and even some algae.
They also steal food from other birds, such as penguins and cormorants,by
striking them while they are regurgitating food to their young. Sheathbills
are monogamous, their nests often placed within or near a penguin breeding
colony, a chieffood source. Neither sheathbill is threatened.zz
No\-BRD
::--:<---:-
pu FFtN s and AU K s are smallish to medium-size diving seabirds that Dis/ rih tr tion:
for centuries, owing to their typically pelagic existence, were known Norlherrr ott'anr
mainly only to fishermen and other mariners. Now some of these birds are No. o.l-Liting
popularly recognized: puffins, ofwhich there are three species, for their Spttics::.1
massive, colorful, photogenic bills and overall cute appearance, and in the No o.[SpLtiar
North American wildlife conservation movement, the Marbled Murrelet, Vrr /n tra/tl,:,
EnlangLrtl: q, <t
a threatened species that nests in the canopy of old-growth forests and
has become a symbol of the fight to protect these forests. Furthermore, No ol'Spuits lixtinct
Sintt t(too t
puffins and auks, along with other members ofthe family,Alcidae, including
murres, guillernots, and auklets, are now routinely spotted at sea and in
their breeding areas by nature-lovers on whale-watching cruises or pelagic
trips undertaken especially to view seabirds.The twenty-three species in
the family, collectively called alcids, are included in order Charadriiformes
with the gulls, terns, and shorebirds.Alcids are restricted to the colderwaters
of the Northern Hemisphere. Because they pursue fish underwater like
penguins, using their wings for propulsion, they are often thought of as the
Northern Hemisphere equivalents ofpenguins (which are restricted to the
Southern Hemisphere). Unlike penguins, however, alcids fy.
Six to 16 inches (r5 to 4r cm) long, alcids are stocky birds with short
wings and a very short tail-in fact, on the water, they are usually identified
by their compact bodies, short necks, and tiny tails (in the air, they look like
flying footballs). Their feet are placed well back on the body, which aids in
swimming. They are mainly dark gray or black above,light below. Bright
e
o
I
t
e
l,
;,
sANDGRousp look a lot like pigeons, and anyone not steeped in Dis/t ihtrtiort
r ornithological knowledge could be forgiven for mistaking these medium- O/t/ l'l/orll
l)
size, cryptically colored land birds for types ofpigeons or doves.Their precise N'o. of'Lititte
1 s71-ttitr tb
classification has befuddled avianbiologists forgenerations.Historically,given
Y their short bills, short, feathered legs, and terrestriai lifestyles, sandgrouse were No ol'57,:r iLr
t thought to be alliedwith chickenlike game birds such as partridges and grouse, Vrr /tr t nth/1,
Ett rl rr tr,qa rLtl. o, ct
and so perhaps to be included in the garne bird order (Galliformes), or given
their pigeonlike long, pointed wings, plumage, and some pigeonlike elements No o.l Sltril Extinc/
SincL t6oo o
of internal anatomy,with the pigeons (order Columbiformes). However,
sandgrouse differ in significantways from game birds and from pigeons (for
instance, they fly, drink, and call in a manner different from pigeons, and their
nests, eggs, and chicks are very different from pigeons'). Some molecular
research suggests sandgrouse are perhaps related to shorebirds. Several recent
classifications place the sandgrouse, family Pteroclidae, in their own order,
Pterocliformes-and that system is followed here. Sandgrouse are not well
known or appreciated; their main interactions with people are as agricultural
pests and dinner fare (although reports are that they are far from delicious),
and for these reasons they are hunted in some areas.
Restricted in their distributions to the Old World, sandgrouse are
mainly African, with twelve of the world's sixteen species occurring on that
continent (another is endemic to Madagascar,offAfrica's coast). Some occur
in southern Europe and southern Asia. From 9.5 to 16 inches (24 to 4o cm)
long, they are mostly beautifully patterned in shades of sandy brown, with
SANDGROUSE r43
("\
\
(
". t
CHESTNUT-BELLIED SANDGROUSE BLACK-EACED SANDGROUSE
Pteroc/es exuttut Pterodet decoratus
rz 5 in (3u cm) rr in (28 cm)
Africa, southern Asia Africa
with vegetation. Both parents incubate the eggs, the female during the day,
the male taking the night shift.The young leave the nest almost immediately
after hatching.They are not fed by their parents, but are shown suitable food
to pick up. In response to their dry habitat, sandgrouse have evolved special
breast feathers, modified to maximize their ability to absorb and retain water.
Males usually fly to pools, squat in the water, ruffle and soak their feathers
(known as belly-wetting) and then flybackto their nestlings.The young suck
water from the breast feathers. Females also have some of the special water-
carrying feathers, but fewer than males, and the water-carrying behavior is
best developed in the males. (Although some shorebirds, such as pratincoles,
also carry water in this way, they use it for cooling eggs and chicks, not for
providing drinking water.) After about 4 to 5 weeks, the young sandgrouse
can fly to water with their parents.
a Little is known about population sizes of most sandgrouse species, but
F-
almost all appear to be moderately to very common inhabitants of the regions
in which they occur. None of the sandgrouse are threatened globally, but some
are threatened locally; for example, in North Africa and parts of Europe,
Black-bellied and Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse are disappearing from parts
oftheir ranges, perhaps as a result ofchanging agricultural practices.
SANDGRoUSE I45
INCA DOYE WHITE FACED QUAIL.DOYE SCALY-NAPED PIGEON
Co/umbina inta Ceotrygon albfocier Co/umba quamosa
8 5 in (:r cm) rr-r4 in (28-36 cm) 13-r6 iLr (33-4r cm)
North America, Central America N{exico, Cenrral America West Indies
Co/umba 2icazuro
13 5 in (34 cm)
South America
Pigeons and Doves
I
6-
1
Partots
[,
l
l
S
n
n
S
e
PA R R o r
s are among the most recognrzable of birds; even in the roughly Distrihution
e
half of the world where they dont occur naturally, most people can identif, Ncotro2its, /] )'ita,
S, routhcrn lsiu,
one. Parrots have long fascinated people and have been captured and Austra/trsirr
e
transported widely as pets for thousands of years. The fascination stems
No. oJ'Li',tirtg
,
from the birds'bright coloring, ability to imitate human speech and other Species:.1.7t
IS
sounds, individualistic personalities, and long life spans (up to 8o years in
o No. of 52,:cias
captivity).The 33o or so parrot species that comprise family Psittacidae (in Vu.lnerahlt,
n
order Psittaciformes with the cockatoos) are globally distributed across the Endangcrd. q.1, q6
tropics,with some extending into subtropical and even temperate zones. No. oJ'Sptc i ts lir t i n ct
Lt
They have a particularly diverse, abundant presence in the neotropical and Since t6oo r9
S,
Australian regions. Parrots are generally consistent in overall form and share
some traits that set them distinctively apart from otherbirds.They are stocky,
,f with short necks and compact bodies. All possess a short, hooked, bill with
;S
a hinge on the upper part that permits great mobility and leverage during
feeding.Their legs are short, and their feet are adapted for powerful grasping
'e
and a high degree of dexteriry more so than any other bird.
S,
Parrots are sometimes divided by size: "parrotlets" are small birds (as
e
small as 4 inches [ro cm]) with short tails; "parakeets" are also small, with
it long or short tails; "parrots" are medium size, usually with short tails; and
Le
the "macaws"of Central and South America, the world's largest parrots, are
h large (up to 4o inches froo cm]) with long tails.The group contains some of
rt
the globe's most gaudily plumaged birds. Australia,for instance, has some
bedazzlirgcommon species, including the red and purple Crimson Rosella
PARROTS 15I
SCARLET MACAW BLUE-AND-YELLOW MACAW CHESTNUT-FRONTED MACAW
,4ra mano Ara setera
33-35 in (84-89 cm) 34 io (86 cm) r8-zo in (46-5r cm)
Central America, South America South America
South America
AUSTRALlAN KING-PARROT
A/isterut tapu/aris Platycercus e/egant
16 -5 in (42 cm) 14 io (36 cm)
Australia Austr:dia
PURPLE-CROWNED LORIKEET
G I o s o? t i t ta ? or? h))r o ce? h a /a
6 in (r5 cm)
Australia
and the riotously colorful Rainbow Lorikeet. The Scarlet Macaw, red, yellow,
and blue, is certainly one ofthe NewWorld's most striking birds. Green, the
predominant parrot color, serves admirably as camouflage; parrots feeding
amid a tree's high foliage are very difficult to see.In most species the sexes
are similar or identical in appearance.
Highly social seed and fruit-eaters, parrots are usually encountered in
flocks of four or more, and groups of more than fifry smaller parrots are
common. Flocks are usually groups of mated pairs.They move about seeking
food in forests, woodlands, savannas, and agricultural areas. They take
\ mostly fruits, nuts, and seeds,leaf and flower buds, and some flower parts
and nectar. A-lthough considered fruit-eaters, they often attack fruit just to
get at the seeds within.The powerful bill slices open fruit and crushes seeds.
Some parrots are specialized feeders. For example,lorikeets, a brilliantly
colored subgroup, confined mainly to Australasia and Indonesia, have long
tongues with brushlike tips that they use to gather nectar and pollen. During
early mornings and late afternoons, raucous, squawking flocks of parrots
characteristically take flight explosively from trees, heading in mornings for
feeding areas and later for night roosts. A wide range of parrots often visit
"licks,"exposed soil clay deposits.They eat the clay,which may help detoxi$,
harmful compounds that are consumed in their seed and fruit diet or may
supply essential minerals not provided by a vegetarian diet. Parrots are not
\ considered strong flyers and most do not undertake long-distance flights.
\ Parrots are monogamous, often pairing for life. Most species breed in
1'
tree cavities, often in dead trees or branches, and often high offthe ground;
nests maybe lined with wood chips. Females incubate eggs alone while
usuallybeingperiodically fed regurgitated food by their mates.The helpless
young are fedbyboth parents.
Although many parrots still enjoy healthy populations, eighty-nine
species worldwide are threatened (forty-three are r,rrlnerable, thirry-three
are endangered, and thirteen critically endangered). Unfortunately, parrots
are subject to three powerful forces that, in combination, take heavy tolls
on their numbers: they are primarily forest birds (often nesting only in tree
hollows), and forests are increasingly under attack by loggers, agricultural
interests, and developers; they are considered agricultural pests by farmers
owing to their seed and fruit eating; and they are among the world's most
popular cage birds. The United States'only native parrot, the Carolina
Parakeet, became extinct during the early r9oos.
PARROTS r55
k"
"{
,|
^\
COC KATl EL MAIOR NIITCHELL S COCKATOO
Nymphitus hollandicut Cacatua leadbeateri
13 in (33 cm) r4 in (j5 cm)
Atrstralia Australia
Cockatoos
Like other parrots, coc KAToo s, a spectacular group that occurs only l)ir/ t ihtrliort
in the Australia/New Guinea and Indonesia regions, have long captured .tltrrliititrii,t, ltil /\ t/
.\l('.it'\ )r
especially have been kept as companion animals.The twenty-one species,
family Cacatuidae (placed in the order Psittaciformes with the typical .\o ol'Sil.'r i,
'
11rltt, t,rbl,'.
parrots), are medium to large parrots (rz to z5 inches,3o to 64 cm, long) with l)n,llti,1;,''i,l 1,;
crests that they can erect.The most recognized member of the family to
.\'o o1 .\7,',,;. \ l'.\/ rtt/
many North Americans is probably the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, which Siilir t()ao t)
is large, white, with a yellow crest, and is a commonly kept pet.
Sharing their general form with other parrots, cockatoos are bulky birds
with short necks and short, hooked bills. They have medium to longish
tails and their legs are short,with feet adapted for powerful grasping and
a high degree of dexterity. Cockatoos come in two main colors, blackish
or white.The blackish or dark gray species include the huge,large-billed
Palm Cockatoo ofAustralia and New Guinea,which, at up to z.z pounds (r
kg), is the largest cockatoo, and the smallest cockatoo,Australia's Cockatiel,
which is a common cage bird worldwide. Among the white species is a group
of smaller cockatoos known as corellas; the Sulphur-crestedl and Australia's
Major Mitchell's Cockatoo, which has a pinkish head and striking red,
yellow, and white crest.The Galah, endemic to Australia and considered quite
an agricultural pest, is gray and pink. In most cockatoos, the sexes Lreyery
similar or identical in appearance,but some have moderate differences.
en
st.
Tirracos
ng
tse
tu1
OS
)ts
he
tu1
tit
.zt,
ih.
Ch Tu Ac o s are large, colorful, arboreal birds of sub- aharan African forests,
R S D itlrib ution'
ed *'oodlands, and savannas.They are known for their brilliant plumage and Sub-Saharan,4ft.itu
have long been hunted for their feathers; turaco feathers are commonly No of-Lioing
llv :sed in ceremonial headdresses ofvarious African groups, including East Spcti e s: z,j
CS;
-\rrica's nomadic Masai people. Being large and tastybirds, turacos are also No. of Spccies
in lursued for the dinner table. Visitors to African forests and savannas are Vu/nerahle,
tre Endangcrtd; t, r
nade quickly aware of these birds by their raucous, often repetitive calls,
ng .ome of the most characteristic sounds of these habitats. The twenty- No. of Specics Extintt
Sincc t6oo. o
three turaco species are all confined to Africa; they are known as louries
ES,
in southern Africa.The family, Musophagidae, although its classification
ran i: controversial, is usually placed in order Cuculiformes with the cuckoos.
ers
-llusopbagidae refers to banana or plantain eating, but despite being fruit-
for eaters, turacos rarely eat wild bananas.). Some of the turacos are formally
:d- called plantain-eaters and others are known as go-away-birds, for their loud
'ed d i s tinctive " g' w ay, g' w ay" calls.
be Turacos, all with conspicuous, sometimes colorful crests, are 16 to
eir :9 inches (4o to Z4 cm) long and have short, strong bills; short, rounded
gs. u'ings; and long, broad tails. Many have bare, brightly colored patches of
Les,
skin around their eyes. Most species are primarily a striking glossy blue,
ha green, or purplish. Studies ofturacos show that their bright coloring at least
:ed partially reflects the foods they eat. Some fruits in their diet provide copper,
nd and a red copper-based pigment (turacin) unique to turacos provides the
brilliant reds in their plumage. Similarly, the deep greens of some species
TURACO S r59
ROSS S TU RACO I{AR ILAUts S TURACO
,Vusophtga rotne Tauruto haftlauhi
:r in (s3 crn) r7 in (43 crn)
Africa
PURPLE-CRESTDD TT]RACO
7h u ra t o 7 orp h y re o / op b us
r7 5 in (45 cm)
Aiiica
rrise from another unique copper pigment called turacoverdin.The denser
:nd greener the forest habitat a given turaco species occupies, the deeper
ireen its plumage.The go-away-birds (three species) and plantain-eaters
:t'o species) inhabit scrublands, savanna, and open woodlands, instead of
:,rrests, and they are clad mostly in soft gray, buff, brown, and white. Male
TURACOS r6t
SQUT RREL CUCKOO YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO
Piala cayana Coccyzus americanus
18 in (+6 cm) rz in (3o cm)
Mexico, Central America, Sorrth America North America. South America
cuc Koo s are physically rather plain but behaviorally extraordinary, Dirtribution:
employing some of the most bizarre breeding practices known among birds. A// runtinents excef t
Antnrctica
I{any Old World cuckoo species are brood parasites: they build no nests
of their own, the females layrngtheir eggs in the nests of other species. No oJ'l.iting
h These other birds often raise the young cuckoos as their own offspring, to
Speties' t zz
the significant detriment of their own young. Brood parasitism by cuckoos No ol-S1ecies
l/u /ne rab /L:,
gave rise to the word cuckold,meaning that a maris wife was unfaithful Enlangcred:6, 1
and so he raised offspring genetically unrelated to him, which recalls the
No. oJ'Spetics Extinct
cuckoos'reproductive habits.The name cuckoo comes from the calls made Sincc 16oo t ot z
by a Eurasian species, the Common Cuckoo,which is also the source of the
sounds for cuckoo clocks.
Cuckoos (which include coucals, couas, and malkohas, among others)
comprise family Cuculidae, included in order Cuculiformes with the turacos.
There are about rzo species, distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical
areas. Most are small to medium-size birds (6 to 18 inches 116 to 46 cm] long),
slender, narrow-winged, and long-tailed; bills curve downward at the end.
Male and female mostlylookalike,attired in plain grays,browns, andwhites,
often with streaked or spotted patches. Several have alternating white and
blackbands on their chests and/or tail undersides. Some are more brightly
clad. Many of the nine couas, restricted to Mad agascar,are greenish, and all
have bare blue skin around their eyes. Bronze-cuckoos, five small species
of the Australia/New Guinea region, have metallic green backs and wings,
and the twelve long-tailed malkohas, of southern Asia, have red or bluish
cucKoos t63
Ceniro?Lts tiilentis
18 zo 5 in (4; -;z cm)
;
Southern Atiica
E
PALLID CUCKOO
\ Cutu/ut pa//idus
rz 5 in (3u cm)
Australia
eye rings and yellow and/or reddish bills. Coucals, a group of nventy-eight
mostlyground-feeding species, mainly ofAfrica and Southeast Asia, include
some of the largest family members, ranging up to about 3o inches (76 cm).
Cuckoos are mainly shy, solitary birds of forests, woodlands, and dense
thickets. Most are arboreal, and are known for their fast, graceful, undulating
flight.They eat insects and insect larvae, apparently having a special fondness
for caterpillars. Larger cuckoos will also take fruit, berries, and small
vertebrates. A few cuckoos, such as the Pheasant Coucal, are chiefy ground
dwellers, eating insects, but also vertebrates such as mice, small lizards, and
snakes.These coucals,which live in dense vegetation areas, do fly, albeit not
gracefully or for long distances; they prefer to run along the ground to catch
food or to escape from predators.
About 5o of the rzo-odd cuckoos are brood parasites. (In the New
World, only 3 cuckoos are parasitic, but they are in the ground-cuckoo
group, covered in the next account.) Coucals, couas, and malkohas are not
parasites, building their own nests and breeding monogamously. A given
parasitic cuckoo species usually parasitizes many different "host" species
(hosts are all passerines, or perching birds), but an individual female usually
lays in the nests of the same host species. A female cuckoo lays an egg in
a host nest usually when the host couple is absent, and she often removes
a host egg before laying her own (presumably so the same number of eggs
is in the nest when the hosts return). Many host species are smaller than
the cuckoos that parasitize them, so some cuckoos actually lay eggs that
are smaller than those of similar-size birds, so that their eggs more closely
match the size of the host's eggs. Other cuckoos lay eggs that resemble the
host's eggs in shell color and patterning.All these machinations are thought
to be adaptations so that the hosts cannot recognize the cuckoo eggs and
eject them (as happens in some species).When the cuckoo chickhatches,it
tosses other eggs and the host's own chicks out of the nest by pushing them
with its back. If any host chicks are left in the nest, the cuckoo chick, usually
larger, out-competes them for food brought to the nest by the host parents,
and the hosts'own young often starve or are significantly weakened.
Cuckoos, chiefly birds of forests, are threatened mainly by forest
destruction and degradation. Currentlysix species are consideredvulnerable
and three endangered (t'wo critically).
)
Ground-cuckoos;
;e
c
'b
Anis; Hoatzrn
;S
1l
d
d
rt
h
o
cRouND-cucKoos, ANts, and the u oATZIN are NewWorld GROTJNI) CTICKOOS
rt
birds with controversial classifications.The ground-cuckoos and anis are Distr ih trtio n
n
sometimes includedwith cuckoos in family Cuculidae,but here, alongwith NLu Wor/l
:S
the Hoatzin, they are treated as separate families. No of-l,ititr,q
v The ten species ofNewWorld Ground-cuckoos (family Neomorphidae) SVtcit;. ro
n
are mainly shy inhabitants of dense forests and scrub areas of Central and No. of-S1Lritt
:S
South America,but the two called roadrunners are distributed over dry open Vt /tttrn/,/t,
's
areas of North and Central America. Medium to large (ro to zz inches [25 Entltrnytrd. r, o
t]
to 56 cml long), they are predominantly brown and streaked, but some have No o.f'STLt r l: r t i tt tt
iL
rt Sin,:t rhoo o
glossy green or blue backs and wings; many have patches of red or blue skin
near their eyes.
Ground-cuckoos walk, run, and leap, but rarely fly. They eat insects,
centipedes, spiders, scorpions, small frogs, snakes, and lizards. Several of
them forage around army ant swarms, eating insects escaping from the
swarms. Roadrunners eat insects, scorpions, centipedes, spiders, toads,
lizards, eggs, and small snakes, birds, and mammals, and occasionally seeds
and fruit.Three ground-cuckoos (including the Striped Cuckoo) are the
New World's only brood parasitic cuckoos: females lay their eggs in the
nests of other species, which then raise the young cuckoos as their own
t offspring. Other ground-cuckoos, including the roadrunners, are traditional
e
monogamous breeders that place their stick nest on or near the ground. Some
ground-cuckoos are fairly common; one species is considered vulnerable.
Anis are conspicuous,gregarious birds of savannas,brushy scrubs, fields,
and river edges. The family, Crotophagidae, contains three ani species,
CUIRA CUCKOO
Guiraguira
r4 in (j6 cm)
South America
distributed through South/Central America and the Caribbean, and
South America's Guira Cuckoo. Anis are medium size (rz to 18 inches fuo l)it/tihtr/ion:
to 46 cm] long), glossy black all over, with iridescent sheens.Their bills are NLo/ rolit;
exceptionally large and arched, or humped, on top. No o_l'Lit,ittg
Anis live in groups of eight to twenty-five individuals (two to eight 57,:titr I
adults plus juveniles). Each group defends a feeding/breeding territory from No. o.f'STtcitr
other groups throughout the year.They usually forage on the ground, taking ILr/trtrtb/,:,
insects, but also a little fruit; frequently they feed around cattle, grabbing litt,llttgtrd: o, o
insects that are flushed from hiding places by the grazingmammals.Their No ol STctitt E:rtittct
Sintt t6oct'o
vocalizatrons are usually loud and discordant; a fock calling has been
compared to the din at a boiler factory.
Communal breeders, all anis within a group often contribute to a single IIOATT-IN
nest; several females maylay eggs in it-up to twenty-nine eggs have been I)it/t ihtrlion
found in one nest. Many individuals help build the stick nest and feed the Not /htt n South
tlnrr:ritn
young. Although this behavior appears to benefit all individuals involved,
actually it is a group's dominant male and female that gain most.Their eggs go No of'Litin.q
SpLtiLt. t
in the communal nest last, on top of all the others,which often get buried.
The Hoatzin, somewhat resembling a dinosaur with feathers, is one No o.l'Spttits
14r/trLroh/c,
of the most intriguing birds of South America. About the size of a turkey
liniong,:ru/: o, o
(z4to z8 inches [6o to 7o cm] long) and brown,with prominent crest and
bluish face, it is restricted to flooded forests and marshes of the upper No o.f'STttics Exli rttt
Sirrtr r(tot:: o
Amazon region.There has been more controversy over this strange bird's
classification than perhaps any otherl at various times it was considered part
of about ten different families. Now it is placed in a single-species family,
Opisthocomidae, in its own order, Opisthocomiformes.
Hoatzins are usually in loose focks of two to eight in bushes along
the edges of slow-moving streams or forested lakes.They eat only leaves
and have a digestive system similar to a cow's that uses fermentation to
digest otherwise indigestible plant parts. Breeding is monogamous, but the
breeding pair often has helpers, other members of the social group, usually
grown young from previous nests of the breeding pair, which help with
care of eggs and young.The stick nest is placed in a tree branch over water.
When in danger, nestlings jump into the water, swim underwater, and then
climb another tree. For climbing, they have an extra, opposable, digit (lost
as the chick matures) on their wing that they use like a hand. Hoatzins, not
threatened, are not often hunted because, owing to some of the plants they
eat, their meat smells and tastes aw{ul.
MARSH OWL
,4sio capentis
rr 5-r4in (29-36 cm)
Africa, Madagascar
nocrurnal habits and loud, haunting vocalizations. Most owls, the "qpical" No. ol Spccier
Vu/nerable,
ou'ls, are members offamily Strigidae, aworldwide group of 188 species that
Endangered: ro, r.1
lacks representation only on some remote oceanic islands; barn owls, with
r6 species worldwide (excepting northern North America and northern No. of Speties Extintt
Since 16oo: I
Eurasia), constitute a separate family, Tytonidae. Owls are particularly
diverse in the tropics and subtropics.
Distinctive owl features arelarge heads; small, hooked bills; plumpish
bodies; and sharp, hooked claws. Most have short legs and short tails, and
n any have feather e ar-tufts. O wls, clad mo stly in mixture s of gray, brown, and
black, are usually highly camouflaged against a variety ofbackgrounds. Most
rre medium-size birds, but the group includes species that range in length
from 5 to 3o inches (B to 75 cm). Males and females generally look alike.In
many species, females are a bit larger; in a few; however, males are. Barn Owls
differ from other owls in having a narrow body,long legs, and heart-shaped
ticial "disk,"the flattened face of feathers characteristic of owls.
Owls occupy avariety of habitats: forests, clearings, fields, grasslands,
deserts, mountains, marshes, They are considered to be the nocturnal
OWLS T7T
BARN OWL FERRUGTNOUS PYCMY-OWL BLACK-BANDED OWL
Tlto alba G / auc id i um b ras i / ian um Cictaba bubula
rr 5-r7 5 in (29 .14 cm) 6-7 5 in (r5-19 cm) r3 5 in (34 cm)
North America, South America, Europe, North America. South America South America
Africa, Ausrralia, southern Asia
IMM
.4 {'
Most owls are monogamous.They do not build nests, but either take
over nests abandoned by other birds or nest in cavities such as tree or rock
holes. Incubation is usually conducted by the female alone, but she is fed by
her mate. Upon hatching, the female broods the young while the male hunts
and brings meals; later, the young are fed by both parents.
Because owls are cryptically colored and nocturnal, it can be difficult
to determine their population sizes. However, many species are known
to be threatened, especially among those restricted to islands. Most owls
inhabit tropical forests and, ofcourse, the extent ofthese forests is being
inexorably reduced. Among the typical owls, ten are vulnerable and thirteen
are endangered (seven of those critically); one barn owl is vulnerable and
three are endangered.
on /n/arctira
among the most poorly known of birds. Like their close relatives the owls,
rth No. ofLitting
they are active chiefly at night and this, combined with their secretive habits
.en Speries: 89
and frequent silence, renders them difficult to observe and study. Nightjars
vls No. oJ-Specier
(family Caprimulgidae, in the order Caprimulgiformes with frogmouths
.en Vulnerab/a,
and potoos) are distributed essentially worldwide outside of polar regions, Endangered.3, 4
)rs,
u'ith the eighty-nine species occupying a broad range of forested and open
rth No of Specics Extinct
habitats. Many North American nightjars are called nighthawks (because Since t6oo' o
wl
they were once mistaken for hawks flying at night) and poorwills (after
the vocalizations of some species). Nightjars as a group are sometimes also
ke
called goatsuckers. At nvilight, some species fly low over the ground near
ck
grazingmammals, such as goats.The birds flyright next to the mammals to
by
catch insects that flush as theywalk. Long ago the assumption was that the
1ts
birds were trying to suckthe goats'milk, so theywere called goatsuckers; this
fanciful name has stuck.Their order and family name comes from the Latin
rlt c apri mu lgus, meaning "goat- milker. "
VN
Nightjars have a very characteristic appearance, with big eyes, long
rrls
rvings, and medium or long tails.Their small, stubbybills enclose big,wide
n8
mouths. Many species have prominent bristles around the mouth, which act
en
as a food funnel.With their short legs and weak feet, they are poor walkersl
nd
flying is their usual mode of locomotion. Nightjar plumage is uniformly
cryptic: mottled, spotted, and barred mixtures of browns, grays, tans, and
NIGHTJARS 175
LESSER NIGHTHAWK SAND_COLORED NIGHTHAWK
Chordeiles acuti2ennk Cbordei/es rupestris
75-9 in (r9-23 cm) Z 5-9 5 in (r9-r4 cm)
North America. South America South America
LYRE-TAILED NIGHTJAR
Uropsalis lyra
ro.5 in plus long tail (27 cm plus long tail)
South America
NIGHTJARS 177
]AVAN FROGMOUTH TAWNY FROGMOUTH
B atratb os tomus j aoent it Podargus strigoides
75-ro in(r9-z5cm) r3 5-zr in (;l S:.-)
Southeast Asia Ausrralia
OILBIRD
Steatornis cari2ensis
r5.5-19 5 in (4o-49 cm)
South America
F'rogmouths;
Owlct-Nightjars;
Potoos; Oilbird
The nocturnal birds discussed here are close relatives of the better- f'taoGNl()U'flls
known and more diverse nightjars and are included with them in order l)ittt
ihtrtit,n
Caprimulgiformes. Soulhtru llsirt,
The twelve species of rnocMourns (family Podargidae) are tl tr;tra/utiu
distributed in southern Asia and the Australian region. Named for their No of Lit,ittg
massive, broad, slightly hooked bills, frogmouths are medium to largish (8 S/',:rics tz
to z4 inches lzo to 6o cm]) gray or brown birds with short legs.They roost by No. ol Slccitt
ltt trn h/e,
day on exposed tree branches, making use of their extremely cryptic plumage 11 t
Dndongart:t/. o, t>
and behavior to avoid detection by predators; they perch motionless with
their bills pointing upward, and strongly resemble dead branches. The No. o/'Spi:cits l)xt intt
Sintt 16oo: o
likeness is so close that bird-watchers sometimes stare and stare through
binoculars, trying to decide if the object they see is bird or branch. At dusk,
in their forest and woodland habitats, solitary frogmouths begin foraging.
They sit on various perches, detect prey-insects and spiders, snails, small
vertebrates-and then swoop and grab with their bill. Frogmouth nests
are small platforms or cups of twigs, moss, and lichens built fairly high in
trees. Eggs are incubated by the female only or by both sexes and young are
fed by both parents. No frogmouths are currently threatened, but five are
considered near-threatened.
owLET- N IGHTJAns (familyAegothelidae) are a group of nine
species restricted largely to forests of the Australasian region; most occur
in New Guinea. Owing to their general shape and upright stance, owlet-
nightjars looklike owls or like crosses between owls and nightjars.They are
Jae)
o23
ings
:ads,
s sit
s w I F T s , more adapted to an aerial lifestyle than any other birds, represent
into the pinnacle of avian flying prowess. Perpetual fight in the past was so much Distrihrttiort
I ate
the popular impression that it was actually thought that swifts never landed A/I rcntirrutIr txtarbt
Lally tl rr /trn tiu
but remained flying throughout most of their lives. (Indeed, they were
rtch long ago believed to lack feet; hence the family name, Apodidae, meaning No oJ-l,irittn
nful "without feet.") Swifts are also known for their superb ability to catch insects ,S7cci,':; Ahou19.;
ngle
on the wing and, in some parts of the world, for their nests: the breeding No. a/'Sptcitt
exes
constructions of some species are fashioned wholly or partly from the swifts'
Jittlrr ttwrci: .i, t
(edible; some say delicious) saliva; their nests are harvested as the primary
sual No o.f SpiciLs l')xtitttr
ingredient ofbird's nest soup, an Asian delicacy.
rted The ninety-five or so swift species are distributed worldwide in
SittLL't(t<>o. t>
rrith
temperate and tropical areas; their closest relatives are the hummingbirds
ans (swifts and hummingbirds comprise orderApodiformes). Swifts are slender
ries
and streamlined,with long,pointedwings. Smallto medium-size fu.5 to ro
use
inches 19 to z5cm] long), they have small bills,very short legs, and short tails,
rds
or in some,long, forked tails.Their tail feathers are stiffened to support the
ng
birds as they cling to vertical surfaces.The sexes look alike: blackish )gr^y,or
)st brown, often with light markings; many have glossy plumage.
of It seems as if sra.ifts fly effortlessly all day, moving in seemingly erratic
:d patterns high overhead, in a wide variety of habitats.They eat flying insects
is and some spiders found in the air, and occasionally take bugs offthe water's
3S
surface when they come down for a drink, always in flight.They rarely land
.d
except at night, when they come together in large groups gathered on a
uncertain. Frve are classified as vulnerable and one, the Guam Swiftlet, is No. ol'Lioing
endangered.In general, people dont disturb or harm swifts, aside from the Spctirr: I
species whose nests are collected for soup. Edible-nest swiftlets are small No. oJ'Spccits
srvifts that roost and nest in caves. Their breeding caves are regularly raided Vu lnarahlc,
Enlangercl: o, o
and nests gathered as a valuable commercial resource. Not surprisingly,
edible-nest swiftlet populations in countries in which they occur, such as No o.f'Spct ia r l:x tin c t
Sin.ct 16oo: o
\Ialaysia and Indonesia, have plunged as people settle more areas and new
roads open up previously inaccessible regions with breeding caves.
.r nBe swrFTS (familyHemiprocnidae) are four species of forest and
rvoodland birds that occur over Parts of southern Asia and the New Guinea
region.They resemble swifts but differ by having head crests,long forked
tails, and being more brightly colored; two species have distinctive white
head stripes. Tieeswifts, like swifts, catch insects on the wing during long
periods of sustained flight, but they also will sally out after flying insects
tro.r, exposed perch in a tree. Monogamous breeders, treeswifts nest
",
solitarily.The tiny cup nest, attached to the side of a branch, is constructed
of bark, feathers, and saliva. None of the treeswifts are threatened.
Slt,I/IFTS;TREESWIFTS r83
GREEN VIOLET-EAR WHIl'E-1'IPPED SICKLEBILL
Colibri thalassinur Eutoxeres aquila
4 5 in (rr cm) 5 in (r3 cm)
Mexico, Central America, Cenrral America, Sourh Arnerica
Sourh America
Palagona gi&aj
8 5 in (zr cm)
Sourh America
Hummingbirds
H u M M I N G B I R D s are among the most recognized kinds of birds, the L)i ttri huti on
.mallest birds, and undoubtedly among the most beautiful, albeit on a minute N,:rt WorlJ
variery of forms encompassed by the family, not to mention the brilliant No of Slctits
Vr/rttruh/,:,
iridescence of most of its members, is indicated in the names attached to
llnittrgtrul. t1, zo
some of the different subgroups: in addition to the hummingbirds proper,
there are emeralds, sapphires, sunangels, sunbeams, comets, metaltails, Nc of'STeci t: l-)x/ i n tl
Sinct r6oo. z
tairies,woodstars,woodnymphs, puflegs, sabrewings, thorntails, thornbills,
and lancebills. These are mainly very small birds, usually gorgeously clad
in iridescent metallic greens, reds,violets, and blues. Most hummingbirds
(hummers) are in the range of only 2.5to sinches (6 to 13 cm) long, although
a few larger kinds reach 8 inches (zo cm), and they tip the scales at an
almost imperceptibly low o.r to o.3 ounces (z to 9 grams)-some weighing
no more than a large paper clip. Bill length and shape varies extensively
among species, each bill closely adapted to the precise t)?e offlowers from
rvhich a species delicately draws its liquid food. Males are usually more
colorful than females, and many of them have gorgets, bright, glittering
throat patches. Not all hummers are so vividly outfitted; one group, called
hermits (because of their solitaryways) are known for dull, greenish brown
and gray plumage.
Hummingbirds occupy a broad array of habitat types, from exposed
high mountainsides at 13,ooo feet (4,ooo m) to midelevation arid areas
to sea level tropical forests and mangrove swamps. All get most of their
nourishment from consuming flower nectar.They have long, thin bills and
HUMMINGBIRDS I85
SWORD-BILLED HUMMINGBIRD GORGETED SUNANGEL BOOTED RACKET-TAIL
Ensifera enstfera H e li an ge I u s s tr o2 h ian us Ocreatus underuoodii
6 5-9 io (r7-uj cm) 4 5 in (rr cm) 6-7 in (r5-r8 cm)
South America South America South America
during the breeding season, advertising for females. Females enter a lek, assess
the displaying males, and choose ones to mate with. After mating, females
leave the lek or territory and build their nests,which are cuplike and made
of plant parts, mosses,lichens, feathers, animal hairs, and spider webbing.
Nests are placed in small branches of trees, often attached with spider
webbing. Females lay eggs, incubate them, and feed regurgitated nectar and
insects to their young.
Habitat loss and degradation are the main threats to these stunning
little birds. About twenty-nine hummingbird species in Mexico, Central
America, and South America are considered threatened,with about twenty
of these currently endangered. Nine of the latter are critically endangered,
with tinyranges and miniscule populations.
St they are also appreciated for their sociable, playful habits. They are named No of'Spt:cic;
CS mousebirds because oftheir somewhat mouselike appearance (smallish and [1r/rt' rnhlt:,
I'tttltttt?ititl o'o
r8 drab,withlongtails)andtheirtypicalsmall-rodentlikebehaviorsofscuttling
n. through vegetation,living in groups, and huddling together. There are only ltll' o1"\lLti Exl intt
rl, six mousebirds (called colies in some parts of Africa), comprising family '5tttiL'I()oo"
in Coliidae (placed in its own order, Coliiformes, the only order wholly endemic
ty to Africa). Mousebirds are noted among ornithologists mainly for their
SS classification: although they resemble perching birds (order Passeriformes)
ES and historically were placed in that group, research over many decades
le indicates that mousebirds are actually a distinct, probably ancient group, not
o closely related to other birds, which is why they now have their own order.
6'
3r All mousebirds (rr to 15 inches [28 to 38 cm] in length, including long
Ld tail) are similar in appearance.They have short necks; short, rounded wings;
short, robust, somewhat finchlike billsl pronounced crests that flatten when
rg theyfly; and long (7 touinches [r8 to z8 cm]), stifftails.Their short legs have
al curious feet; all four toes can face forward, but one or tvvo are flexible enough
ry to be turned back for gripping. Mousebirds often hang from branches,
d, instead ofperching like other birds. Feathers are soft and frilly, and owing
to this, their plumage is less waterproof than that of most birds; they easily
MOUSEBIRDS r8g
WHITE-HEADED MOUSEBIRD
Colius leucoce2lsa/us
rz io (jo cm)
Afiica
become drenched in heavyrains.All are dully colored in gray,brown,orbuff.
S everal have bare skin (red, black, o r graf) around the eyes that forms a mask.
The sexes look alike.
Mousebirds feed primarily on plants, eating leaves, buds, flowers, and
stems, as well as fruit, seeds and nectar, and regularly devour their own
body weight in food daily. Scrambling through the vegetation, they are
acrobatic feeders and often dangle from one foot while trying to reach a
fruit. Some, such as the Spectacled Mousebird, apparently can eat fruits
and leaves that are poisonous to other vertebrates (the clay soils they also
e^t may help detoxi$. the poisonous compounds). Mousebirds are usually
found in groups, often between five and eight birds, but when fruiting trees
are bearing prolifically, dozens of mousebirds may gather to feed. Groups
move about locally as food availability changes, but they do not undertake
extensive migrations.Theyflyin single-file style from bush to bush andpack
together in a tight huddle when resting or sleeping.
The gregarious habits of mousebirds persist throughout the year,
although, when breeding, pairs tend to split offfrom the flock and raise
their broods without the group's involvement. However, two or more pairs
maybuild nests near each other, and there are cases ofmore than one female
laying in a nest and of more than two "parents"attending a brood ofyoung-
that is, sometimes there are helpers at the nest, which are usually young
from previous broods. Monogamy is the usual, but not invariable, breeding
arrangement (occasionally males breed with more than one female, and
some females have been known to have more than one mate in a single
breeding season); many pairs remain together for years. Nests, simple open
cups made of grass, twigs, or weed stems, are placed in shrubs or trees, usually
well hidden in thick foliage. Both sexes build the nest, incubate eggs, and
feed young.They live up to 12 years in captivity.
Mousebirds are common and widespread in Africa; none are threatened.
In flocks, th ey caninflict extensive damage to fruit crops such as figs, grapes,
peaches, and plums, and to vegetables such as lettuce and tomatoes.They are
persecuted by farmers for this reason, and many are also killed by agricultural
pesticides. However, because they are so successful at taking advantage
of people's alterations of natural habitats-of their farms, orchards, and
gardens-mousebird populations are stable. Many Africans consider them
charming birds, watching them with great pleasure.
\-_-
MOUSEBIRDS r9r
RESPLENDENT QUETZAL GOLDEN-HEADED QUETZAL
Pbaromachrut mocinno Pbaromachrus auritept
14-16 in plus long rail 13-r7.5 in (33-44 cm)
(36 - 4o cm plus loog tail) South America
Central America
WHITE.TAILED TROCON
Trogox oiridit Priatelus temnurus
ro 5 in (27 cm) 9 5 in (24 cm)
Central America, South America West Indies
Har?ac te t e rl t br o reqba I us
13 in (33 cm)
Southeast Asia
Ttngons
r bills. Considering the broad and widely separated geographic areas over
which the species of this family are spread, the uniformity of the family's
body plan and plumage pattern is striking. Male trogons have glittering
No. o.f-Sltrit:
Vulrttrahb,
EnJon.garLd:
No. o.f'S7 a t i t s l: r
c:t
tint t
green, blue, or violet heads and chests, with contrasting bright red, yellow, ,9intL t6oo'ct
or orange underparts. Females are duller, usuallywith brown or gray heads,
but share the males'brightly colored breasts and bellies.There are some
differences among trogons ofvarious regions; for instance, the three African
species have small patches of colored skin below the eye,which the twenty-
four NewWorld species and twelve Asian species do not.The characteristic
trogon tail is long and squared-ofl often with horizontal black and white
stripes on the underside.togons usually sit erectwith their distinctive tails
pointing straight to the ground.
One trogon stands out from the flock: the regal-looking Resplendent
Qretzal. Famously described as "the most spectacular bird in the New
World," this quetzal generally resembles other trogons, but the male's
emerald-green head is topped by a ridged crest of green feathers, and truly
ostentatiously,long green plumes extend up to 2 feet (6o cm) past the
TROGONS 193
end of the male's typical trogon tail. This large trogon was revered or even
considered sacred by the ancient inhabitants of Central America, including
the Mayans, and is now a national symbol of Guatemala.
Tiogons are generally observed either solitarily or in pairs.In spite of their
distinctive calls (trogon "cow-cow-cow" calls are one of the characteristic
sounds of many NewWorld tropical forests) and brilliant plumage, they can
be difficult to locate or to see clearlywhen spotted perched on a tree branch.
Like green parrots, trogons easily meld into dark green overhead foliage.
Tiogon behavior is not much help because these birds usually perch for long
periods with little moving or vocalizing, the better presumably to avoid the
notice ofpredators.Tiogons, therefore, are most often seen when flying.This
often occurs in sudden bursts as they flip offthe branches on which a moment
before they sat motionless and sally out in undulatory, short flights to snatch
insects, their main food. Bristles at the base ofthe bill may protect their eyes
from flailing bugs.Trogons also swoop to grab small lizards, frogs, and snails,
and take small fruits from trees while hovering. Qretzals eat mainly fruit.
Tiogons rarcIy fy fagstaying mostly in their fairly small territories.
Monogamous breeders, trogons usually nest in tree cavities or in
excavations in arboreal ant, termite, or wasp nests (they have been observed
taking over a wasp nest, carving a nest hole in it, and then eating their
insect neighbors during nesting). Generally the trogon female incubates
eggs during the night and the male take s over during the day.Young are fed
byboth parents.
Tiogons mainly inhabit tropical forests, and the continuing loss of
these forests is the greatest threat they face. Although most species are still
common, they are bound to become less so in the future as more forests
are cut and degraded.Ten species are considered near-threatened. Some
authorities believe the Resplendent Qretzal is now endangered, primarily
owing to destruction of its cloud forest habitat. Large tracts of Central
American and southern Mexican cloud forest, its only homes, continue
to be cleared for cattle pasture, agriculture, and logging. These quetzals are
also threatened because local people illegally hunt them for trade in skins,
feathers, and live birds. Because of the quetzal's prominence in Guatemala
(the bird is depicted on its state seal and its currency) and as a particularly
gorgeous poster animal for conservation efforts, several special reserves have
been established for it in Central America.
KTNGFTSHERS I95
BELTED KINCFISHER AMAZON KINGFISHER WH]TE-THROATED KINGFISHER
Ceryle a/c1on Cb/orocerl/e amazona Halcyon smyrnensit
rr-r3 in (:8-33 cm) rz in (3o cm) rr in (28 cm)
Norrh America, South America Mexico, Cenral America, South America Southern Asia
KINGFISHERS tg7
AD-BILLED TODY
JAMAICAN TODY
Todus todus
4 5 in (rr cm)
Jamaica
Todies
T o D I E s are a small group of tiny, dazzhng forest birds known mainly to l)ittriltrrtion'
globetrotting bird-watchers and residents of Cuba,Jamaica, Hispaniola, W't/ Inliu
and Puerto Rico, the only places they occur.These diminutive birds are No of-Li,uing
appreciated for their bright colors, relative tameness, and insect-catching 52,'rir'r'-;
ways. Now restricted to the West Indies, todies were once more widespread, No of'Slacier
as evidenced by the discovery of a millions-of-years-old todylike fossil Vu lnL:ro/tla,
Ltiang,:rcd: o, o
in Wyoming. Thus, the present todies are considered a relict famrly-a
narrowly distributed group of a once widespread group that has died out in No. of- S2cti ts L)x t tt tt
i
Sitttr r6oo o
the remainder ofits former range.The five tody species (Cuba,Jamaica, and
Puerto Rico each support a single speciesl Hispaniola has two) comprise
family Todidae, which is included in the order Coraciiformes with the
kingfishers, bee-eaters, motmots, and hornbills.
All todies lookmuch alike-in fact,during mostofthe nineteenth century
theywere all thought to be single species (then known as theJamaicanTody).
They are emerald green above, with ruby red throats and whitish underparts
tinged with yellow or pink. All have relatively large heads, plump bodies, and
short, stubby tails. Bills are long, narrow, and straight, dark above, red below,
and usually tilted upward when the birds perch. Some individual todies are
as small as 3.5 inches (q .-) in length;the largest, Hispaniola's Broad-billed
Tody, ranges up to 4.5 inches (rr.5 cm). Male and female todies look alike.
Todies are voracious insect-eaters. Like hummingbirds, their tiny size
means they have fast metabolisms and must feed frequently to obtain
enough energy; some have been known to eat up to 40 percent of their
199
body weight in a day. Typically a tody sits quietly on a twig with its head
cocked upward, alertly scanning the leaves above. Upon spotting an insect,
the bird flits upward in an arc, snatches the bug from, often, the bottom of
a leaf, then settles on another twig, and begins the process again.Todies in
some habitats will also dart out from a perch and catch insects in the air,
like flycatchers, and sometimes even hover a bit, like hummingbirds. When
alarge prey item is caught, a todywill often beat it on a branch to stun it
so it can be easily swallowed. Occasionally these birds consume spiders,
millipedes, small fruits and berries, andtinylizards.Todies are territorial and
may stay in pairs allyear. Sometimes they temporarily join mixed-species
foraging flocks with such other birds as tanagers, thrushes, and vireos.Todies
frequently give a variety ofshort buzzy or beeping calls.
Monogamous breeders, todies nest in burrows dug into earthen banks,
usuallynotveryhigh above the ground.The burrows,which range in length
from 5 to z4 inches (tz to 6o cm) long, and average about rz inches fuo cm),
are enlarged at the back,where the eggs are deposited; they are also curved
so that the eggs cannot be seen from the entrance. Both sexes excavate the
burrow using their bills as chisels to loosen soil. Digging a tunnel takes
about z months. Courtship consists of brief sex chases interspersed with
distinctive "wing rattling,"loud whirring sounds produced when air moves
rapidly through the longwing feathers. Incubation and feeding offspring are
shared by the pair. Parents bring insects to their young at one ofthe highest
rates among insect-eating birds; one pair was observed making 4zo feeding
trips to their nest in a single day, provisioning three older nestlings. Tody
breeding pairs sometimes have helpers at the nest.These are other todies,
likely related to the parents, which assist in incubating eggs and bringing
food to the young.
Four of the five todies are widely distributed and common throughout
their ranges.The one exception is the Narrow-billedTody,which has declined
in Haiti due to habitat loss and is considered near-threatened; however, it
remains common in the Dominican Republic portion of Hispaniola. Some
todies benefit from people's alterations of the environment when they dig
their nesting burrows in road banks or the sides of drainage ditches.
IS,
rh Mo r Mo r
s, although saddled with a ridiculous name, are among the Dislt iittr/iott
r), NewWorld's most visually stunning birds,with their bodies of blended NLotrclitt
)d shades of green and soft cinnamon-browns, their crisp black masks, and No o.l'l,iring
sft(LiL't. to
IC
in some, brilliant blue or turquoise head patches. For lovers ofwild birds,
]S
seeing some ofthe motmots,perhaps with sunlight glinting offtheirbright N,t. a/ '\7Lt it:
h turquoise-bejeweled crowns, can be a paramount experience. In addition l"t rln L nr blt,
littlttt,ii, rLl. t, t:
)S
to their beaury motmots are known for their far-carrying, deep, hooting
:e calls (the "BOO-boop, BOO-boop"calls ofthe Blue-crowned Motmot are No ol'Sil','t i t' L,s t i tt, /
,\ittLt tr'toc:',t
St
probably the source of the term ntotmot),which are characteristic sounds of
o
'6 many neotropical forests, and for their uniquely shaped tails.The motmot
v family, Momotidae, with ten species, is included in order Coraciiformes with
S,
the kingfishers,bee-eaters, and hornbills, and is confined in its distribution
C
b to Mexico and Central and South America.The family's distribution is
unusual in that more of its members (eight species) occur in the small area
1t
of Central America than in relatively huge South America (five species;
d some species occur in both regions).
it Motmots are colorful, slender, small to medium-size birds (6.5 to 19
e inches [16 to 4a cm] long).They have fairly long, broad bills, down-curved
c
b at the end. The bills have serrated edges, adapted to grab and hold their
animal prey.The most peculiar motmot feature is the tail.In seven of the
ten species, two central feathers of the tail grow much longer than others.
Soon,featherbarbs near the end ofthese two feathers drop oflusuallyfrom
MOTMOT S
Motmots
'c
'",
:h Mo r Mo I s, although
saddled with a ridiculous name, are among the l-)itlt ibtrttotr
r), NewWorld's most visually stunning birds,with their bodies of blended
)d shades of green and soft cinnamon-browns, their crisp black masks, and llo. o,/ Lirittg
IC
in some, brilliant blue or turquoise head patches. For lovers ofwild birds, SVLcit.r: rr.t
)S
seeing some of the motmots, perhaps with sunlight glinting offtheir bright No.0.7"\pttitt
h turquoise-bejeweled crowns, can be a paramount experience. In addition lirln,'r,rhit,
L,t r I t it.\,' r,',/ : t, ts
]S
to their beauty, motmots are known for their far-carrying, deep, hooting
:e calls (the "BOO-boop, BOO-boop"calls of the Blue-crowned Motmot are No of'S/',:tiLt ]')xr i tt;1
S'inct t(t<><t ct
St
probablythe source ofthe term motrnot),which are characteristic sounds of
o
'b many neotropical forests, and for their uniquely shaped tails.The motmot
v family, Momotidae, with ten species, is included in order Coraciiformes with
S,
the kingfishers, bee-eaters, and hornbills, and is confined in its distribution
o
b to Mexico and Central and South America. The family's distribution is
unusual in that more of its members (eight species) occur in the small area
1t
of Central America than in relatively huge South America (five species;
d some species occur in both regions).
it Motmots are colorful, slender, small to medium-size birds (6.5 to 19
e inches [16 to 48 cm] long).They have fairly long, broad bills, down-curved
0
lr at the end.The bills have serrated edges, adapted to grab and hold their
animal prey.The most peculiar motmot feature is the tail.In seven of the
ten species, two central feathers of the tail grow much longer than others.
Soon,featherbarbs nearthe end of these two feathers drop oflusuallyfrom
MOTMOTS
RUEOUS MOTMOT BLUE-CROWNED MOTMOT
Barypbthengus nartii MofrotL$ fiomola
165-r8 5 in (4u -47 cm) 15-17in (j8-4j cm)
Central America, South America NIexico, Central America. South America
MOTMoTS 2O3
CHESTNUT-HEADED BEE-EATER RED-BEARDED BEE.EATER
Merops /escbenaulti Nlttlornit amittus
8 in (zo cm) ro 5-ru in (27-3r cm)
Southern Asia Southeast Asia
Merops putil/u:
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Africa
BEE - EAT ERs are smallish to midsize birds that feed on flying insects, l)isrribution'
predominantly bees and wasps.Their elegant form and brilliantly colored O/d Wror/l
bird-watchers. Aside from the pleasure bee-eaters provide wildlife observers, No. of-Spcciar
[/u lntro h/t,
their main interaction with people is an antagonistic one; they linger around
l)nlun,qertd. o, o
commercial honeybee hives, where, for obvious reasons, they are unwanted.
The bee-eater family, Meropidae, contains twenty-five species distributed No. of Spetit: Extintl
Since r(too. o
in southern Europe, southernAsia,Africa, andAustralia. Most, eighteen of
twenty-five, occur in Africa (either confined there or having that continent
included in their range); Australia has a single representative, the Rainbow
Bee-eater.The group is included in order Coraciiformes with the kingfishers
and hornbills.
Slender, streamlined birds with long, thin, sharply pointed, down-curved
bills, bee-eaters are often dazzling in their bright plumage of greens, blues,
and reds.They range in length from 6 to 15 inches (16 to 38 cm). Most have
thick black eye stripes and long tails. In some, the two central tail feathers
grow very long, and these streamers can add up to 4 inches (ro cm) to a bird's
length.The sexes look alike or nearly so.
Bee-eaters, birds of warm climates, prefer open habitats such as
woodlands, savanna, plantations, and forest edges and clearings; a few
inhabit forest interiors. All subsist by hawking for flying insects.They sit
alertly on exposed perches, such as bare branches or utility wires, watching
BEE-EATERS 205
their surroundings carefully, then sally out to catch prey that flies by.They
snatch insects out of the air with the tip of their bill, then return to a perch,
often the same one they just left. They take many different insects, but
between 6o percent and 9o percent oftheir prey consists ofbees,wasps, and
hornets.To avoid being stung, they grip these insects by their abdomens and
beat and rub them against a tree branch or other surface until the venom
is discharged; the bird then removes the insect's wings and swallows the
bodywhole. Bee-eaters may also have some immunity to bee venom. Some
species in Africa routinely attend brush fires to feast on insects driven up
by the flames, and they will follow grazing mammals and even large birds
such as Ostriches to catch insects flushed out of hiding places as the large
animals walk. Bee-eaters, highly soc ral,are usually in pairs or family groups,
or during the winter, in large flocks. They are very vocal; individuals in
groups call frequently to each other during foraging sessions. Mostly aerial
animals, bee-eaters only occasionally come to the ground. Many species
are migratory, probably because insect availability in any one region often
changes dramatically through the year.
Bee-eaters nest in horizontal burrows (some up to 8 feetlz.4m] long)
that they excavate in steep hillsides, earthen roadsides, riverbanks, or the
ground. Breeding is monogamous,with both sexes contributing to nesting
chores. Some species nest solitarily, but many breed in colonies of various
sizes, sometimes thousands nesting together. In several species, mostly the
ones that nest in colonies, the nesting pair has adult helpers, relatives of
the breeding pair, that aid in bringing food to nestlings; in these species,
anywhere from two to eight adults tend a single nest. Adults bring insects
to the young (after rendering bees and wasps harmles s), feeding them at the
nest tunnel's entrance; young know to move there when they hear adults
arrive with food.In some species, mated pairs stay together for life.
None of the bee-eaters are considered threatened, and many species are
very common.These birds are killed in some parts of their range because
of their habit of perching near commercial beehives and feeding on the
stinging insects. Some forest-dwelling species suffer when their forest
habitats are logged or altered for agriculture. For instance, Southeast
Asias Red-bearded Bee-eater has experienced a significant reduction in its
range where its tropical forest habitats have been converted to oil palm and
rubber plantations.
)ut
Rollcrs;
rnd
md Ground-Rollcrs;
)m
the
me
Cuckoo-Rollcr
up
rds
rge
IPS,
;in
rial
R o L L E R s are among the OldWorld's glamour birds-handsome, colorful, ROI"LERS
:ies
rnd often, highly conspicuous in their open habitats as they sit on exposed l)istri/tu/ion'
ten perches to hunt insects and other small prey.They are called rollers because Oll Worltl
:hev roll in flight during their spectacular aerial territorial displays; it is for No. o/-Liting
rg)
:his behavior that they are perhaps best known. Their vivid plumage of sky SVtcits tz
the
rlues, purple blues, blue greens,lilacs, and russet browns also make them No of Spttia:
irg .rand out from the avian crowd. Family Coraciidae consists of the twelve ht/ntrahlc.
fus llndangartd. t, o
.pecies of "typical" rollers, which are distributed around Eurasia, Africa,
the
.:nd the Pacific. Australia has a single species, as does Europe; eight occur No o.l'Spetics Extintt
;of :r -\frica. Two other kinds of rollers, ground-rollers and cuckoo-rollers, Sittcc t6oc>'o
ies,
Jiscussed below, were formerly included in the typical roller family, but
)cts
.,o\v are usually placed in separate families. All roller families are included
the
:r order Coraciiformes with the kingfishers and bee-eaters.
rlts
Stocky, medium-size birds (ro.5 to 15 inches lz7 to 38 cm] long), rollers
:l'e large heads, short necks, and short legs. Some have long tail streamers.
are
Bil1s, short, broad, and fairly stout, are hooked at the end andvary in color
use
i.rlong species from black to yellow to red. Male and female look alike.The
the ..r'idespread Dollarbird is named for the large bluish white dollar-size spot
'est
-',n each wing.
ast
Rollers,warm-climate birds, prefer open country includingwoodlands,
L its
.l'anna, forest edges, and agricultural sites, but some species inhabit tropical
rnd
rorests. Solitarily or in pairs theyperch on high vantage points in open areas,
.,lch as on dead tree branches, utilitywires, and fence posts, scanning their
is whacked a few times against a branch or other surface to immobili zeit and No. of STtcits
then swallowed. Rollers are often attracted to brush fires, where they snatch L1 /ntrablr,
Endungtril:.7, o
insects escaping the flames. Like some other insect-eaters, rollers periodically
regurgitate pellets containing hard, indigestible insect parts. No of-Sfacits Dxtintt
As befitting birds that sometimes chase and catch insects in the air, Sincc t6oo o
rollers are agile fliers.Their prowess is especially evident when (in some
species) they perform their exuberant "rolling" aerial displays, which are CUCKOO-ROLLER
thought to be directed aggressively at other rollers and territorial intruders Disl rih u/ iott
(including people).They dont actually ro11, that is, they do not somersault Matlagastar, Oamoro
I.;/nn ds
in the air. Rather, in these displays the bird flies straight up into the air, then
dives toward the ground while turisting its trunk this way and that, beating No. ofLit,ittg
its wings, and giving loud, raucous calls; near the ground it levels out, swoops Spccics: t
up again, and repeats the process.The displays may also help maintain pair- No ofSpttitr
14r/ncrah/,:,
bonds between mates.
Lttdangcr,:d. ct
Rollers, monogamous, nest in tree holes, termite mounds, or occasionally
in rock crevices. Eggs are incubated by both parents, and both feed the No of Sparics Extintt
Si nte 16oo o
)'oung. Some rollers may have long lives, estimated at more than zo years or
more. Indonesia's Azure Roller, an island-dwelling forest species, is the only
threatened roller, considered vulnerable.
cRouND-RoLLERS are a group of five species (family
Brachypteraciidae) of medium size (9.5to r8 inches lz4to 46 cm]), mostly
terrestrial birds that occur only in Madagascar.They have large heads, stout,
short bills, short wings, and, in keeping with birds that spend most of their
time on the ground,long, strong legs. Some are drab, others fairly colorful.
Four are forest species, one inhabits woodland and scrub areas. ALl are shy
and skulking.They eat insects, spiders,worms, centipedes, snails, and small
vertebrates.Th"y are monogamous, nesting in burrows they dig in the
ground or, in one case, in tree cavities. Three ground-rollers are mlnerable,
owing mainly to habitat loss.fhe cu c Ko o - Ro L L E R (single-species
family Leptosomidae) occupies many habitat types in Madagascar and the
Comoro Islands.It eats insects and small hzards and nests in tree hollows;
it is not threatened.
I]EL}IETED HORNBII,] S] I VERY-CL] EEKED HORNBILL SOU I]IERN YELI-OW-BlLLED HORN BII,L
I Rhinoplu tigil By,anites brcris ll'otkus /tutomc/rr
,6 j .+l in (rro-12o cm) tj ;- z7 5in (6o ;o cro) 15 5 in (4o cnr)
Sourheest Asil Aiiica Sourhern Africr
19 in (-5o cLr)
5 j5 5 39 -; i[ (9o roo cm)
AfLica ,\fricr
v
Hornbills
HoRNBILLS,with their large size, huge bills, often bold colors, and I)it/ribttiort
extraordinary breeding,are among the Old World's most distinctive and t1f )'irt, wu thcr n I titt,
Me lantria
intriguing birds. For bird-watchers who travel to Africa, southern Asia, or the
No. ol'Littin.q
New Guinea region, the sole places they occur, hornbills are often at or near the
Spt, iar: 5q
top of must-see lists.The sounds hornbills generzteare almost as impressive as
No. o.l'Sft:citr
their striking looks-not only their far-caruyingcroaking and booming calls
Vu lncrah/t,
but also the loud whoosh-whoosh-whoosh noises they make with their wings Endangarel. 5, I
as they fly.Their massive, curved, frequently colorful bills suggest a kinship
No. of- Slac i t r I:x t i tt ct
rvith toucans, but the two groups are not closely related (though they may have Sinrt 16oo: o
developed bigbills for the same reason, to cut down and manipulate tree fruit).
> The hornbill family, Bucerotidae,with fifty-four species, is placed in the order
Coraciiformes,with the kingfishers and bee-eaters.
These are medium-size to very large birds (r to 4 feet [3o to rzz cmf
long) with long tails, short legs, and patches of bare skin on their face and
throat that are often brightly colored. Their immense bills, often in vibrant
reds or yellorrs, are usually topped with a casque, an extra ridge; in some, the
casque is large, in others, reduced.In the Rhinoceros Hornbill, it is shaped
like a horn. Bills appear heary but are actually very light, being constructed
of a spongelike substance covered by a thin hornlike material. (One, the
Helmeted Hornbill, has a heavier, solid casque.) Male hornbills are usually
larger than females,with more pronounced bills and casques, and the sexes
often differ in coloring.
Hornbills are forest,woodland, and savanna birds,usually seen in pairs or
HORNBILLS 2rl
small family groups. Many species spend most of their time in the canopy of
forests butwill move lower to exploit a good food supply, such as a fruiting
tree; some will come to the ground to hunt insects.Two African species,
known ground hornbills, are large, turkey-size black birds with long legs
as
and red and blue throatwattles; they spend most oftheir time on the ground,
flying only reluctantly. Hornbills eat a wide range ofplant and animal food,
from berries and fruits to insects,lizards,snakes, and small mammals.They
can even use their massive bill to delicately gather termites. Small prey is
killed with a nip, tossed to the back of the throat, and swallowed; larger prey
is passed back and forth along the bill until it is crushed, then eaten.
Hornbill breeding is among the most unusual in the avian world. After
a cavity in alarge tree, the female enters it and, with the male's
pair selects a
help,begins to place mud and droppings to make the entrance to the cavity
smaller and smaller. Eventually the female is completelywalled in save for
a tiny vertical slit. She lays eggs and incubates them, dependent on the
male to bring her food. When the young hatch, the male brings food for
them as well.In at least some species there are extra adults, probablyyoung
from previous years, that help feed the female and her young inside their
"prison."In some hornbills,the female chips herwayout ofthe cavitybefore
the young are ready to emerge and escapes to help feed them.The young
birds instinctively replaster the hole shut with their own droppings; they
continue to be fed through the slit until they are ready to fledge.Then they
chip away at the plastered hole, usuallywith no help from the parents, and
squeeze out. In other species, the female and chicks emerge from the nest
hole together.The function ofthe plastered-shut hole is probablyprotection
from predators. Breeding adults may remain together for life.
Hornbills generally are thought to be declining throughout their range.
They are large and obvious, and in some regions are still hunted for food and
the pet trade. However, the chiefthreat is deforestation: they are increasingly
losing their forest homes, especially the large, old trees they use for nest
holes,which loggers prefer. Frve species are vulnerable and four, endangered
(two critically).
er
)t
q
f,r
JAC A M A s are small to medium-size slender birds with very long, fine JACA MA R s
R
)e
bills, which they use to catch insects in flight. Their plumage varies among Distrihution;
cr species from fairly drab to brightly colored and iridescent, but most are Neotropics
]g sufficiently brilliant-with glittering green and blue backs and heads- r :-,;-.
:ir ^r^ ^t
';;r:{r:';''r
that the group is considered one of the Neotropics'flashiest.Their overall
re appearance, including the shimmering plumage,long, delicate bills, and No. of Species
)g often seemingly excited demeanor, causes many first-time observers to Vulnerable,
?y
wonder if they might be oversize hummingbirds. But the eighteen jacamar Endangered: t, t
ey
species are not even close relatives of hummingbirds, being most closely No. oJ-species Extintt
rd related to puffbirds, and the family, Galbulidae, is usually included in the since 16oo o
:St
woodpecker order, Piciformes.Jacamars,which occur in Central and South
)n America, range from 5.5 to 13 inches Q4 to 34 cm) long. Male and female
usually differ slightly in color pattern.
ie. Typically forest dwellers that occur in warmer areas, jacamars are
1d
frequently seen along small forest streams and at clearings.They perch on
ly tree limbs, alertly snapping their heads back and forth, scanning for meals.
St
Spotting a flying insect, they dart out to grab it in midairwith the tip of the
:d sharp bill. They often then return to the same perch, beat the insect against
the perch a few times, then swallow it. After a jacamar grabs an insect such
as a large butterfly, its long bill may aid in tightly grasping the insect's body
while it attempts escape and also in holdingwasps and other stinging insects
at safe distances from vulnerable anatomy. Other common diet items are
beetles, bees, and dragonflies; one also eats spiders and smalllizards.
Rhino2omastut minot
9 in (23 cm)
Africa
Monogamous breeders,jacamars nest in short burrows they dig in steep
',',i,ii,,),'i)'""
hillsides or in river or stream banks. Both parents incubate eggs and feed
insects to the young. In a few species, five or more individuals, presumably Suh-Sthuntn tll)'ito
family groups, breed together, the extra adults assisting the mated pair in No. of'Lit'in,g
feeding young and perhaps in digging nest burrows. Most jacamars are 52eri,:t: B
secure; they are fairly common and have extensive ranges. However, owing No. o.l'Spttitr
to habitat loss and small ranges,two species are threatened; one is considered Vultt, rahlt,
in the kingfisher order, Coraciiformes.They range from 8 to 15 inches (zr No. o./'Lit,ing
to 38 cm) long; females usually look like males but are often a bit smaller, Speci,:r: t
with shorter bills. No. ol'Spuies
Arboreal birds of forests, woodlands, and savanna, woodhoopoes and lltlntralth,
scimitarbills are very agile and acrobatic.They climb and forage on tree Lndangertl: o, o
trunks and branches, often hanging upside down as they use their long, No. of'Sqrti a r lixt i ntt
sharp bills to probe and chisel into and around bark for insects and other Sinct r6oo: potsihl.1, t
small arthropods, such as spiders, millipedes, and centipedes. Some also
take small lizards and bird eggs, and occasionally berries. Most travel in
small, noisy flocks; scimitarbills are quieter and more solitary, found alone
\ or in pairs.Woodhoopoes nest in tree cavities, often old woodpecker holes.
All are monogamous, but some, such as the Green Woodhoopoe, breed in
cooperative groups; the dominant pair mates and other members of the
family group, usually offspring from previous years, help feed the young.
Scimitarbills breed in pairs. None ofthe woodhoopoes are threatened.
The H oopoe, a striking and unmistakable light brown, black, and
white bird with a huge erectile crest, occurs widely in open-country areas of
Africa and Eurasia. Its single-species family, Upupidae, is,like the closely
related woodhoopoes, included in order Coraciiformes. Medium -size (rz
inches fuo cm] long), hoopoes have long, thin, down-curved bills that they
use to dig into soft soil and leaflitter for caterpillars,grubs, ants, and beetles.
Hoopoes are sometimes in flocks, but nest in tree cavities in lone pairs. The
female incubates the eggs alone but is fed regularlvbyher mate.The Hoopoe
is not threatened.
p u FFB Is, like their close relatives the jacamars, are smal1 to medium-
R D Dirtribulion'
size arboreal birds of neotropical forests that make a living catching insects. Ncotropics
in daily demeanor.Jacamars are slender with long, fine, mostly straight No. of-Specics
bills; pufibirds are stockywith thick, heary, hooked bills.Jacamars are often Vu/nerablc,
Endangcretl: o, o
radiantly colorful and glossy; puffbirds are covered in subdued browns, grays,
black, and white.Jacamars snatch insects from the air, puftbirds take a lot No of Specie r l')xtincl
Since t6oo o
of their prey offleaves, tree trunks and branches, and from the ground.
Jacamars have alert, bright, convivial personalities; puftbirds are dull, often
sitting quietly and still on tree branches for long periods, even sometimes
allowing people quite close before fleeing.The sedate dullness ofthese birds
led many early observers to consider them stupid-and, indeed, this is their
local reputation in many regions within their range.They are not dumb; their
sometimes slowways are related to their foraging methods (see below).The
thirty-three species in the puffbird family, Bucconidae, some ofwhich are
known as nunbirds, nunlets, and monklets, are distributed from southern
Mexico to northern Argentina,with most occurring in the Amazonregion.
The group is usually included in the woodpecker order, Piciformes (but some
recent classifications place the puffbirds andjacamars in their own, separate,
order, Galbuliformes). Most puftbirds are fairly small, but they range from 5
to rr.5 inches (r3 to z9 cm) in length.Theyhave distinctivelylarge heads and
loose plumage that, when fluffed out, produces a chubby, puft appearance.
PUFFBIRDS 217
Most puffbirds hunt byperching quietly on tree limbs,waitingpatiently
for a large insect, spider, or small frog,lizard,or snake to walk, run, hop, or
slither by on a nearby trunk or on the ground.The puftbird swoops from its
perch and seizes the luckless prey in its bill.The bird then returns to a perch,
beats the prey on the perch to stun it, and swallows it. Some puftbirds will
also dart out to snatch a flying insect in midair. One, the Swallow-winged
Puftbird, the most bizarre-looking ofthe group because it seems to have no
tail and, with its long, tapered wings, resembles a swallow, obtains all its food
this way. Occasionally a familygroup of puffbirds-especially nunbirds-
will follow a troop of monkeys or a flock of large birds and catch insects
scared into flight by movements of the larger animals. Because puffbirds
sit in the open for long periods looking for prey,it is thought that their
stillness, and perhaps their "fluff-ball" appearance, help camouf.age them
from predators. Some puftbirds are quite social, often found in groups of
up to ten, perched in a row on a branch or utility wire. And not all are quie t.
Black-fronted Nunbirds, for example, often sit together in family groups,
on a branch high in a tree, and sing their loud, raucous songs for minutes at
a time.
Relatively little is known about puftbird breeding. All species may be
monogamous, and most appear to breed, and perhaps live together yea:,-
round, as territorial pairs. But several species breed in cooperative groups,
numerous adults appearing to feed the young in a single nest. Helpers are
probably relatives,usuallyyoung ofthe mated pair from previous nests. Some
nest in burrows on the forest floor, some dig nesting tunnels in sandy soil that
are up to 6 feet (r.8 m) deep, some excavate burrows in arboreal termite nests,
and some may nest in tree cavities.The White-fronted Nunbird surrounds
its ground-tunnel entrance with dead leaves and twigs to hide the hole. Male
and female share in tunnel excavation, incubation, and feeding the young.
None ofthe puftbirds are considered threatened,but t"aro or three species
are very poorly known and have small ranges in South America; they may
be near-threatened. One problem with studying or censusing these birds is
the unobtrusiveness ofmany of the species;they are often quiet and still, and
can be quite stealthy in their behavior and movements.
]CtS
rds
reir
em
;of B ARBET s are tropical, largely arboreal birds noted for their colors, Dittrihution:
iet. vocalizations, and fruit-centered diets.They are favorites of bird-watchers
Soutb and Ctntro/
tlmcrica, Afiira,
tPS,
because of their beauty, sometimes melodic songs, and because they can be soutbern Asiu
sat fun to try to identiSr, as, in some regions, several species look much alike,
No. ofLit,ing
rvith only subtle differences in color patterns.There are about eighty-two Sptcies Bz
be barbet species distributed broadly in tropical South and Central America,
at- No of-Spccicr
Africa, and southern Asia; some range into subtropical regions.The family, Vu lnerab/t,
PS, Capitonidae,is usuallyplaced in the order Piciformes,with the woodpeckers Endangered: o, r
a.te and toucans; some authorities divide the NewWorld and OldWorldbarbets No. of'Speiies Ertinct
me into separate families. Since 16oo'o
1at Rather husky, small to medium-size birds (ranging in length from 4 to 14
its, inches [ro to 35 cm]),barbets are big-headed and short-necked, and possess
rds sturdy,large (but not long) bills, sometimes notched to help them grip food.
ale The barbet name derives from the bristles that surround the base of the bil1.
U
5' Their colorful, often spotted and streaked plumage is usually combinations of
ies black,white,yellow and red or orange,but some species, especiallyin Africa,
tay come in more cryptic browns. ManyAsian barbets are mainlybright green
;is with multicolored heads of red, yellow, blue, and black. African tinkerbirds,
nd named for their ringing calls, are diminutive barbets clad chiefly in streaked
browns, yellows, black, and white. Many barbets show differences between
the sexes in plumage patterns.
Barbets are birds of forests and woodlands, although some, chiefly
several of the African species, prefer forest edges and more open areas such
as scrublands and gardens. All usually require dead trees (or live trees with
BARB ET S 2r9
:\,,
CREAT BARBET BLUE.EARED BARBET COPPERSMITH BARBET
Megalaima virens Megalaima auilralis M ega la im a h a e m a cep h al a
r3 5 in (34 cm) 6 5 in (r7 cm) 6.5 in (16 cm)
Southern Asia Southeast Asia Southern Asia
BARBETS
PALE-MAND1 BLED ARACARI GOLDEN-COLLARED'f OIICANI]1
Ptc rogl o ts u t er.v t ht cpygi u t S e I m i dcra r e i n a^ d r,1 t i i ,4 n d i ge n a lan i n i roil r i s
17 r9 il (43-.+8 cm) 13 5 in
(34 crn) rB-zoin(46-5rcm)
South Aruerica South Arnericr South,{Lrericr
E}]ERAI-D LOUCANF]J
Ram?hortot tu.nnus ulatot h.ynth ut 2rusi nr r
,4
To ucAN s,with their splendid colors and enormous, almost cartoonish Distribution:
Neotropics
bills, are, along with penguins, ducks, and a few others, among the world's
most widely recognized birds.They have become popular symbols of the No. afLiting
Speries'About 4o
American tropics and are usually the birds visitors to this region-be
they bird-watchers or more traditional tourists-most want to see. The No. of Species
Vulnerahle,
group's most distinguishing feature, the spectacular, usually colorful,
Endangered: o, r
disproportionately large bill, is actually very light, mostly hollow, and used
No. of Species Extinct
for cutting down and manipulating the diet staple, tree fruit.
Since t6oo: o
The toucan family, Ramphastidae, has about forty species (toucans plus the
usually smaller toucanets and aracaris), all restricted to the Neotropics; most
are confined to tropical areas,but the ranges ofa few extend into subtropical
South America.The group is usually included in order Piciformes with the
woodpeckers and barbets.Toucans range in length from n to z4tnches (3o to
6r cm).They have long tails and areas ofbare skin, typically brightly colored,
around their eyes. Most have multicolored plumage, qpicallywith patterns
of green, yellow, and red/orange.But some, especially the largest ones such
as the Toco Toucan, are mainly black and white.Their serrated bills (helpful
in manipulating fruit) can be vividly colorful or fairly drab, as in some of
the toucanets. The Curl-crested Aracari is unusual, with curled, plasticlike
L feathers on its head. Within a species, male bills are usually longer than
females', and the two sexes often differ somewhat in plumage colorpattern.
Arboreal, gregarious forest birds, toucans are usually observed in flocks
of three to twelve, occasionally up to twenty.They are primarily fruit-eaters,
TOUCANS 223
their long bill allowing them to perch on heavier, stable branches and
reach
a clistance for hanging fruits.They snip a fruit off, hold
it at the tip of the
bill, and then,with a forward flip ofthe head, toss the fruit into the air
and
swallow it.They increase their protein intake by consuming the
odd insect,
spider, or small reptile, or even bird eggs or nestlingr. So-.ii-.s
individual
fruit trees are defended by a mated toucan pair from other toucans or from
other fruit-eating birds-defended by threat displays and even, against
other
toucans,bybill clashes;theymayeat smarler fruit-seekingbirds theycatch
at
fruiting trees.when a flockoftoucans land in a tree, their aggressive natures
often cause other birds there, even large parrots, to lea'oe. Th. individuals
in a toucan group follow each other one by one, in strings, from one tree
to
another, usually stayrng in the high canopy; theywill only occasio
nalry fly
down to feed at shrubs, or to pluck alizardfrom the forlst floor.In their
slow, undulatory flight, toucans often look awkward or unbalanced,
probably
because the large bill seems to be leading and pulling the bird behind it.
Several toucan species are known to pray,grasping each other's
bifls in
apparent contests and tossing fruit to one another.Toucans communicate
acousticallywith avarietyofcroaks,honks,grunts, squawks, and rattles,
and
also by snapping their bill or tapping it against trees or other
surfaces.
Toucans nest in tree cavities, either natural ones or those hollowed
out
by woodpeckers ; sometimes they take over arready-occupied
cavities. Nests
can be any height above the ground, up to roo feet m) or
Qo more. Both sexes
incubate eggs and feed young. chicks are usually fed insects at first,
then
insects and fruit.Toucans are monogamous, but some of the aracaris
seem
to breed cooperatively in small family groups of three or four; that
is, other
family members, in addition to the breeding pair, help raise the young
in a
single nest.
Toucans are common residents in the various regions in which they
occur. except where there is extensive deforestation, for instance,
in certain
parts of central America. Also, some toucan species may be scarce
locally
due to hunting because they are taken for food, as pets, anJ fo. th.
cage-bird
trade. where they raid fruit orchards, they are sometimes killed
as pests.
Peru's Yeilow-browed roucanet, which has a small population
and a tiny
range, is considered endangered; no other toucans are threatened.
rls
to
fly
:ir
,ly HoN Eycu African birds, are named
I D E s, smallish, rather drab, mostly l)i.;lt ihtrtton:
it. for the extraordinary guiding behavior of the Greater Honeyguide,rvhich
Str b- Sa htru n .t] li i ca,
sortthcrnrlsitt
in leads people to honeybee hives.The guiding is mutually advantageous:
te No Lit,ing
in some rural African communities, people obtain honey from the hives, c./
Sptcicr. tT
id and the guides get some of the beeswax, a diet staple for them. Aside from
tt"o of'5i7,:titr
this intriguing relationship with people, honeyguides are known among
L1/nLroblL,
ut ornithologists for their unusual breeding behavior: they are brood parasites, lindrrngattd: ct, o
its the females laying their eggs in the nests of other species, the "host" species
No. o.f SlLtiLr I)xlintt
CS
then raising honeyguide young. Sinc,'t6oo. o
ln The seventeen honeyguide species (family Indicatoridae) are placed
m in order Piciformes with the woodpeckers and barbets. Fifteen occur in
er sub-Saharan Africa, two in southern Asia. All are mostly dull gray, olive,
a or greenish brown; the Yellow-rumped Honeyguide, an Asian species, has
some bright yellow patches. Ranging from 4to 8 inches (ro to 20 cm) long,
)y honeyguides have small heads and shortbills.Their skin is particularlythick,
in presumably to help protect them from angry bees whose hives they raid.
ly Males and females look alike or nearly so.
:d Honeyguides are arboreal birds of forests and woodlands.The diet of
,s. most is centered on beeswax, the yellow substance secreted by honeybees
ry and used for building honeycombs; honeyguides possess enzymes that help
digest this unusual food source. They gather wax by visiting abandoned hives,
ones that have been damaged and opened by mammals, and intact hives that
have openings large enough to enter or peck through. Honeyguides are not
HONEYGUTDES 225
GREATER HONEYGUIDE LYRE-TAILED HON EYCUIDE
In dicator ;ndiatar Me/ihneutet robuilus
8in (:o cm) in (r8 cm)
7
Africa Aliice
LESSER HONEYGU]DE
IndiMlor minor
6 5 in (16 crn)
HONEYGUTDES 227
HISPANIOLAN WOODPECKER CUBAN CREEN WOODPECKER ECUADOREAN PICULET
Melaner?et iriatus Xil b i d i op itu t p err ux us Pitumnus y/ateri
8 5 in (zz cm) 9 in (23 cm) j5io(9cm)
Hispaniola Cuba South America
wooDPECKERS 229
WHITE WOODPECKER CAMPO FLICKER
Melanrpes candidut Cola?ter can?estris
9 5-rr 5 in (24-29 cm) rz in (jo cm)
South America Sourh America
rill
ng
)m
:ail
'in
ny
3at
ed
rill
ers
The little-known pITTAS are some of nature's most dazzling avian l)istrihltiort
ior
creations.They are medium-size ground birds of Old World tropical forests, Oltl It'ot ll rro2i,
'
ng
and it is their coloring that most attracts and fascinates; some of them are No o.l Lit,itt,1
18;
luminous in bright reds, sky blues, mustard yellows, and forest greens. At S/t'r i'i .1-z
t')
one time, owing to their radiance, theywere called jewel-thrushes.Their No o.l-Sl,:titt
AS
beauty, elusivene ss, and typical rarity combine to create a mystique that l/u/rtLt ob/t,
he l) tt, /tr tt g,'rt,1 :,9, t
renders the pittas perennial favorites of bird-watchers,favorite in this case
meaning "highly sought after but rarely spotted."The pitta family, Pittidae, No ol'SpttiL; Lx/itti/
ar; Slli,'rtioo o
includes about thirty species distributed from West Africa through India,
nd
Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and parts ofAustralia. Most occur in Southeast
aes
Asia; only a few occur in Africa and Australia.The name pitta arises not from
by
a representation of one of their calls but from an Indian word for bird.
ir,
Ranging in length from 6 to rr inches (r5 to z8 cm), pittas appear stocky
and almost tailless, and have longish, stout legs.Theirbright colors are often
rd
difficult to appreciate because they are mainly on the birds'underparts and
:d
because of the dark shadows of the deep forest floor that these birds inhabit.
9f,
Easily overlooked because of their forest settings and shyness, pittas would
r'w
be almost invisible except for their haunting call notes and whistles; they
)e
arc far more often heard than seen. Occasionally, however, they hop out
)5
into the brilliant sunshine of an open forest path and make themselves very
tS
noticeable. Males and females look alike in some pitta species; in others,
m
there are color differences.
:d
Pittas,usuallyfound alone orinpairs,are terrestrial foragers in rainforests,
PTTTAS 233
B L UE PITTA GURNEY S PITTA
Pitta qtanea Pitta gurneli
9 in (23 cm) 8 5 in (zr cm)
Southeast Asia Southeasr Asia
PTTTAS 235
DUS KY BROADBTLL B LAC ILL
Corydon sumatranus Eurylainus ochromalus
ro in (26 cm) 5 5 in (r4 cm)
Southeast Asia Sourheast Asia
d(
forest birds.They are renowned and named for their large, flat, hooked bil1s
I)isrt ihtrriot;
and very wide gapes, which aid them in capturing and consuming animal .41) i,u. .\,ttr//:tt,tr ,,lsirr
prey. Also noted for their coloring, which ranges from striking red and ,0. ol.I_i.i.itr,q
black to bright green, these beautiful birds are favorites of globetrotting 57,.i,,,. ,;
bird-watchers.The family,Eurylaimidae, has fifteen species: four in Africa, *uo of.sl,,titt
nine in Southeast Asia, and two in the Philippines. Ranging from 4.5 to rr [.ttitrtnt/,tt,
inches (rz to z8 cm) long, broadbills have largish heads, big eyes, rounded I')rtitngLrti..1, .
wings, and strong feet; tails vary from short to longish. Not all are brightly Ntt f sf,, iLr tit/intr
colored-somearesolidbrownorstreakedbrownandwhite.Broadbillsexes sitr,tthcto o
take whatever small animals they can find, mainly insects, but also spiders,
snails, tree frogs, and lizards; some also eat small fruits and berries. Foraging
is either by perching quietly in foliage and then flying to snatch detected
prey (on vegetation or from the ground), or taking prey from leaves and
branches as the birds search through foliage.Three mostly green species of
Southeast Asia primarily eat fruit, and have, through evolution,lost their
broad bills, no longer required for catching small animals. Many broadbills
are gregarious, occurring in small flocks of up to ten or more individuals.
Monogamous breeders, broadbills build pear-shaped nests ofvegetation
(grasses, vines, twigs, bark, rootlets) that hang over open areas from tips of
tree branches.The female alone or both sexes build nests and incubate eggs;
as endangered.
N Ew zEALAND wREN s arevery small greenish orbrownishbirds
restricted to the islands of New Zealand.The family, Acanthisittidae, has
two species, the Rifleman and RockWren. At three to four inches (Z.5to
ro cm) long, they have slender bills (slightly upturned in the Rifleman),
short, rounded wings, very short tails, and long legs. The sexes differ,
females being drabber and a bit larger than males.The Rifleman is chiefly
an arboreal forest dweller; the RockWren is a terrestrial/arboreal resident
of alpine and subalpine scrub and rock habitats. Both eat insects, spiders
and occasional fruit. In mated pairs they maintain year-round territories.
Breeding is monogamous, the Rifleman being a cooperative nester,with
other adults assisting breeding pairs. The Rock-wren is near-threatened.
One New Zealandwren,whichwas flightless,became extinct around 1894,
and another did so around 1972.
d
Woodcreepers
S,
v
e
S,
te
'e
v
tt
.e
v wo oDc REEpER s are small to medium-size brown birds ofthe Neotropics I)istt ihtrtion
it Nt'otrofirr
that pursue a mostly arboreal existence. Although like woodpeckers in some
e
ways (and once thought to be woodpeckers), they are rypically inconspicuous, No. o.l'Litinr
rt S7,'cics
and go about their lives little noticed and generallyunappreciated bypeople. .;-z
S.
Like woodpeckers, they seek insects by climbing quickly over tree trunks No ofSlccitr
o
6 and branches, clinging to vertical and angled surfaces with powerful feet Ilr/ttt nrh/r,
S, lirrdtrtt,qtret/. r, o
with sharp, curved claws, and with their stifftail feathers acting as props. But
v unlike woodpeckers, woodcreepers are mainly small birds with drab plumage No of-Slccicr L,xtintt
n Sirttt t(too: o
and retiring personalities, and most inhabit dark interiors of forests-all
d
traits fostering inconspicuousness. Further,whereas woodpeckers are noisy,
pecking at and hammering trees,woodcreepers are relatively quiet, singing
S
simple, often fairly soft songs and lacking the tree-drilling and -drumming
S
behaviors ofwoodpeckers. Bird-watchers, probably the largest group who
f,
regularly notice them, regard woodcreepers as problematic, because in the low
),
light levels oftheir typical forest habitats, and against the brown tree surfaces
t,
that are their usual backdrops, they can be dilficult to identifr to species
Y
(when discernible, bill size, shape and color, body size,and type of plumage
t streaking are used as distinguishing traits). The family, Dendrocolaptidae,
S
consists of fifty-two species and occurs from central Mexico southward to
i.
central Argentina. Most (about nineteen) occur in the Amazon region. Frve
I
species, with particularly long, down-curved bills, are known as sc1thebills.
Fairly uniform in size, shape, and coloring, most woodcreepers are
t
slender birds,8 to 14 inches (zo to 36 cm) long (but a few are as small as 5
wooDcREEPERS 239
WHITE-STRIPED WOODCREEPER IVORY-BILLED WOODCREEPER
L ep i do r o /al te s / e uc ogas ter Xip h or h1 nt h us f au igas ter
9 in (23 cm) 8 ro in (zo z6 cm)
Mexico Mexico, Cenrral America
the bird flies down to the base ofthe next tree and repeats the process. Some
species dispense with large trunks and forage instead on smaller trees,large
shrubs, or on bamboo; some spend much time feeding high in the forest
canopy; some descend to the ground to feed; and some will also fly out from
trees to catch insects on the wing.
The group eats primarily insects but also takes spiders, as well as small
hzards and amphibians. Manywoodcreepers are frequent participants,
with antbirds, tanagers, and motmots, among others, in mixed-species
foraging flocks, some ofwhich specialize on following swarms of army ants,
taking prey that rush out from hiding places to avoid the voracious ants.
Woodcreepers are most often observed singly or in pairs,but occasionallyin
small family groups. Some have reputations for being extremely aggressive
toward other species, for instance, for harassing and evicting roosting or
nesting woodpeckers from tree cavities.
Most woodcreepers practice standard monogamy, with the sexes paired
during the entire year and sharing equally in nesting chores.In some, however,
no real pair-bonds are formed, and after mating, females nest alone. Nests are
usually in tree crevices or hollow trunks and occasionally in arboreal termite
with rootlets, dried leaves, or wood chips.
nests. Parents line nests
Mostwoodcreepers are common birds. Onlyeastern Brazil's Moustached
Woodcreeper is considered vulnerable. Woodcreepers are not hunted; the
main threat to their populations is habitat loss.
WOODCREEPERS 24r
BAR-WINGED CINCLODES PALE-LECGED HORNERO
Cinclodesfurus Furnarius leutobus
6 -7 5 in (r5-r9 cm) 7 in
(r8 cm)
South America South America
€; o,
rvhich they occur.They are mainly insect-eating brown birds that live and
forage on or near the ground. Leading to their inconspicuousness are their
drab, often cryptic plumage; their typical occupation of habitats in which
the camouflaging effect is maximized; their unobtrusive, usually stealthy
behavior; and their usually unmelodic, undistinguished vocalizations.
Although visually and vocally nondescript, ovenbirds are widely recognized
by ornithologists and naturalists for their ecological diversity (their varied
foraging behavior, for instance, and their occupation of essentially all
terrestrial habitats of South America) and, especially, for their nests.These
nests are variable in architecture, construction materials, and placement (see
below), but some are quite impressive, particularly the mud/clay and straw
Dutch oven-like nests thatprovide the group's common name. (Because of
its large oven nests that it often places on human-crafted structures such as
fence-posts, utility poles, and roofs, the plain-looking Rufous Hornero is
very familiar to local people over a broad swath of South Americal indeed,
it is Argentinat national bird.)
The ovenbird family, Furnariidae ,has z4o species, distributed from
southern Mexico to southern South America. Ovenbirds certainly vary
somewhat in physical form, but their fairly uniform coloring, with various
shades of brown, reddish brown, and gray, some with streaks or spots, and
typically skulking behavior, render the group a frustrating one for bird-
ovENBTRDS 243
watchers.These birds are hard to observe and sometimes difficult to tell apart.
The family, which includes birds called miners, earthcreepers, cinclodes,
spintails, thornbirds, canasteros, xenops, treerunners, treehunters, foliage-
gleaners, and leaftossers, among others, is most diverse in the Andes and in
south-central South America (Brazilsupporting about roo species).
Ranging from 4 to ro inches long (ro to z6 cm), ovenbirds have short,
rounded wings, often long tails (that may be "spiny" at the end), and strong
legs and feet. Many have wing bands and tail patches that are seen mainly
when the birds fly.The sexes within a species look alike.
Ovenbirds occur in all land habitats within their range, from sea level to
the highest mountain elevations that support vertebrate life, and from wet
forests to dry deserts. But the majority are tropical forest residents. Most
ovenbirds live low in their habitats or even on the ground, but a few are
regular in the canopy of tall forests. Some will perch acrobatically or move
quickly along branches to reach food items; manywill use a foot to clamp
food against a branch or the ground before eating it.They all consume insects,
mainly taking their prey from the undersides of leaves and branches. Sorne
(especially cinclodes) also regularly eat mollusks; some (treehunters) take
small lizards and frogs; and some (miners) eat many seeds. Most ovenbirds
apparently mate for life and stay year-round in pairs.
All ovenbirds are probably monogamous,with members of a pair sharing
nest construction, egg incubation, and provisioning young. Virtually all species
build closed nests with side entrances. Some, such asxenops,make nest tunnels
in vertical banks; others use tree cavities or construct elaborate structures of
twigs or mud. For instance, Pale-legged Horneros build domed nests of clay,
about 8 inches (zo cm) high, usually placed on tree branches. The sun bakes
the clay hard and few predators can break into these strong, durable nests,
which can last several years. Thornbirds build enormous, bulky, hanging nests
ofinterlaced dry twigs placed in large bushes or trees. Shaped like a boot, the
single entrance is in the "toe"1 these nests usually have at least two chambers
inside. One chamber serves as the incubating area for eggs and nestlings;
and the others as dormitories or perhaps baffies for intruding predators.
Most ovenbirds are common and secure. Habitat loss, including
deforestation and conversion ofwild areas to agricultural use, is the prime
threat they face. Several also have very small ranges, especially some in
Brazil's Atlantic coastal forests and in Peru. Fifteen species are'r,rrlnerable
and twelve are endangered (three critically).
rt,
rg
ly
to
et
St
re
VC
medium-size, rather drab inhabitants ofthe lower
A N T B I R D s are small to Distribtrtiort:
rP
parts of forest vegetation in the Neotropics.Th.y are recognrzed mainly Neotrolitr
tS,
for an intriguing feeding specialization: many regularly follow army ant No o.l I.irirrg
1e
swarms, snatching small creatures that leave their hiding places to avoid the S2cci,'s: t7:
<e
predatory ants.The large antbird family, Formicariidae, distributed from No. o.f'STLIitt
is Vrr/ttc ru h/1,
southern Mexico to central Argentina, encompasses abott z7z species. Some
Lintlan,qcrtr/. t6, to
classifications consider onlythe 63 predominantlyground-dwel1ing antbirds,
r8 'STtcits
known as antpittas and antthrushes, to comprise family Formicariidae; No. of L)rtirt,t
CS Sinte t(too o
and the zog "typical" antbirds, which tend to perch and forage in low
:ls
vegetation (including the antshrikes, antvireos, antwrens, antbirds, bare-
of
eyes, and bushbirds), to constitute a separate family,Thamnophilidae.The
LY,
strange compound names ofthese birds, such as antwrens and antthrushes,
CS
apparently arose because the naturalists who named them could not ascertain
IS,
local names and believed theywere similar in some ways to North American
tS
and Eurasianwrens and thrushes.
]e
Like several other neotropical families, such as woodcreepers and
rS
ovenbirds, antbirds are clearly an ecologically significant group: they
;S;
's.
are species-diverse, widespread, ubiquitous in some major habitats, and
c
abundant. Yet they are usually entirely unknown among the majority of
,6
people who live in the regions in which they occur. One reason this is true
IC
is that antbirds are clad predominantly in inconspicuous browns and grays,
n
which allows them to blend into their chosen landscapes. Furthermore,
le
they are often secretive and live amid dense forest vegetation (although a
few exhibit bolder behavior and live at forest edges, so are sometimes seen
ANTBTRDS 245
BARRED ANTSHRIKE SCALED ANTPITTA GREAT ANTSHRIKE
Thamnophi/us doliatus G ra II a ria g ua ti m ale n s i s Tardba major
6 5 in (16 cm) 65 in (r7 cm) 8in (zo cm)
Cenrral America. South America Cenrral America, South America Central America, South America
ANTBTRDS 247
BLACK-THROATED HUET-H UET CRESTED GALLITO
Ptero?tochoJ tarnii Minocry2ta lanteolata
9 in (:3 cm) 8 5 in (zr cm)
South America South America
habits, and unmelodic vocalizations.They are noted for this obscuriry their No o.l'SiVL,iL;
diverse representation in southern South America, the small geographic [4tlrtLr trh/,',
Ltriotr,qart,l: r,,1
ranges of many of them, and the way they often hold their tails in an upright,
or cocked, position. The name tapaculo mayhave arisen from a Spanish word No. ol'.\ltti t ; l') t t i tt, t
Sirrci thoo; o
that refers to their cocked tails (or it may sound like the call of one of the
Chilean tapaculos).
Ranging from 4 to 9 inches (ro to 23 cm) long, tapaculos have short,
relatively heary bills, short, round wings, and mostly short tails (but some
have long tails).They have long legs with large, strong feet used for scratching
at soil and moving leaf litter.They are clad in shades ofbrown and gray, plus,
sometimes, black and white; some are mainly black. In most species, the
sexes look alike, but in some, they differ conspicuously.
Tapaculos predominantly inhabit forests and woodlands, but a few species
occur in more open habitats such as scrub areas and tussockgrasslands.They
tend to be secretive and are usually observable for only short periods, thus
their habits are poorly known.They run and sometimes walk or hop along the
ground, utilizing their weak flight abilities infrequently and then only briefly.
Meals consist of insects and spiders, but also occasional centipedes, snails,
forest vegetation. They are little studied and are probably among the least-
,\'o o.l \,1, ' itt noticed of all bird groups. Bird-watchers are the only sizable collection
litlt, t,ti,iL,
l)n,/att,qLt,,l ,'.,, of people concerned with gnateaters. Eight species comprise the family,
Conopophagidae.They have slightly hooked, flattened bills, short, rounded
lo o1 Sil,', iLr l)ri itttr
S///rr //,()() o wings, and relatively long legs. All are outfitted in various shades of brown
and gray, and black and white; most have a conspicuous white stripe behind
the eye.The sexes differ somewhat in appearance, particularly in that females
lack the males' black patches.
Little is known of gnateater ecology and behavior.They are chiefly birds
ofthe forest understory; some frequentwoodlands, thickets, or forest edges.
They are almost always observed within 5 feet (r.5 m) of the ground or on
the ground. Food consists of small insects and spiders, and perhaps the
occasional berry or tiny frog. Th ey forage by pouncing from a perch to take
prey on the ground or by reaching from a perch to take prey from nearby
foliage. Gnateaters are apparently monogamous; nests are shallow cups of
vegetation placed in a fork of thin branches or plant stalks. All gnateater
species, within appropriate habitats, are common or fairly common birds;
none are threatened.
f of the smallest and largest passerines, or perching birds, ranging from 3 No. ol'SpLcitr
to 19 inches [8 to 48 cm]).The group includes species that eat fruit and Vu /n c rahla,
Entlangarad: rt, 6
insects but also some that eat only fruit,which is rare among birds.In some
species of cotingas the sexes look alike; however, in many the males are No. of'Sptri* IJxtinct
Sincc t6oo.' o
spectacularly attired in bright spectral colors and females are plain. The
group also includes territorial species that breed monogamously and lekking
species that breed promiscuously (see below), and without doubt, some of
the strangest-looking birds of neotropical forests. The family, Cotingidae,
which is closely allied with the manakins and American flycatchers, contains
S
about seventy species, and occurs from southern Mexico south to northern
i. Argentina. (The Sharpbill, a small olive and yellow bird with a sharply
n
pointed bill, is sometimes placed in its own family, Oxyruncidae, but here I
e follow classifications that consider it a cotinga. Likewise, the three species of
e
plantcutters, smallish finchlike birds, sometimes placed in a separate family,
Y Phytotomid ae, are included here. )
,f The diversity of the cotingas is reflected in their names.In addition to
f species called cotingas, there are bellbirds (named for the loud bell-like
i; vocalizatrons ofone species), cocks-of-the-rock, purpletufts, umbrellabirds,
fruiteaters, fruitcrows, mourners, pihas, and the Capuchinbird. Perhaps
the only gen erahzatton that applies to all is that they have short legs and
COTINGAS 253
WHITE CROW'NED NIANAKIN THRIISH T,IKE }IAN K]N
P;1,ra Pi?ra Sthtffbrnit turlinus
4 in (ro cro) 6 5 in (r6 ctr)
CenrraJ Anrericr, St)urh America Ccntral Anrerica. St)uth '\merica
11A N A K I N s are a neotropical group of small, compact, stocky birds with Distrihution'
short bills and tails, big eyes, and two attention-grabbing features: brightly Ncotrolix
colored plumage and some ofthe most elaborate courtship displays practiced No. o.l Lirin,g
bv birds. Some male manakins are outstandingly beautiful, predominantly 52rr,,r.'.;7
glossy black with brilliant patches of bright orange-red, yellow, or blue on No. of SpLciLt
their heads, throats, or both. Some have deep blue on their undersides and/or htlrttruh/,:,
Enlun.gLrt,l.:.:
backs.The exotic appearance of male manakins is sometimes enhanced by
long, streamerlike tails, up to twice the length of the body, produced by the No o1'Sptrit; Elt!nit
Sincr t(tt>o o
elongation oftwo ofthe central tail feathers. Females, in contrast, are duller and
less ornate, often olive green,yellowish, and/or gray.To accompany courtship
displays, the wing feathers of some species,when moved in certainways, make
*'hirring or snapping sounds. Manakins, family Pipridae (closely related to
the cotingas and American flycatchers), occur only in southern Mexico and
Central and South America; there are about fifty-three species, including
some called tyrant-manakins and piprites.They range in length mainly from
3.5 to 6 cm);the male Long-tailedManakin ofCentralAmerica,
inches (9 to 16
rvhen its long tail streamers are included, is a few inches longer.
Manakins are very active birds, occurring chiefly in warmer, lowland
tbrests, although some range up into cloud forests; most manakins are
tropical but some inhabit subtropical regions. Residents of the forest
understory, they eat mostly small fruits, which they pluck from bushes
and trees while in flight, and they also take insects from foliage.They are
tairly social during feeding and other daily actMties, but males and females
MANAKTNS 255
do not pair. Rather, males mate with more than one female, and females
probably mate with multiple males. After mating, females build nests and
rearyoung by themselves. During the breeding season, males, singly, in pairs,
or in small groups, stake out display sites on tree branches, in bushes, or on
cleared patches of the forest floor, and spend considerable amounts oftime
givinglivelyvocal andvisual displays,trying to attract females.An area that
contains several of these performance sites is called a lek.
At the lek, male manakins "dance,"performing rapid, repetitive, acrobatic
movements, sometimes making short up and down flights, sometimes rapid
slides, twists, and turns, sometimes hanging upside down on a tree branch
while turning rapidly from side to side and making snapping sounds with their
wings.The details of a male's dance differ from species to species. F'emales,
attracted to leks by the sounds of male displays and by their memories of lek
locations-the same traditional forest sites are used from one year to the
next-examine the energeticallyperforming males with a critical eye and then
choose the ones withwhich theywant to mate. Sometimes the females make
the rounds several times before deciding.In a few species, two and sometimes
three males join together in a coordinated dance on the same perch. In these
curious cases, one male is dominant, and only the dominant of the duo or
trio eventually gets to mate with interested females. After mating the female
builds a shallow cup nest that she weaves into a fork of tree branches,3 to 5o
feet (r to 15 m) offthe ground. She incubates her eggs and rears the nestlings
herself bringing them fruit and insects.
Some manakins have very small ranges in South America and this,
combined with rapid forest loss and degradation, is placing some species in
jeopardy. Only four, however, are currently threatened (two,u.r"rlnerable and
two endangered).Two of them are interesting cases.The Golden-crowned
Manakin is known onlyfrom atiny areaofforest south of the Amazon River
in central Brazll.It is rarely if ever seen; one was collected trrr957,and what
biologists know about the species comes from this single specimen.The
Araripe Manakin of eastern Brazil was first discovered and named in 1998;
because its population is tiny and the area in which it occurs is under pressure
from recreational developme nt, it is considered critically endangered.
d
,S,
NcwWorld f'lycatchers
n
re
It
ic
Ld
,h
ir
)S,
:k
IC NEw woRLD FLycATCH ERS comprise a huge group ofbirds broadly Distribution:
)n distributed over most habitats from Alaska and northern Canada to the Neu World
(e southern tip of South America.The family,Tyrannidae, is considered among No. ofLiving
CS the most diverse of avian groups. With between 39o and 425 species (more Species: qz5
SC than any other bird family), depending on which classification scheme is No. of Species
)r followed, flycatchers typically contribute ahefty percentage of the avian Vulnerahle,
Endangered. tq, rz
1e biodiversity in every locale where they occur. For instance, flycatchers make
;o up fully a tenth of the land bird species in South America, and a quarter of No. of Species Extintt
Since t6oo: o
gs Argentinean species.The group is also called tyrantflycatchers orAmerican
flycatchers, which differentiates it from Old World flycatcher families.
IS, NewWorld flycatchers include birds called elaenias, pewees, tyrannulets,
in spadebills, attilas, monjitas, kingbirds, pygmy-tyrants, tit-tyrants, tody-
rd ryrants, chat-tyrants, ground-tyrants, becards, and tityras, among others.
:d They employvarious feeding methods but are united in being predominantly
er insect-eaters. Certainly, though, they are best known for making aerial sallies
at to catch insects on thewing,that is,for flycatching.Theirbills are usuallybroad
IC and flat, the better to snatch flying bugs from the air.Taillength is variable,but
r8; some species have long, forked tails,which probably facilitate rapid insect-
.re catching maneuvers. Flycatchers vary in length from 2.5 to rz inches (6 to 3o
cm); a feq such as the Scissor-tailed Flycatcher,have extra-long tails that can
add another six or more inches (r5 cm).At their smallest,flycatchers are some
ofthe world's tiniest birds, smaller than some hummingbirds;the Short-tailed
Pygmy{yrant is the smallest passerine, or perching, bird.
STRIPE-SIDED RHABDORN I S
Rbabdornis mlsticalit
6 5 in (16 cm)
Philippines
C rccpcrs; Australasian
Treecrccpcrs;
Rhabdorniscs
c REEpER s, family Certhiidae, are small forest birds of north temperate a;r:r:rrr:::,
regions that also occur in some forested parts ofAfrica.They are most often
recognized for their characteristic foraging method. A bird flies to the bottom NofthAmerica,
of a tree trunk, spirals its way up it nearly to the topr then drops down to the Ettrasia, A,/^rica
bottom of another, nearby, tree, and spirals up again. Creepers'long toes and No. ofliling
deeply curved claws allow them to cling tightly to vertical trunks.There are Species: 7
seven species, five ofwhich are called treecreepers.Two are very abundant, No. of Species
widespread, and well known: the Brown Creeper, which occurs over most of Vulnerable,
Endangered: o, o
North America and is the NewWorld's only family member, and the Eurasian
Tieecreeper,which is broadly distributed from Britain eastward toJapan. No. of Specicr Extinct
Sincc t6oo. o
About 5 to 6 inches (r3 to 15 cm) in length, creepers are brown and black
striped above and light below,with very long, slender, down-curved bills and
long tails with pointed feathers. Males and females look alike.The Spotted
Creeper of India and Africa is slightly different, also dark above and light
beloq but spotted all over (it was formerly placed in its own family). With
their slender, curved bills, creepers probe into crevices in tree bark for insects
and spiders.Theyplace their cup nests of twigs and othervegetation behind
loose pieces ofbark or in crevices. Only the female incubates; both sexes feed
young. None of the creepers are threatened.
AU sr RALAS IAN T REEC REEp r ns, familyClimacteridae,are small
G to 7.5 inches. [r3 to 19 cm]), stocky, brownish forest birds with tan wing
bars, slender, ever-so-slightly down-curved bills, and long toes,which make
their livings searching for insects on tree trunks and branches.There are only
)ast
Ito
i.g plain-looking brown and gray forest birds that
D s are large, rather LYREBIRDS
Ly REB I R
fut,
nonetheless manage to be on the viewing wish lists of most bird-watchers Distrihution:
I8S.
who visit Australia, the only place they occur.The interest stems from their Aurtra/io
the
spectacular long tails,which are used in world-renowned courtship displays, No. ofLiaing
rtes
theirlimited distribution, and their secretiveness,which makes spotting them Speties: z
red
quite challenging.The lyrebird family,Menuridae,has onlyt'vo species. Both No. of Speties
are pheasant-size,ranging up to 35 inches (9o cm) long, with big, powerful Vulnerab/e,
'est Endangered: r, o
feet. The males and females look alike, but females are a bit smaller with
ree
less elaborate tails.The Superb Lyrebird,which occurs along the southern No. of Specier Extintt
hes Since 16oo: o
half of Australia's eastern seaboard, is fairly common; Albert's Lyrebird is
ow;
uncommon and occurs only in one small portion of the eastern seaboard.
ike
Foraging on the forest floor either alone or in small parties,lyrebirds use
their feet to dig into soil (to 5 inches [rz cm] deep) to find and eatworms,
use
spiders, insects and insect larvae, and millipedes, among other invertebrates.
i.g They also tear apart rotting wood on the forest floor, looking for food. Brown
aps
lyrebirds are camouflaged on the ground and further protect themselves
aYe
with their shy ways. When alarmed, they tend to run away; they are weak
Iin flyers, usually managing only short, clumsy flights.They do, however, roost
:ks,
overnight high in trees, jumping up, branch by branch. Lyrebirds are most
3es.
famous for their courtship displays and vocal mimicry.They sing long,loud
irg
songs that often include mimicked parts of the vocalizations of such birds
ght
as whipbirds,kookaburras, cockatoos, and currawongs. Lyrebirds are largely
ises
sedentary, males maintaining territories during breeding periods.
RUFOUS SCRUB-BIRD
,ltricharn* rufescens
7 in (r8 cm)
Australia
Lyrebirds are promiscuous breeders. Males in their territories give vocal
and visual displays to attract females.They strut around on the ground, on
low tree branches, and, in the Superb Lyrebird, on raised earthen mounds,
singing and displaying their gaudy tail (which resembles a Greek lyre).The
central part ofthe long tail is held, spread and fanlike, over the head, and
the two large, boldly patterned side feathers point out to either side.When
a female approaches, the male quivers the tail feathers, and there is much
jumping and circling. After mating, the female departs to nest and raise the
single young on her own. She builds a nest of sticks, moss, bark, and rootlets
on or near the ground in a vegetation tangle, on an earthen bank, or in a
treefern, among other places.
The lyrebirds are restricted to relatively small areas of moist forest
that are increasingly cleared or degraded. Albert's Lyrebird is considered
mlnerable because it occurs over a very small range and its numbers (of only
i
'7,..
afew thousand) are believed to be declining. Lyrebirds were killed in great
Distribution:
numbers during the nineteenth century for their tail feathers. Austra/ia
s c RUB - B I RD s, like the lyrebirds, are endemic to Australia, and bird-
No ofLioing
rvatchers seek them out because of their rarity.The family, Atrichornithidae, Specics: z
contains only the Rufous Scrub-bird and Noisy Scrub-bird, midsize brown
No. of Species
birds with black markings. They both occur over extremely small areas and Vulnerable,
have small populations, thus rendering the Atrichornithidae one of the Endangered: t, o
globe's rarest bird families. Scrub-birds are 6.5 to 9 inches (16 to z3 cm) No. of Species Extintt
long, with stout, pointed bills and sturdy legs; females are duller and smaller Since 16oo o
than males.
Secretive, fast, and alert, scrub-birds run and creep through dense
undergrowth on the forest floor. They poke about in the leaf litter, turning
pieces over with their bill, taking mainly insects, but also occasional small
lizards and frogs. They are weak flyers, rarely moving more than a few yards
at a time in the air. Scrub-birds breed monogamously or polygynously (some
males matingwith more than one female). Females appear to undertake all
the nesting chores:building the domed nest ofvegetation hidden in low
undergrowth, incubatinS eBBS, and feeding young. Although both scrub-
birds have small populations, only the Noisy Scrub-bird, of southwestern
Australia, is considered r,rrlnerable; conservation efforts during the past
decades have increased its chances ofsurvival.
marriage bower; the walls may be painted by the male with his saliva that
has been colored with compounds such as charcoal or leafjuices.The male
n-iav place around the bower small objects, both natural and artificial, that
he has collected to impress females and enhance his courtship displays.
\Vith his bower constructed (or spruced up, if he is using an old one), a male
r-ocalizes and cavorts to attract passing females. A female detects a male,
approaches, evaluates his bower and courtship displays and, if convinced
that he is a high-quality individual, mates.In some ways, this interaction
can be viewed as the male bowerbird using sophisticated "tools"to get what
he wants, and the comparison to human behavior (males attempting to
secure mates by tempting them with real estate and offering them collected
objects, including, perhaps, attractively colored rocks) has been made more
than a few times. Owing to these birds'incredible bower construction and
associated mating behavior, some biologists consider bowerbirds to be
among the most advanced ofbirds.
BowERBTRDS 269
There are twenty bowerbird species (family Ptilonorhynchidae).Ten
occur in Australia; eight are endemic, and nvo are shared with New Guinea,
where the remaining species occur. Bowerbirds are medium -size to fairly
large birds (S to 15 inches [zr to 38 cm]), chunlcy, with shortish tails and legs;
their bills are short, heavy, and, in some, slightly down-curved or hooked.
Females in certain species are plainly colored, mainly brown and streaked,
but in others, the sexes look alike.
Bowerbirds are mostly denizens ofwet forests but a few live in drier
habitats, including scrubland, grassland, and open woodlands.They forage
in trees and on the ground.Their diets tend mostly toward fruit and berries,
but other plant materials, such as leaves and shoots, are also eaten. They
also take insects, spiders, earthworms, and perhaps occasional small frogs.
Most bowerbird males maintain exclusive territories, in the center ofwhich
they build their bowers. Many species form small communal flocks after
breeding, sometimes raiding fruit orchards; others appear to be solitary
during nonbreeding periods.
Bowerbirds that build bowers are divided into two types. Maypole builders
construct single or twin towers ofsticl<q aaenue builders makewalled avenues
of sticks,with cleared areas,or"platforms,"atboth ends.There is a relationship
between bower complexity and male plumage: the brighter the plumage, the
simpler the bower. All bower-builders decorate their bowers with collected
objects placed on the ground.The types ofobjects collected, and their colors,
depend on species. Males appear to collect things that more or less match
their plumage colors.The striking blue black male Satin Bowerbird builds a
simple avenue bower of sticks, usually painted blackwith saliva mixed with
charcoal. He adorns the bower platforms with blue objects: berries, feathers,
flowers and, these days, bottle tops and pen caps. Research shows that the
more blue objects a male has, the more matings he obtains. Most bowerbirds
are promiscuous breeders; after mating at a bower, a female goes offand nests
by herself; males continue to advertise at their bowers, attempting to attract
and mate with multiple females each breeding season.
None of Australia's bowerbirds are currently threatened, although
many of them are confined to the country's eastern wet forests, which are
increasinglycleared or degraded. One New Guinea species,the Flre-maned
Bowerbird, is considered vulnerable because it occurs only over a small
mountainous region and its population is shrinking.
rt
bn
QZ,
,ly
Fairy-wrens and
0s'
6",
ed. Grasswrens
ed,
ier
rge
eSt
rcy
gs.
ch
ter
FAIRY-wRENS,brightlycolored and sometimes easilyobserved,are l)it/rihtrtioti
fy among the most charming avian inhabitants of the Australian region. /1,;tntlia, Ncu (]trirrta
'ers
They are small to medium-size insect-eaters that chiefly occupy shrubs, No o.f'I-it:irtr
thickets, and undergrowth. A few are common denizens of forest edge areas, SPLtitr: z8
res
parklands, and picnic grounds, so are commonly seen and appreciated.The N,t. tf'SptriLr
riP
family, Maluridae, contains about twenty-eight species, including the less I.'tt/rr.trtl'lt,
he tttt't'ttt{itiLl 2'o
colorfulemu-wrensandcResswRENS;twenty-twooccurinAustralia
ed S|tti,'t llttirrt/
and the remainder in the New Guinea area.The group is considered closely
'
No. 2l
fS, sitt;r t('oo
related to the honeyeaters and thornbills. 't
:h
These birds are 5.5 to 8.5 inches (r4to zz cm) long,with small, short bills,
ia short wings, and long tails (comprising halfor more ofeach bird's total length)
th
that are usually held stiffiy upward.They often stand out because the males
fS,
have patches of bright, iridescent blue. Male Splendid Fairy-wrens, mostly
)e
blue, and male Variegated Fairy-wrens, blue, black, and red, are considered
Cs
by many bird fanciers to be among the world's most beautiful small birds.
itS
Females in the family look different from males; female fairy-wrens, for
Ct
instance, are usually brownish. Grasswrens are mainly black and brown above
with white streaking; some have white underparts. Emu-wrens, brownish
;h with (in males) blue faces and upper breasts, are so-named because their long
re
tail feathers are thought to be Emu-like, that is, they look coarse,loose, and
:d
messy. This look is due to the lack of tiny hooks that, in most feathers, hold
ll feather barbs together, forming and stiffening the feathers.
Fairy-wrens occupy all kinds of terrestrial habitats, from rainforests to
c6
WHITE-BROWED SCRUBWRSN YELLOW-RUMPED THORNB]LL YELLOW THORNB]LL
Sericornfufron/ali Amntbiza cbrlsorrhoa Acantbiza nana
4 5 in (rz cm) 4.5 in (rz cm) 4 in (ro cm)
Australia Australia Australia
and shrubs, and on the ground. Owing to their small sizes, agile natures, and No ol-Lit'in,g
STritr:69
mostly dull plumage, they are not often observed for long and are difficult
to identifr, even for journeymen bird-watchers,who often give up trying to No of'Spctia';
[4r /n cro /tla,
differentiate the various species. Some in the group are warblerlike in their L,ntlangcrcd:.i,.;
looks and behavior, and thus the entire assemblage is sometimes called the
No. of'Spcci cs Ett i rr, t
A us tral ian ttsarb lers.
Sirtct 16oo r
The family in question, Acanthizidae, contains about sixty-nine species
and is distributed in Australia, New Guinea, Southeast Asia, New Zealand,
and some Pacific islands; most of these, forty-eight, occur in Australia.These
birds range in length from the tinyWeebill (Australia's smallest bird) at 3
inches (S cm) long to bristlebirds at up to ro.5 inches (27 cm);most are 4 to 5
inches (ro to 13 cm).They tend to be dully, cryptically colored. Browns, olives,
and grays predominate, so much so that American birders in the region
are usually tempted to call them LBJs (little brown jobs) or, in the local
vernacular,WLBBs, (wretched little brown birds). Some species usually
hold their tails erect, like wrens, and so are called scrubwrens, heathwrens,
or fieldwrens. Pardalotes (ofwhich there are four species, all endemic to
Australia; sometimes separated into their own family, Pardalotidae), also
called diamond birds, are perhaps the most distinctive of the group, having
very short bills and tails and being brightly patterned with patches ofwhite,
,VCS,
Honeyeaters and
. ate
ally Australian Chats
:s of
airs,
rr in
rills,
rnal
rest,
:ven
ally
)wn Tourists in the Australian countryside who are at all aware ofwildlife will Distrihrtio rt
eed
certainly have their attention drawn to an abundant group ofvery noisy, A u stro /a si n, I tt do tt tri o
lled active, aggressive, usually plain-looking birds known as H o N E y E A T E R s . No. o.l'l,ii,itrs
nes. Sltciu
Comprising Australia's largest bird family, they are everywhere on the ,4hotr/ r7o
;her
continent, occupying essentially all terrestrial habitats.These arboreal birds No. oJ'S7rir:
are so abundant and successful that in many woodland areas there are ten Vulntroh/c,
;of or more species present.The family, Meliphagidae (meli means "honey";
lindungrr,:l: 6, I
Lnd, li xt i tr tt
phag means "eater"), contains about r7o species that are distributed mostly No. of'STtc i t t
vell in the Australia/New Guinea region, but also in parts of Indonesia, in Sintc t6oo. 6
.ost
New Zealand, and on many Pacific islands; about seventy, including five
ich within a subgroup known as AUST RALIAN cHAT s (sometimes placed
em
in their own family, Epthianuridae) occur in Australia, about sixty-five in
.In New Guinea.The reason for this group's great success in the Australian
rnd
region is related to its chief food source, plant nectar.These birds are
,up,
specialists on feeding on nectar (also taking some fruit and insects), and
ties
nectar, which is mostly a sugar-water solution, is abundant in most habitats
]PS
across the region.
the
Honeyeaters,which range in length from 5 to greater than 14 inches (r3
est,
to 35+ cm), are slender, streamlined birds with long, slim, down-curved bills.
Most are attired in dull gray,greenish olive, or brown, often with streaks,
tly so they are not the most visually glamorous ofbirds. But many have small,
sof contrasting patches ofyellow, and one group ,genus Myzomela,rslargely red.
.nd
Many, such as the friarbirds, have areas ofbare colored skin on the face, and
L
BROWN HONEYEATER BAR-BREASTED HON EYEATER
Li, hmera indistintta Ramnyornisfastiatut
5 io (r3 crn) ; 5 in (r4 cm)
Ausrralia, New Guinea Australia
q
WHITE-FRONTED CHAT
Epthianura albifront
CRIM SON C HAT
Epthianura tricolor
4 5 in (r2 cm) 4 5 in (rz cm)
Australia Australia
some, such as the wattlebirds, have hanging protuberances from the ear or
eye area.In most, male and female look alike,but females are usually smaller.
,{.ustralian chats are small (4 to 5 inches [ro to 13 cm]),brightlycolored birds
of open country that forage bywalking along the ground, picking up seeds
and insects in their slim, straight bills.
Mainly birds of forests and shrublands, honeyeaters are gregarious,
L pugnacious birds that forage in flowering trees and shrubs usually in small
groups. They often squabble over feeding areas, sometimes chasing each
R
other awayfrom good food sources.Most honeyeaters have verylongtongues
that can be thrust deep into long, tubular flowers to collect nectar and into
cracks between pieces of tree bark to gather other fluid foods.The tongue is
tipped with a brushlike structure that soaks up nectar and other liquids like
a mopi it is then "wrung out" against the roof of the mouth. Many of these
birds can flick their tongues into flowers at rates ofup to ten licks per second,
thus quickly emptying flowers of nectar. Probably all honeyeaters include
in their diet, to varying degrees, some insects (for protein). Some also take
a good amount of fruit and berries. Other sugary substances that are parts
ofthe diets ofvarious species are honeydew (a sugary solution produced
bv some small insects after they feed on plant juices), manna (sugary
granules from damaged eucalypt leaves), and lerp (sugary coatings of some
sap-sucking insects).
Most honeyeater species nest alone in monogamous pairs but some nest
in colonialgroups ofup to twentyor more pairs. Onlythe female builds the
nest, a rough cup made of twigs and bark that is placed in a fork in a tree or
shrub or hung from small branches. She also is the sole incubator; males help
teed the young.
Most honeyeaters are abundant; afew are rare in parts of their ranges.
Honeyeaters that eat fruit sometimes damage orchards and are occasionally
persecuted for these actions. Currently six species are r,ulnerable and four
endangered; several ofthese are restricted to islands,where they are subject to
harmful effects ofintroduced species as well as habitat loss and degradation.
About five honeyeaters in historic times occurred in Hawaii. They were
mainly striking black and yellow birds with long tails and long, down-curved
bills. As of the early r98os, two species, known as'o'os, still existed, one on
Kauai, one possibly on Maui; all are now extinct, victims of habitat loss and
introduced diseases.
SCARLET ROB]N
Petroica mu/ticolor
WESTERN YELLOW ROBIN
&
WHITE-BREASTED ROBIN
E op s a / tri a gri s e ogu / ari s Eopn/tria georgiana
5 in (r3 cm) 6 in (r5 cm) 6 in (r5 crn)
Ausrralia, Melanesia, Fiji Australia Australia
Australasi an Robins
they comprise their own midsize family, Petroicidae, with forty-five spe cies ;
twenty occur in Australia, about twenty-five occur in New Guinea, and three
occur in New Zealand.
Generally plumpish, mostly 4.5 to 6.5 inches (u to 17 cm) long,
Australasian robins have large, rounded heads, large eyes, square tails,
and, in most, white wing bars. Their short bills are surrounded by small
"whiskers"that presumably help funnel flying or running insects into the
mouth.In Australia especially, these robins are often divided into several
groups based on plumage color.There is a red group, including the Scarlet
and Red-capped Robins, in which males have bright red or pinkish breasts
(presumably furnishing the group name robin, after the European red-
breasted robins); a yellow group, including the Western Yellow Robin; a
D brown group, including the Gray-headed Robin; and a miscellaneous group,
L:
1
I
3d
rd
Whistlers
tv,
rd
A
Ie
rt,
t),
rg
1e
St
)S;
f w H I s r I- B n s and their relatives are a midsize group of stout, mainly tree- Dirtribution:
St
living songbirds ofAustralasia,known for their insect-eatingways and their Aus tra/ia, Nezu Guinea,
Soutbeast Asia, Neu
vocalizations. Many of them are considered among the region's outstanding Zealand, some Pacifc
:h
singers.The family Pachycephalidae contains about fifty-seven species of islands
le
whistlers, shrike-thrushes, shrike-tits, pitohuis, and bellbirds, among others, No. of Lirting
:S.
and is distributed throughout Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, many Specier:57
:d
Pacific islands, and parts of Southeast Asia.Twenty-four species occur in No. of S2ecies
ie
New Guinea, sixteen in Australia. Vulnerable,
s,
Known collectively as whistlers or thickheads, these birds are small to Endangered: t, r
rS
medium-size (5.5 to ro inches lr4to z6 cm] long),with robustbodies,thick, No. of Specics Extirttt
rounded heads, and thick, strong bills. Some have bills with down-curved Sinrc 16oo; r
tips,like shrikes; hence the names shrike-thrushes and shrike-tits. Most
of these birds (some whistlers and the shrike-thrushes and bellbirds) are
d
outfitted in dull grays,browns, or reddish brown,whereas others (shrike-
e.
tits, some whistlers) are boldly marked with bright yellows and black and
W
white. The Golden Whistler, for example, which is broadly distributed in
n
Australia and on many Pacific islands, is quite striking and attractive. Some
a
whistlers have crests or bare colored skin (wattles) hanging from the face.
St
Male and female generally look slightly different, females being more dully
n
colored. New Zealand's representatives ofthe family are three species known
IS
as mohouas (with the common namesWhitehead,Yellowhead, and Pipipi);
1s
they are forest and scrub birds slightly smaller (5 to 6 inches [r3 to 15 cm])
W
than most others in the group.
a
wHrsrLERS 285
BORNEAN WHISTLER COLDEN WHISTLER CRESTED SHRTKE-TIT
Pat bltt ep b a / a h12 oxan t h a Pac byep h al a p ec tora I i t Fa I c un cu I us 1[r on ta t us
65 in (16 cm) 7 io (r8 cm) 7in (r8 cm)
Borneo Australia, Melanesia, Frji Australia
wHrsrLERS 287
GRAY-CROWNED BABBLER WHITE-BROWED BABBLER
P o nat o t t o urc te m?ora /it P o fl a t o t t o mu u?erci /io us
s s
KO KA KO SADDLEBACK
Ca/laeas cinerea Creadion ruruncu/atus
15 in (38 cm) ro in (25 cm)
New Zealand New Zealand
Lngrunners;
Australasian B abblers;
Australian Mudnestcrs;
New Zealand
Wattlebirds
Profiled here are four small families restricted to the Australasian region. I,OCRUNNI.]RS
There arejusttwo species ofro c nuN N e n s,familyOrthonychidae.Both Distribution
occur in Australia in that continent's eastern wet forests, and one ofthem, the At rtrolia
Logrunner, also occurs in New Guinea. Both are chunky, ground-dwelling, Nc, ol'Liting
midsize songbirds (7 tottinches lr7 to z8 cm] long), mostlybrown and white, Sp,:tits: z
with short bills and large feet. Another name for the Logrunner is Spine- No. oJ'Specit
D tailed Logrunner, after the "spines," or short pieces of bare feather shafts,
that protrude from the end of the tail in both species.The other logrunner is
Vu/ nerabh,
Dndangercd: o, o
known as the Chowchilla,because some ofits calls sound like this word. No. of Speticr Dxtinct
Logrunners are noisyrainforestbirds thatlive on territories inpermanent Sirtcc 16oo: o
communal groups of typically, five or six.They use their large feet to scratch
and scrape the ground for insects, snails, and other forest-floor invertebrates,
including leeches. They fly little, foraging and escaping danger mostly by
rapid running and hopping. They breed in pairs or communal groups.
The female builds the domed nest of sticks and moss on the ground or in
low vegetation, and she incubates the eggs. Males, with or without other
members of the communal group, help feed the young. Neither logrunner
is threatened.
AUST RALAS IAN BAB B LERs are highly social, active, noisybirds
that forage chiefly on the ground for insects.The family, Pomatostomidae,
has five species, four ofwhich occur in Australia (three endemic, one shared
with New Guinea) and two in New Guinea.They resemble the Eurasian/
African babblers somewhat in behavior and appearance, but the two groups
LOGRUNNERS;BABBLERS;MUDNESTERS;WATTLEBIRDS 289
AUSTRALASIAN are not closely related.They are medium-size birds (7 to rr.5 inches lr9 to z9
BABI]LT]RS
cm] long) with long, down-curved bills, brown with boldly patterned white
Distrihution: and brown faces andwhite-tipped tails.
./lnslrolia and N,nu
()rri nut
Australasian babblers spend their days in small groups of up to a dozen
related individuals and sleep together in domed stick "dormitories" that
No. of'Lit,ing
they build in trees.These groups are fairly sedentary and defend communal
52,:cits:.5
territories. B abblers forage on the ground, picking up bugs but also pushing
No. of Speties
their pointed bills into the soil to dig for insect larvae.They also search lower
Vu/ncrable,
Endangcrcd: o, o parts of shrubs and tree trunks and branches for food. Although mostly
taking insects, they are considered omnivorous, also snacking on spiders,
No. of Specie r Dxtinct
Sinct 16oo o tinyfrogs and reptiles, crustaceans, and even some seeds and fruit. Babblers
fly quickly, low to the ground, from place to place, or run from danger.
Theybreed communally, the dominant male and female doing the actual
AUSTRALIAN
MUDNT]STERS reproducing, the other members of the group (mostlyyoung from previous
nests) helping to feed the incubating female and then the young. The
Distribution'
Anstra/io breeding pair builds the domed stick nest in a tree. None of these babblers
are threatened,but the Gray-crowned Babbler has experienced population
No ofLiving
Spccics: z declines in several Australian regions.
The aUsTRALIAN MUDNEsTERS are the Apostlebird and
No. of'Spcries
Vulneroh/e, White-winged Chough, the only members of endemic Australian famrly
Endangererl. o, o Corcoracidae.The two species, related to crows, are vaguely crowlike in
No. of'Species Extinct appearance.They are large (rz to 18 inches l3o to 46 cm] long), dull-plumaged
Since 16oo' o birds that live in communal groups (usually five to fifteen individuals) on
year-round territories; they roost and nest in trees but forage on the ground
NUW ZEAL;\Nl) for insects and other small invertebrates, some smallvertebrates, and seeds.
IVATTLEB'IRDS Nests are mud cups (hence the family's common name) placed on tree
Distrihution: branches, and all members of a group help with nesting and raising young.
Neu Zeuhnl Neither mudnester is threatened.
No. oJ'Ltuing The two species of Ne w zEALAND wATTLEBIRDS, family
Spctics: z Callaeidae,restricted to New Zealand,are medium-size (ro to 15 inches [25
No. af-Spuics to 38 cm] long) with short wings, strong legs,long tails, and limited flight
Vulnerahle, capabilities. Both have feshywattles hanging from the base of the bill,
Dndangered: o, t reddish in the Saddleback, blue or orange in the Kokako. Although they
No. o.f'Spe ries Extintt spend much time moving about in trees, they also forage extensively on the
Since 16oo t ground for insects, other small invertebrates, and fruit.Wattlebirds remain
year-round in territorial pairs and breed monogamously. The Kokako is
endangered, the Saddleback considered near-threatened. A third wattlebird,
the Huia, became extinct in the early 19oos.
3er.
.ual
ous
\\' H I P B I RD S, qUAI L - T H RU S H E S, JE W E L - BAB B LE R S, and a few Dis/rihtrtiott'
lhe A rr, Nc-,o G u i n,:n,
others comprise a small group of midsize insect-eating songbirds restricted u t I ra / i
SPOTTED QUAIL-THRUSH
Ciildoroma ?unctatLtffl
ro rr in (25-28 cm)
the male feeds her; both sexes feed young. At ro to rr days old, nestlings hop
out of the nest although not yet flight capable.They hide in the undergrowth
for about a week,while the parents bring them food, until they can fly. Qrail-
thrushes breed in monogamous pairs. Nests are loose cups of bark, leaves,
and grass placed on the ground by a tree, stump, shrub, or rock. Some nest in
depressions in the ground that are lined with vegetation. Females incubate
unassisted by their mates; both sexes feed young.
None of the birds in this family are threatened, but two are near-
threatened: the Western Whipbird occurs only in several small, fragmented
populations in southern Australia, in habitats that were much reduced during
Australia's agricultural development, and the Malaysian Rail-babbler occurs
in some forested parts ofThailand,Malaysia, and Indonesia, areas that have
undergone extensive deforestation in recent decades.
WHIPBIRDS,Q-UAIL-THRUSHES,ANDJEWEL-BABBLERS 293
LEADEN FLYCATCHER BLACK-FACED MONARCH
Elminia longicauda Myiagra rubecula Monarcba melanoptit
5.5 in (r4 cm) 5 in GS cm) 7 io (r8 cm)
Africa Australia, New Guioea Australia. New Guinea
6
LICHT FORM
IC
;h
IC
:d
IC
,d
It
IC
DRo NGo s are bold, noisy, mostly all-blackbirds ofthe OldWorld tropics. Distribution;
ly Sub-Saharan Africa,
Observed frequently because they favor open habitats and, often, exposed
IS southern Asia,
perches,such as the tops oftrees,bushes and utilitypoles,drongos are perhaps Australasia
)n
most recognizedfor their tails.These are long and forked, often with the
)- No. ofLioing
outer few feathers curving outward (and sometimes upward, resulting in a Specier: ,.1
:h
curling effect), and in some species quite ornate,withwirelike extensions and
No. of Species
racket-shaped tips. The elaborate tails, in combination with long, pointed Vulnerable,
11
wings, aid the birds with aerial maneuverability when they chase flying Endangered: o, z
o
b' insects in acrobatic flight.The family, Dicruridae, has t'venty-three species No. of Specics Extinct
)n
and occurs throughout sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascat most of southern Since t6oo: o
)r
Asia, New Guinea, and parts ofAustralia.The term drongo apparently arose
in Madagascar, as the name given to the local species (the Crested Drongo)
te
by some ofthe native peoples.
h
Drongos are medium -size,varyins from Z to 15 inches (r8 to 38 cm) long,
,d
not including the extra-long tail shafts of species such as the Greater Racket-
re
tailed Drongo,which can add another ro inches (25 cm) to total length.They
ii,
have stout, broad bills slightly hooked at the tip, which are encircled by small
IC
bristles that may guide the entry of flying bugs into the mouth, and short
rn
legs with weak feet. They are almost all attired totally in black, usually with a
!r glossy sheen; a few have white or reddish brown patches. Some have crests,
:n
most have red eyes. Drongo sexes look alike.
Ld
Arboreal birds of wooded areas, drongos occur in habitats ranging
:d
from rainforest edges to more open sites with scattered trees, including
DRoNGos 297
HAIR-CRESTED DRONGO
Dicrurus holtentottut
12 in (lr cm)
Southern Asia
DRoNGos 299
AZURE-HOODED JAY
Cyano/1ta cuculla/a
r5 5-r7 5 iD (39-44 cm) ro-ru in (26-3rcm)
North America. Cenrral America Mexico. Central America
:,:
/
BLACK MACPIE
P la ty s m uru t leu c ol ter us
F:
rfS
:IC
1P
th
3d BIRDS-oF-pARADISE aretropicalrainforestbirdsthatarecelebrated Dis/rihtrriort;
Nnu ()uin''a"4ts/raliu
for two aspects of their biology: the fantastic andbizarreplumage of some
.1n ofthem,withtremendouslylongtailfeathersand,sometimes,headplumes, No rlf'l,it,irt,q
and the breeding displays males use to attract females and convince them
rd sTLti"t 11
ds to mate. In New Guinea,where they mainly occur, birds-of-paradise were, t"Yo. o.l '\1,ttitr
rd v,/rt:nrl/':'
and still are, an important part ofthe cultures of indigenous groups. Several ,
r'n'/'trr'qttt'1 1' o
ne species are venerated, their long plumes considered prrzes,indications
ln
rl- species. In addition to New Guinea (with about thirty-six species), birds-of-
.es paradise occur on nearby islands and in parts of eastern Australia. Included
rts in the family are birds called paradise-crow, manucode, paradigalla, astrapia,
ne p arotia, rifl ebird, sicklebill, and melampitta.
br Midsize birds,birds-of-paradise have a great range oflengths, owing to
)st their long tails; among the smallest is Wilson's Bird-of-paradise at abott 7
rly inches (r8 cm) long. Some have central tail feathers up to 3.3 feet (r m) long,
vielding total lengths of up to 4.4feet (r.fS -). Several in the family are all
ed black or clad in dull browns, but a good number are richly endowed with
OS,
glossybright reds, oranges, or yellows, sometimes with patches ofiridescent
he green. Bills are generally stout and fairly long; the sicklebills and riflebirds
na have very long down-curved bills. Within a species, males generally have
more colorful and ornate plumage than females, but in a few (such as
manucodes and paradigallas), the sexes look alike.
BrRDS-OF-PARADTSE 305
PARADISE RIFLEBlRD CRESTED BIRD-OF.PARAD] SE
Ptilorit 2aradircus C n e m op h i / us ma rgre gor i i
rr 5 io (29 cm) 9 5 in (24 cm)
Australia New Guinea
WILSON S B] RD-OF-PARADISE
Cicinnurur respub/ica
6 5-8 5 io (16-zr cm)
N_ew Guinea
The primary habitat of birds-of-paradise is rainforest, but many at
least occasionally utilize other habitats, including forest edges, woodlands,
savanna,and gardens; most occurin New Guinea's forested mountains.These
birds are chiefly consumers of fruits, berries, and insects.They usually fly
from fruiting tree to fruiting tree, staying in the middle and higher canopy,
and often hanging at odd angles to reach tasty morsels. But theywill also fly
down to feed on tree trunks, stumps, and fallen logs. Some move through
foliage, seeking insects and spiders; some use their long, strong bills to turn
over bark and dig into dead wood in search ofbugs or to push deeply into
fruits. Frogs and lizards are occasionally taken, and at least a few species are
known to add some leaves, flowers, or nectar to their diets. Birds-of-paradise
often forage solitarily, but aggregations may occur at fruit-laden trees.
In many species, males seem to hold territories year-round, feeding,
and eventually, displaying for females within the territories. Most are
promiscuous breeders. During breeding seasons, males spend most of each
day zt display sites, usually hortzontal branches high in large trees. They
vocalize and display to attract the attention ofpassing females. Male displays
varyamong species,but theyusuallyinvolve moving the head up and down,
stretching the neck, rhythmically swaying the body, hopping from side to
side, and extending the wings.When a female approaches, a male's antics
increase in intensity and he may encircle the female with his out-stretched
wings and dance around her.When she is satisfied,presumablyofthe male's
good genes, the two mate.The female then leaves to nest on her own.The
male returns to his mate-attraction displays and will mate with as many
females as he can attract.The female builds abulkybowl nest ofdried leaves,
twigs, ferns, and vine pieces high in a tree fork or in a vegetation tangle,lays
and incubates eggs, and feeds her young. Species in which the sexes look
alike tend to be monogamous,with the sexes sharing nesting chores.
Only four of the birds-of-paradise, all New Guinea species, are currently
threatened (considered vulnerable), but eight others are near-threatened.
Loss of their rainforest habitats is the prime threat to these splendid birds.
Additionally, some riflebirds are killed routinely in agricultural areas where
theyraid fruit crops. Birds-of-paradise are still sometimes targeted in parts
of New Guinea for food and for trade in feathers, skins, or live birds.
BrRDS-OF-PARADTSE 3O7
i.<
^d
,!
6 in (r7 crn)
-5
BORNEAN BRISl'I-E]IEAD
P i t.y r i d s i gy m n otc h a
V ht
ro in (26 cm)
Borneo
Woodswallows
tlsiu
the two groups are not closely related. Despite their size and coloring,
woodswallows are often conspicuous in the regions in which they occur No ol Litting
STctit:s. r:
because they rypically perch huddled together in small groups on bare tree
No. of Sptcias
branches or utility poles or wires; and when not huddling, they engage for
Vu/ttcrahh,
long periods in circling, back-and-forth flight, like swallows, as they forage Drtrlungcrcd: o, o
in the airfor insects.There are twelve species in the family,Artamidae,which
No. o.f'S1tc i as Ex t i n t t
is related to the butcherbirds and crows.All are calledwoodswallows except Sintc 16oo: o
one, the Bornean Bristlehead,abrzarre bird only recently recognized as
a woodswallow by analysis of its o N a. Woodswallows are restricted to
southern Asia and Australasia.
Husky birds, mostly 5 to 8 inches (rz to zo cm) long, woodswallows are
mainly black, brown, gray, and white, and often bicolored, for example gray
and white or gray and brown.They all have long, broad, pointed wings,
blunt, short tails, and short legs and toes.Their stout, slightly down-curved
bill and wide gape are helpful for catching flying insects. Bills are usually
gray blue, with dark tips. The Bornean Bristlehead, endemic to Borneo, is
stocky, about ro inches (26 cm) long,blackwith abrightlycolored head and
massive, hooked black bill; the top and sides of its head are covered with
stubby, bristlelike feathers.
Woodswallows occur in many habitats: forest edges and clearings,
scrub areas, agricultural lands, even some deserts. Their major habitat
requirement is that insects be plentiful.They forage in pairs or small groups,
wooDSwALLows 3O9
typically catching, and usually consuming, insects in flight. Some species,in
addition to aerial insect-catching,will take bugs from the ground or from
foliage. Although they subsist almost exclusively on insects, woodswallows
occasionally also take nectar and pollen from flowers.They have brushy-
tipped tongues that aid in this endeavor.They are graceful flyers, moving
alongwith much gliding.They are one ofthe few kinds ofsongbirds that can
soar, like hawks or seabirds, using only spread wings and rising air currents
to stay aloft.
Woodswallows are often aggressive, sometimes attacking and chasing
much larger birds, such as crows and hawks,which approach their roosting
or nesting sites.They are very social, roosting and perching in huddled parties
(often four to six strong), especially in cold weather, and preening each other.
Larger aggresations of a hundred or more individuals will huddle together on
trees on particularly cold days. Roosting overnight, most woodswallows cluster
together in close contact, in "knots," often clinging to the side ofa vertical
tree trunk or in a tree hollow. Some species are fairly sedentary throughout
the year; others are migrato ry a few are nomadic. Two Australian species,
the Masked and White-browed Woodswallows, are highly nomadic, moving
frequently over long distances in large flocks and breeding when temperature
and rainfall conditions, and so insect availabiliry are favorable.They move
generally northward in fall and southward in spring to breed.The two species
often mix in flocks during movements and even in nesting colonies.
The Bornean Bristlehead not only looks different from other
woodswallows, it forages differently, hunting for large insects by searching
for them amid the leaves of tall trees in old-growth rainforests ofBorneo; it
also takes small vertebrates.The Bristlehead occurs in small family groups
and is known especiallyfor its loud honking, mewing, and chortling calls.
Woodswallows, monogamous breeders, nest in loose colonies in pairs or
small groups. Nests are flimsy, made oftwigs,grasses, roots, and barkplaced
usually in trees or bushes, or on tree stumps; a few nest in rock crevices or
holes. Both sexes build the nest, incubate eggs, and feed chicks. In several
species, other adults in a group, presumably relatives, help the breeding pair
feed theiryoung.
Most of the woodswallows are abundant, widespread birds, and
none are threatened. The Bornean Bristlehead, however, is considered
near-threatened. It occurs sparsely only in lowland old-growth
forests ofBorneo, and these forests are rapidly being cut, burned, and
otherwise degraded.
r.
n
,'r
B urc H E RBr RD s and cuRRAwoNGs are mid- to large-size, highly UI'TCIII.]RIIIRI)S
il AND CLIRRA\VONGS
successful forest and woodland birds ofAustralia and New Guinea that
It
frequently share bicolored plumage patterns and, to varytlg degrees, l)i s/ ri h rr ti o rt
j,
predatory natures.They prey on larger insects but also on small vertebrates. tl rr I ra I i
s t, Nttt O tr i rt r'u
o
b Currawongs are also called crow-shrikes and bell-magpies; the word No of'l-iuittg
'e
curran)lng sounds like one of the calls of the Pied Currawong.The family, Sll,ttics. rt
e
Cracticidae,with nvelve species, includes the Australasian Magpie and nvo No af'SltiLt
:S
New Guinea species known as peltops. I,1r/ttarthlt,
l)rr,lungtrLr/. o, o
Butcherbirds, g.5 to 17 inches (z4to 44cm) long, are outfitted in black,
white, and gray. They have relatively large, robust, straight bills, used to No. o.f- S
lrr i t r Er t i n. t
'SitttL t6oo. c't
capture, kill, and dismember their prey.The three currawongs, all endemic
to Australia ,arelarge (to zo inches [5o cm]), mostly black or gray,with white
wing and tail patches.Th.y have long tails and long, straight bills with a
sharp, hooked point. They resemble crows, but are more slender and have
yellow eyes. Australasian Magpies, to r7 inches (++.-) long, are black and
white, with white, black, or gray backs.They have robust bills that they use
to dig into soil for food. Peltops, about 8 inches (zo cm) long, are blackwith
white cheek and back patches and red at the base of the tail. Male and female
in the family generally look alike, although males'bills are usually a bit larger
than females.
I
Butcherbirds, usually seen alone, are predators of forests, woodlands, and
I
agricultural districts.They perch, generally a few yards above the ground,
I
and scan for prey that includes large insects, crustaceans, small reptiles and
I
BUTCHERBIRDSANDCURRAWONGS;MAGPIE_LARKS 3II
AUSIRAI-ASIAN T]AGPlE P] EI) CLIR RAlVONG
Clnnorhina tihirn Slrt1ra graculina
r;-175in (38 44cLr) 16 5 19 5 in (42 ;o cm)
Australia. Nerv GuiLrea r\ustr dia
magpie, the female builds the nest, incubates, and feeds nestlings, but other
adults in the group help feed fledglings. Butcherbirds have reputations as
aggressive defenders of their nestsl they will swoop at people who get too
close and even hit them. None ofthe birds in this family are threatened.
M A G p I E - L A R x s (sometimes called mudnest-builders) is the group
name given to the Magpie-lark andTorrent-lark, the two species comprising
famlIy Grallinidael the former occurs in Australia and New Guinea, the
latter only in New Guinea. Both are black and white, 8 to ro inches (zo
to z5 cm) in length,long-legged and slender-billed.The Magpie-lark, in
Australia an abundant bird of settled areas, parks and roadsides, forages
on damp ground for insects, earthworms, and mollusks. Both species are
monogamous breeders.Th.y construct bowl nests of fibrous vegetation
bound with mud, usually on tree branches. Neither is threatened.
ASIAN FAIRY-BLUEBIRD
Irenapue/la
7 in (r8 cm) ro in (26 cm)
Southern Asia Southern Asia
and black. Some of them, such as the Golden-fronted Leafbird, Common '\Tttits r1
Iora, and especially the brilliant turquoise blue Asian Fairy-bluebird, are l''o ol Spt, i,
'
so luminous and lovely that catching them with binoculars in just the right [1r/nLt n/t/,',
l', tt t/t ng,:t,',/. t, o
light is a bird-watcher's delight. Some of the leafbirds are accomplished
mimics of other birds'songs, a single pair hidden high in a tree's dense Nr' o_f'S|t, i L' l:s t i ttt/
Sin,t t6oo o
foliage at times spewing forth sufficientlyvaried vocalizations to convince
a person on the ground that the tree must contain a multispecies flock.The
family,Irenidae, has fourteen species (eight leafbirds, four ioras, two fairy-
bluebirds; sometimes Irenidae is split into two or three separate families),
and is distributed from Pakistan and India eastward to the Philippines,with
most species occurring in Southeast Asia.The group has the distinction of
being the only bird family unique to the Oriental faunal, or zoogeographic,
region oftheworld.
Leafbirds (6.25 to 8.75 inches 116 to zz.5 cm] long), ioras (4.75 to 6.5
inches lrz to 17 cm] long), and fairy-bluebirds (g.5 to rr inches [24 to z8 cm]
long) have slender, slightly down-curved bills, some being fairlylong; fairy-
bluebird bills are a bit heavier than in the ioras and leafbirds. Most in the
familyhave short,often thicklegs and small toes.Bodyplumage is thickand
flufr, and some in the group are known for easily shedding feathers when
handled. Males of many of the species are more colorful than the females,
Je
le
ls
.S,
-11
ln
.n
r-
(S
oLD woRLD oRIoLES aremedium-sizeforestandwoodlandsongbirds Ditlrihtttion
$ of Eurasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Australia renowned for their flashy o/'/ l'[/ot/'l
a vellowandblackplumageandattractive,melodioussongs.Theseattributes No o.l'l.i,itrg
:o conspire to render orioles fairly conspicuous even though their preferred sTrrit: te
physical situation is to be sheltered in the dense and obscuring foliage of .r'o o.l sTLtits
TS
tree crowns.The family, Oriolidae, contains twenty-nine species (twenty- I,'ultt,''r'th/'" ,
IG r"tttttttt'\itiLt 2' l
'b seven orioles and two figbirds, the latter confined to the Australia/New
)- Guinea region). "Oriole" is from the Latin aureolu.r, which means "golden" No 2/ '\2" i ]:'rr itt' r
s, ')///(i //'orr''
or "yellow,"the predominant color in many species, and the group is named
]S for the common, widespread, bright yellow Eurasian Golden Oriole. (This
St oriole group is not to be confused with the very distantly related NewWorld
le orioles,which are included in the NewWorld blackbird family,Icteridae.)
h Orioles range from Z to 12 inches (r8 to 3r cm) in length. All are very
similar in shape-robust but fairly slender birds with an elongated look.They
t. have long pointed wings, strong legs and feet, and straight, sturdy, slightly
re
down-curved bills that, in males, are often pinkish or reddish orange (but
,e
dark in figbirds and non-yellow orioles). Male orioles are usually brightly
h turned out in yellow and black or green and black, often with lengthwise
o
b streaks; females typically are duller, greener or browner. In many species,
n males are bright yellow with black heads or eye stripes. Some species are
d mostly dull brown or brown and whitish. Figbirds are less brightly colored
e than most other orioles, often more olive green, and they have bare skin
around their eyes, pinkish in males, gray in females.
OLIVE-BACKED ORIOLE
Orio/ut ugittatus Spberotheres viidit
ro 5 in (27 cm) rr in (28 cm)
Ausrralia, Nerv Guinea Australia, New Guinea
Almost exclusively arboreal and often staying in the higher reaches of
tree foliage, orioles fly gracefi.rlly, with undulatingfight, from tree to tree,
looking among leaves for insects.They also take fruit when it is available,
and some species, especially the figbirds, depend heavily on fruit, much of
their diet consisting offigs and the like. Some species are known to come to
the ground occasionally to feed on fallen fruit and even take insects from
grassy areas. Orioles tend to forage solitarily or in small groups of two or
three but will occasionallyjoin large mixed-species foraging parties. Figbirds
are strongly gregarious, usually seen in small focks, and sometimes joining
with groups of other fruit-eating birds. Orioles are fatly sedate in their
foraging; figbirds more active and aggressive. Some orioles are year-round
residents where they occur, but many are migratory; for instance, European-
breeding populations of the Eurasian Golden Oriole, perhaps the best
known oriole species, winter in tropical Africa. Some in the family, such
as the Green Frgbird in Australia, are nomadic when not breeding. During
breeding seasons male orioles are highly vocal, producing the rich,liquid-
noted songs for which the group is justifiably celebrated; these songs are
frequent, characteristic sounds of many Old World forests. Figbirds often
have harsher, chirpy, chattering songs.
Orioles are monogamous breeders, qpicallybuilding rough but elaborate
cup- or hammock-shaped nests woven of plant fibers, grass, and bark strips,
which are suspended from forked tree branches and hidden by foliage.They
frequently add moss and lichens to a nest for camoufl.age. In many species,
the nest is constructed by the female alone, and she is largely in charge of
incubating eggs.The male provides some food to the brooding female and
helps feed the young after they are hatched.In figbirds, apparently both
sexes perform nesting duties.
Most orioles are common and many have wide distributions. However,
three species are currently considered threatened; all have small and declining
populations, caused principally by habitat loss, mainly deforestation.
Endangered is the Isabela Oriole, endemic to the northern Philippines,
and vulnerable are the Seo Tom6 Oriole, endemic to a small island offthe
western coast of Central Africa, and the Silver Oriole of southern China.
Three other species, all of Southeast Asia, are near-threatened. Some orioles,
migrating in flocks, become pests when they raid fruit orchards, and they are
persecuted in parts oftheir ranges for these transgressions.
h
v
t
S
d
n
n
:S
vI R Eo s are mainly small, drably colored birds of NewWorld forests and Dis/ rihtrtion
:S
woodlands that flit about tree canopies looking for insects to eat. They are Nau World
.e
known for their persistent singing; in some areas, durin g early afternoon, No o.l'Li.t,int
n for instance, vireos are often the only birds heard. Also, like other groups of 52r'ri,'s 5-:
v small songbirds that contain multiple species that are confusingly similar in No. of'Sp,:tics
)r I/u /n tnr lt,
appearance and habits,vireos are notorious for presenting stiffchallenges to h
vrREos 323
THICK-BlLLED VIREO SLATY-CAPPED SHRlKE-YIREO RED-EYED VI REO
Vireo crastiroilrit Vireolanius /eucot;r Vireo olioateus
5in (r3 cm) 5 5 in (r4 crn) 6 in (r5 cm)
West Indies Sorrrh America North America, South America,
\AIest Indies
325
q
€
LONC TAILED FISCAL RED-BACKED SHRTKE
Laniut obanisi Lanius ollurio E uroc ep b a I u t rueq2e I I i
ro-rz io (26-jo cm) 6 5 in (r7 cm) 8 in (zo cm)
Atiica Eurasia, Africr Africa
is that, after having eaten their fill, they continue to hunt, caching captured No. ofLit,ing
prey, for future consumption, by impaling it on thorns or other sharp plant Species: jo
parts, or these days, on spikes ofbarbed wire.They also impale larger prey to No. of Species
make it easier to dismember and eat. Because of these feeding habits, shrikes Vulnerab/e,
Endangered: o, r
are often considered cruel; indeed, a common name for them is butcherbird,
and in various regions of the world, other common names are variations on No. of Species Extinct
Since t6oo: o
hangman and murderer.The name shrike is not much better: its derivation
is the same as that of shriek, referring to the screeching harsh calls many of
them make.
The family of true shrikes ("true" to distinguish it from helmetshrikes
and bushshrikes), Laniidae, is comprised of thirty species that range over
North America, Africa, Eurasia, and New Guinea. Most occur in Africa and
Asia; only two inhabit the NewWorld. They range in length mainly from 6
to 14 inches (r5 to 3 6 cm), but one, Africa's Magpie Shrike, has a very long tail,
the bird's total length reaching 17 inches (43 cm). Furthering their hawklike
images, shrikes have hear,y, hooked bills and strong legs and feet, with sharp
claws. Most appear in handsome if somber combinations of black, white,
and. gray, although some add various shades ofbrown. Almost all shrikes
have black heads or bold, black eye stripes. Six mainly black, white, and
)d lifestyles, and their vocal duets. Furthermore, some species of the group have 1u"o of Lit,irt.y
;h incredibly beautiful plumage. Unlike the "true" shrikes (family Laniidae), 'STrtics: q.1
bushshrikes (family Malaconotidae, which is restricted to Africa) are not No o.l S1atiL:
is, generally known for impaling their prey. Among the 43 species in the group Ii r/r tt nrb/t,
DrttltnguL,/. t,;
CS are rTbushshrikes, g boubous,6 puffbacks,5 tchagras, and 4 gonoleks.
)y Bushshrikes are mostly stocky, medium-size songbirds,5.5 to ro.5 inches No of'STcriLt Lttirtr/
Sitt,L 16oo c>
1S (r+to 27 cm) long, with some of the typical bushshrikes being the largest
of in the family, and the puftbacks being the smallest.Th.y all have strongly
IS hooked bills that they use to dispatch their prey, and strong feet with sharp
claws for handling struggling insects. Bird fanciers in North America and
n Europe think of shrikes as handsome but unimaginatively colored birds,
)d because the shrikes distributed on those continents are mainlyblack,white,
le and gray. But Africa's bushshrikes include some spectacularly colored birds.
3S In addition to the more colorful ones illustrated here are some multicolored
n
5t gems, such as Doherty's Bushshrike of East Africa,with vivid green back,
,y,
yellow belly, and red and black face and upper chest. Degree of brightness
)S. varies among the subgroups: boubous (named for some of their calls) are all
n black or black and white; puffbacks are black and white; tchagras are gray
5,
)r brown with reddish brown wings; gonoleks are black and red; and rypical
ry bushshrikes are either black, white, and chestnut, or brightly colored, often
green above with yellow underparts. Puftbacks are so named because males
BUSHSHRTKES 329
have long,loose feathers on their lower backs that they puffout during
courtship displays. In most species, males and females look alike, but in
some, such as the puftbacks, sexes differ in coloring.
Bushshrikes are found in most terrestrial African habitats, from the
leafr canopies of dense forests to the edges of deserts, but most species
inhabit woodlands and savanna. Many skulk about in dense, impenetrable
(to humans) thickets, and are more often heard than seen. Others frequent
more open habitats such as forest midlevels or treetops. A good number,
such as the tchagras, typically forage on or near the ground. A11 are primarily
insect-eaters, but some other invertebrates, such as snails, are also taken.
Larger bushshrikes will also take small vertebrates such as lizards, frogs,
and tinyrodents. Some, especiallythe boubous, commonlyraid other birds'
nests to eat eggs and chicks. Most species, however, chiefly hunt insects,
usually by moving methodically over tree or shrub trunks and limbs and
through foliage. Some will occasionally fly after and grab flying insects. Most
bushshrikes are seen foraging alone or in pairs, and manylive year-round in
pairs on defended territories; some, following breeding, join mixed-species
foraging focks. Many in the family are brilliant singers, with memorable
calls or songs.The precisely timed duets produced in some species by mated
individuals,the female instantaneouslyanswering the male's notes,especially
among the boubous,likely function in maintaining pair-bonds in the dense-
vegetation habitats that these birds occupy and also in territory defense.
Most bushshrikes breed in monogamous pairs. Nests are usually open
cups, constructed of twigs, stems, rootlets, grass, or bark strips, placed in trees
or shrubs, or hidden in dense undergrowth. Some are camoufaged with an
outer layer of lichens and spider webbing. In most, both sexes build the nest
and feed the young, but sometimes only the female incubates and during
this time she may be fed by her mate; there is much variation among species
in gender contributions to nesting efforts.
Most birds in the bushshrike family are relatively secure, especially since
some have adapted to modified habitats such as agricultural lands. Six species
are considered threatened: one is vulnerable, four endangered, and one,
Somalia's Bulo Burti Boubou, critically endangered; the latter may now have
a tiny population or, indeed, already be extinct. Very small ranges combined
with ongoing habitat loss are the main factors jeopardiz\ngthese species.
te
CS
1e
nt
SOUl'HBRN BOUBOU BRUBRU
)1, [,anariusferrugineus Ni/aus aJir
8 5 in (zr cm) 5 in (rj cm)
ly Southern Africa Suh Seharan Africa
n.
rs
ls'
-c
-ut
rd
St
in
ES
le
)d
ry
ly
3-
te
]S
e,
re
)d
CR]N]SON
SICKLE.BILLED YANCA
|hlrulea 2a/liata Duryteror pretostir
rz 5 in (32 cm) rr 5 in (29 cm)
Madagascar Madagascar
Vangas
VANGAS 333
(Lafresnaye's Vanga), to long, humped, and hooked (Helmet Vanga), to
long, thin, and highly curved (Sickle-billed Vanga).
Ranging from 5 to r2.5 inches $3to 3z cm) in length, vangas have long
wings and moderately long tails. Coloring is variable, but many are mainly
black,white ,ot gray,or acombination ofthese; some have brown added into
the mix; and the Blue Vanga is blue and white. Bills in many are heavy and
hooked at the tip.
Vangas inhabit forests, woodlands, and, in drier regions, even semidesert
scrub areas. They are arboreal, mainly canopy birds that, outside breeding
seasons, are usuallyin groups offour to twelve or more.Most species typically
associate with mixed-species foraging flocks, and indeed, some of the vangas
appear to be chief organizerc of these flocks, playing some role in their
formation. A few vangas stay in single-species groups. Vangas eat primarily
insects but also spiders and small vertebrates (including frogs,lizards, mouse
lemurs, and bird nesdings). Feeding methods vary considerably, as suggested
ofbill types. Largevangas with robust bills, such as the Helmet
by the variety
Vanga,use them to grab large insects (likebeetles) and smallvertebrates;others
with strong bills, such as Lafresnaye's Vanga, rip bark on dead wood,looking
for hiding insects; those with slighter bills seek insects on tree branches or
in foliage, or they catch insects in flight; and the Sickle-billed Vanga uses its
long bill to probe for food in cracks and crevices in tree bark. Some vangas are
known for their melodic songs and, in some species,vocal duets.
Vangas are apparently monogamous. Males have been observed courting
females by following them and then displaying to them by fanning their tails
and spreading and drooping their wings. Both male and female contribute
to nest-building, egg incubation, and feeding young. Nests, bowl-shaped,
are made of leaves, moss,lichens, rootlets, bark, and twigs, sometimes bound
together with spider webbing, and placed high or low in a tree, depending
on the species.
Primarilybirds offorests andwoodlands,vangas are threatened generally
from
because many ofMadagascar's forest regions are under intense pressure
subsistence agricultural development, commercial logging, and increasing
human population. Consequently, the populations of all fourteen species
may be declining. Currently three vangas are considered mlnerable and
one, Van Dam's Vanga,with a very small range in Madagascar's northwest, is
endangered. Also, the Nuthatch Vanga (also called Coral-billed Nuthatch)
maybe endangered,butverylittle is known of this species.
rt
o
b
ty
TS
ir
v
ie wATTLE-EyES, BATI s ES, and su RI KE-FLycATCHERS are a Di;tt ihution'
d midsize group of small to medium- size, mostly black and white, flycatcher- AJi ictr
lt like birds that occur only in Africa. In the past theywere most often thought No ol-Lit'itt,q
tS
to be bona fide members ofone or another of the formal flycatcher families, Spt,it;. -7t
c
t) sometimes incorporated with the monarch flycatchers (Monarchidae), No ol'Spuies
)r sometimes considered part of a large, broadly inclusive Old World flycatcher Vu lnc rablL,
Endangertd: o, t
IS
group (Muscicapidae). Now the thirty-one species considered here are
'e Extinct
usually thought to comprise a separate famrly,Platysteiridae. Aside from No. of'Sfaicr
Sirttt r6oo o
their insect-catching lifestyles, these sometimes inconspicuous birds are
0
b perhaps most noted for the obvious wattles some ofthem have around their
ls eyes, rings of bare skin colored red, blue, greenish, or purplish.
e Most wattle-eyes, batises, and shrike-flycatchers are 3 to 5 inches (7.5 to
1, 13 cm) long, but the largest ones, somewhat resembling small shrikes, range
d up to Z inches (r8 cm). Like true flycatchers, they have short flat bills, broad
0
t) at the base, surrounded by a fringe of small bristlelike feathers. Their bill
shape and bristles,which funnel food to the mouth, help the birds snatch
and hold insects. Bills are usually hooked at the tip. These birds have short
tails, and wings that are either pointed or roundedl legs vary from longish
in batises and some wattle-eyes, to short in shrike-flycatchers and other
wattle-eyes. Black and white is the predominant color scheme in the famlly,
especially among males. Many females are reddish brown where males have
patches ofblack. Rump feathers in the group are often light colored,yellow
or white, sometimes spotted, and quite flufrr, thus providing an alternative
WATTLE_EYES,BATISES,ANDSHRIKE-FLYCATCHERS 335
CAPE BATl S
Batis ca?ensis
5in (r3 cm)
Africa
WATTLE-EYES,BATISES,ANDSHRIKE-FLYCATCHERS 337
BOHEMIAN WAXWING CEDAR WAXWING
Bombyti/la garru/us Bombycilla edrorum
8 5 in (zr cm)
7 in
(r8 cm)
Eurasia. North America North America, Central America
PHAINOPSPLA PALMCHAT
Phainopep/a nitent Dulus dominicus
8 in (zo cm) 8 io (zo cm)
North America Hispaniola
Waxwings;
Silky-flycatchcrs;
Palmchat
u'axwings comprise family Bombycillidae: the Bohemian Waxraring occurs No. oJ'Lii-,ing
in northern Eurasia and North America, the CedarWaxwing in North and Spacias: j
Central America, and the Japanese Waxwing in East Asia. These pretty No. qf Speties
Vrr lnerablc,
birds are 6 to 8 inches (r5.5 to zo cm) long, with slightly hooked, short bills,
Dndangtrel. o
relatively long, pointed wings, and short legs.They are mainly brown and
gray but have dark tails tipped with yellow or red, and the "wax" droplets on No. ol'Speti a; ll xt i nct
Sinrr' 16oo: o
their wing feathers,which not all individuals possess and the functions of
*'hich are unknown, are red.The sexes look alike.
Waxrvings are primarily fruit-eaters that form nomadic flocks during
rvinter that roam the countryside searching for berry-laden trees and shrubs.
In summer they still eat fruit, but also take insects from foliage or even
catch them in the air,like flycatchers. Outside of the breeding season they
are found in many habitats, wherever fruit and berries are available, but
they breed in coniferous or mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. They are
monogamous, both sexes helping to build the cup nest (the female doing
most of the actual construction), made of twigs, grass,leaves, bark shreds,
lichens, and moss, in a tree. Only the female incubatesl the male brings her
food. Both sexes feed the young.
Waxrvings are mainly common birds, and with fruit orchards to raid,
o
trt
tfs
.n
Dippers
:d
)y
3S
,e,
:S.
:h
ty
rn
)n T H RU s H E s, often drab and nondescript, as a group are tremendously
successful birds, especiallywhen they have adapted to living near humans and
l)itlrihrliotr
,ta benefited from their environmental modifications. On five continents,thrushes
,4 // to n / i tt r' tr I r t.u, t f>/
are among the most common and recognizable parkandgardenbirds,including ,4ttlrrt tlittt
8,
rg North America's American Robin, Latin America's Rufous-bellied Thrush No ol'Li.-"itre
la and Clay-colored Robin, and Europe's Eurasian Blackbird and Redwing.The Slttitt. r7,1
SS jumpers, and solitaires, as well as robins and typical thrushes. No o.l'S7L, i,'' litt i tt, t
:h Thrushes varyin appearance but generallythey are medium-size songbirds, Sinrt t(too t or 6
slim or slightlyplumpish,with round heads,slenderbills,often square-ended
IS tails, and strong legs. Most range in length from 5 to rz inches (r3 to 3o cm).
a, Generally they are not brightly colored, dressed in browns, brown reds, grays,
Ld olive, and perhaps some black and white.The sexes often look similar;juveniles
ly are usually spotted.
3S Many thrushes eat fruits; some primarily consume insects; and most are
)S, at least moderately omnivorous. Although arboreal, many thrushes frequently
:d forage on the ground for insects, other arthropods, and a particular favorite,
)d earthworms. Many species forage like the familiar thrushes of North America
and Europe; they hop and walk along the ground, stopping at intervals and
Ie
cocking their heads to peer downward.These birds occupy many habitats: forest
=r
Ld edges and clearings and other open sites such as shrub areas,grasslands,gardens,
parks, suburban lawns, and agricultural lands. Many are quite social, spending
OMAO
Myadettes obsturut
7 in
(r8 cm)
Ilawaii
underwater searching for food. They are called dippers because they bounce No o.f'SrttL i,: ; E x t i trrt
up and down on their legs every few seconds while standing or foraging. ,\itttt t(t<to o
The family, Cinclidae, has five species distributed over large swaths of the
Americas and Eurasia and a small part of Northern Africa. Dippers are stocky
and 6.5 to 8 inches (16 to zo cm) long, all gray or brownish or with white or
reddish brown areas below; the sexes look alike.
Foraging primarily for larvae of aquatic insects, dippers will also take small
clams, cra1frsh, and fish. They walk into the water of rapidly moving streams
and then forage among underwater rocks and on stream bottomsl theywill
also float on the surface like a duck and paddle with their unwebbed toes.
Each dipper pair is territorial and defends a stretch of stream year-round.
Monogamous breeders, they construct large roofed nests of moss and leaves,
usually on vertical cliffs, sometimes behind waterfalls, and now often on the
undersides ofbridges. Both sexes participate in nest construction and feed
the young;onlythe female incubates the eggs. One species, South Americat
Rufous-throated Dipper, is vulnerable.
;t.
SPiliLt!.270
Pied Flycatcher, and Indian Robin, are common denizens of parks and
No. of'SlL:titr
gardens. Some have reputations as fine singers. Birds such as nightingales
[/ulntruhlt,
and shamas,with loud, melodic songs, claim top honors, and some are good lindangcrcl: z:, B
mimics of other birds'songs.The family, Muscicapidae, has a checkered
No. ol S/>ttitr Lxtintt
classification history. Now, with supportive o N e evidence, it is often Sintt t6oo. r
considered to encompass about z7o species, including not only a multitude
of flycatchers (and the Asian niltavas), but a subgroup that in the past was
often considered part of the thrush famlly,including akalats, nightingales,
rubythroats, shamas, redstarts, forktails, cochoas, chats, robin-chats,
scrub-robins, stonechats, and wheatears. OldWorld fycatchers are widely
distributed in Africa, Europe, and Asia; only z, the Bluethroat and Northern
Wheatear, occur in the NewWorld (in Alaska and northern Canada).
Being such a large assemblage, Old World flycatchers, not surprisingly,
vary considerably in shape, color, and size. Most are small,4 to 6 inches
(ro to 15 cm) long,but some in the group with long tails (shamas, forktails)
range up to ro inches (25 cm), and the chunky Asian cochoas range uP to
rz inches Qo cm). Many come in dull browns or grays, but some are black
and white, or black and yellow; or blue and white, or have reddish chestsl
forktails are striking black and white birds, and cochoas are blue, green,
/
KALAHARI SCRT]8 ROBIN F]SCAL FLYCATCHER
(it;oh ithas 1tunt Sigtlus tihnr
6 in (r5 crn) / i
in (19 cro)
Sorrrhern Atiic,r Sorrrhcrn Africa
black, and purplish.The sexes are usually similar in appearance, although
in some, males are more brightly colored. Most in the family have short,
flattened bills, broad at the base, with bristlelike feathers sticking out from
the bill base (which help funnel flying insects into the mouth and perhaps
protect eyes from struggling bugs).Wings are often long, permitting the
rapid, acrobatic flight necessary to seize flying insectsl legs are short and
weak; tails of many are long, rounded, or wedge-shaped. Many perched
flycatchers compulsively flick their tails.
Flycatchers chiefly inhabit forests and woodlands, often staying in the
canopy, but others are birds offorest edges, clearings, parks, and gardens.
Some, such as many chats and wheatears, are open-country birds, found in
meadows, tundra regions, and even deserts. A few species, such as redstarts
and forktails, dwell among rocks of fast-moving streams and rivers. Many
flycatchers feed by sitting on an elevated perch and waiting until insects fly
by.They then launch themselves into the air and, with some chasing and
maneuvering, snatch the insects out of the air with their bills, then return to
the same perch to dine. Other species swoop to the ground to catch moving
insects there,whereas still others hop about in the canopies oftrees or forest
undergrowth or in shrubs, taking insects from leaves and branches. Several
species also eat fruits when they are available. Many are solitary during
nonbreeding months, but some forest dwellers participate in mixed-species
foraging flocks.In the tropics, many flycatchers remain in the same areas
year-round; species that breed at high northern latitudes migrate south
for winter, as far as southern Africa and Southeast Asia. Most species are
territorial during breeding periods.
OldWorld flycatchers are monogamous or polygamous.The male Pied
Flycatcher is famous for attracting one female to his first territory and
then, soon after, establishing another territory and attempting to attract
a second mate. Some flycatchers nest in tree holes, others in rock crevices,
and some build cup nests in trees. Others in the famtly (some wheatears
and chats) build nests in old rodent burrows or dig nest tunnels in earthen
banks or termite mounds. Both parents usually help in nest construction;
both or only the female incubates eggs; and both feed young.In at least a
few species,young staywith parents to help feed young at subsequent nests.
Many flycatchers are common birds,but at least thirty species in the family
are threatened, principally by deforestation; twenfy-two are r,,ulnerable, and
eight are endangered.
e
and O*pcckers
j
c
e
S.
n
:S
v
v 3TARLI NGS, MYNAS, and oxrEc KEns comprise a highly successful
d group of sturdily built, often dark, medium-size songbirds widespread in the
o Old World.They are renowned for their often highly iridescent plumage and ,\10 o.l Lit:iu3
o ,\7,,tiL'. ttq
b theirvocal abilities.Manyhave loud ringing or noisyvoices,and some imitate
it sounds of other animalsl some, such as the Hill Myna, can mimic human No of'STatiLt
il speech quite well. The two species of oxpeckers, restricted to Africa, are
l,1r/rt i ra hlt,
o
lirrt/ttnycrt,/..;, I
b known for their habit of clinging to the hides of large, often hairy mammals
N'o,'7'Sptti Ls l'.tt i tt. t
)S
and feeding on ticks and other parasites attached to giraffes,rhinos,buffalos,
,\in,t t6oo I
tS
and zebras. But in North America and some other regions, the starling
h family is known best for the incredible competitiveness and opportunism
of, not to mention agricultural and ecological damage caused by, some of
'e
its members, which have been spread by people to previously alien lands.
d The prime example is the European Starling, native to Eurasia, which was
d spread by people to the NewWorld and to Australia and New Zealand
lt during the nineteenth century and is now one ofthe world's most abundant
S,
birds. Likewise, southern Asia's Common Myna was introduced by people to
:S
places like Florida, South Africa, and Hawaii and other Pacific islands .Large
n flocks of these nonnative birds often cause serious damage to fruit and seed
U crops (as they sometimes do in their natural haunts), and they outcompete
a some native birds for breeding holes, driving down their populations.
S. The starling family, Sturnidae, contains u4 species, including mynas,
.v (r8 to 45 cm) long,
oxpeckers, and glossy-starlings. They 7 to r7.5 inches
^te
d usually stoclgr,with strong, sharp, pointed bills and stout legs. Most species
cn) (>5in(r7crn)
16 5 in (42
r\lrica Aliicr, Arebit
EUROPEAN STARL]NC ASIAN GLOSSY STARL]NG
Sturnus t,u|,{ar.is ,4plonir panalenis
8-5
in (z: cm) t5in(urcm)
Eurlsi;r Sourhetst -{sir
e4&*
BL CK-COLLARED STAR],]NC
Sturnut nigrio/lit
rr 5 in (29 crn)
Southern Asia Ausrralia. Neu Guiner
are predominantly black or brown, but many also have patches of white.
Some, however, such as many African starlings, are stunning, clad in
iridescent blue greens and orange, or violet. S everal mynas are quite striking
in black and yellow. Oxpeckers Me gray brown, with sharp, curved claws
to help them cling to their hairy food sources. Some in the family have
crests,bare skin on their head, or fleshy, hangingwattles. Males and females
generallylook alike, although in some, males are more colorful.
Mynas and starlings are mainly arboreal, but some also function well
on the ground. They inhabit forests, savanna, and grasslands. Most are
opportunistic and omnivorous, although a few prefer insects or flower
nectar, and some, particularly in the tropics, feed mainly on fruit. Many that
forage on the ground have particularly strong head muscles that allow them
to insert their closed bills into the ground or under stones or debris and
then force them open (called gaping), moving soil or stones to reveal hiding
bugs. Many also take advantage of insects disturbed by the movements of
wild and domesticated mammals. Starlings tend to be gregarious, feeding
and roosting in groups, and sometimes gathering into enormous flocks.In
Africa large groups often form around herds of elephants and zebras, eating
insects scared up by the moving mammals, and in North America, flocks
of European Starlings are crop pests, as are groups of Common Mynas
in southern Asia.The flocking and nomadic Wattled Starling moves over
Africa, following its main food source, locusts.
Starling breeding varies from monogamy to cooperative nesting, as with
the oxpeckers, in which young of previous years help a breeding pair raise
young. Most nest in tree or cliffholes, but some, such as the Asian Pied
Starling, construct massive domed nests made of twigs and other vegetation
that are placed in isolated trees. Some nest in holes made bywoodpeckers or
barbets. Females only or both sexes incubate eggs; both feed the young.
Many starlings and mynas are common and widespread, and some haye
even expanded their natural ranges where people have transformed heavily
forested habitats into open agricultural lands. Nonetheless, nine species,
most ofthem island dwellers, are now threatened-five are considered to be
r'rrlnerable and four endangered.Indonesia's Bali Starling and Micronesia's
Pohnpei Mountain Starling, both critically endangered, are some of the
rarest birds on Earth. Populations of Hill Mynas in southern Asia are
depleted in some regions because these prettyvocal mimics are captured for
the pet trade.
7
C RAY CATBIRD
CR]SSAI- THRAS]IER
Dunrlcl/a taro/innir Toxottonu trittalc
t 5 in (zr cm) rr 5 in (29 cm)
North Aorerica, Cenrrrl Arnerica, West Indies
North r\nterica
the calls and songs of other birds, and even sounds ofother types of animals. No. o/'Lirtitrg
The United States'broadly distributed Northern Mockingbird is one of Spe,:ies:.15
the most impressive of the group's mimics, often producing loud songs No. of Spuicr
that include mixtures of mockingbird-specific and imitated vocalizations, Vu /nerah lt,
Etttlang,:rctl: t, I
sometimes incorporating the mimicked songs of ten or more different bird
species.The reason for the vocal mimicry (in many mockingbirds as well as No a.f' S t
S,
ci c.; l') x t i tt t t
Since t6oo: o
in some thrashers and catbirds) is not known for sure, but it probably relates
to mate attraction: males with longer, more complex, and more varied songs
maybe more attractive to females. Some in the group are continuous singers,
producing not the usual brieftwo- or three-second-long songs associated
with many common songbirds, but long strings ofvocalizations-incredible,
virtuoso singing performances.
The mockingbird family, Mimidae, distributed from southern Canada to
southern South America, consists of thirty-five species of mockingbirds (or
mockers),thrashers, catbirds (named for their catlike mewingvocalizations),
and tremblers (named for their habit ofdrooping theirwings and trembling);
most are tropical. Birds in the family,8 to 13 inches (zo to y cm) long, are
slender-looking,with fairly short, rounded wings, and long, sturdy legs for
hopping about on the ground. Most have strong, moderately long bills that
are often down-curved.They tend toward gray, brown, or reddish brown,
often with lighter underparts and flashes ofwhite in the tail and wings; some
are streaked or spotted. Male and female generally look alike.
ils
rfe
ts.
OS
k,
AS
rd
tS,
NUTHATCHES are mainly smaller forest birds of north temperate
ry
regions and also ofAsian tropics.The twenty-five species, family Sittidae Distribution;
rg
(including the Wallcreeper, which is sometimes placed in its own family, North,4m,:rica,
rd l) tt ro;ia, Nor/ h A.fi'i tu
Tichodromadidae), excel at tree climbing, being the only birds that regularly
ls
climb not just up tree trunks, but down, headfirst, also. Another of the No oJ'I-iting
1e Spt:cias: t-y
group's claims to fame is that the Brown-headed Nuthatch is one of the
very few tool-using birds. Some individuals break offsmall pieces of bark No. ol'Spacics
p Vu/n crablc,
and use them to pryup other pieces to find and dislodge insects thatwould
3S Enrltttgtrt,tl.'2,:
otherwise be inaccessible. Four to 8 inches (ro to zo cm) long, nuthatches
h. No. o.f Spacics lixtitttt
have compact bodies, long, tapered bills, short necks, and short tails. They
IE Sinct t6o<t. o
are blue gray or blue green above and paler below,with dark caps, dark eye
tS
lines, or both. Females are often duller than males.
rt
Nuthatches use their long, slender bills to probe into cracks in tree
]S
bark and pry up loose pieces of bark. They also probe moss clumps and leaf
masses on branches.They seek mainly insects and spiders,but also take some
re
seeds, especially in winter, and, as their name suggests, nuts. Two Eurasian
d
species, known as rock nuthatches, occupy roclcy slopes, cliffs, and gorges,
ly
and forage for insects, spiders, snails, and seeds, mostly on rocks and the
ic
ground. Nuthatches cache seeds in the fall, and then visit their caches during
l.
winteq when food is scarce, seeming to remember many of their thousands
S,
of hiding spots. Usually seen singly or in pairs, they are strongly territorial;
,e
some species, however, form flocks during nonbreeding periods.
The Wallcreeper is considered by bird fanciers to be one of Eurasia's
VARIED SITTEI-LA
L)aphoenosi I tt t brys oTtt ra
4 5 in (r: crn)
Australia, Nerv CuiLrel
most spectacular small birds. Dull blackish and gray but with large red
wing patches and a long, slender, down-curved bill, it occurs, somewhat
uncommonly, over mountainous areas from Spain to China. As it forage s
for insects and spiders on cliffs and rock faces, it constantly flicks its wings
open, revealing more of its red coloring.
Nuthatches are monogamous hole nesters.They excavate their own nests
in dead trunks or branches or enlarge small natural cavities; a few nest in rock
crevices. Some species narrow the nest opening with mud, for protection.
Both sexes build nests (one sex often predominates), but only the female
incubates eggs; both sexes feed young. Most nuthatches are common birds
of forests and woodlands, and many live easily in close proximity to people.
They are some of the most frequent and charmingvisitors to suburban bird
feeders. Four Old World nuthatches are threatened (two are r,ulnerable, two
are endangered).
SITTELL/\S
sI s are small birds (5 inches, 12 cm,long) of tree trunks
T T E L LA
Dist riltution
and branches that occur only in Australia and New Guinea. The family,
Aus / ru I i t, N,:.u (] u i n c t
Neosittidae, has two species, both compact birds with longish, slim bills, and
No. o./'Liring
short tails. New Guinea's Black Sittella is all black with a pink face and tail
Specics: z
tip; the Varied Sittella of Australia and New Guinea is gray-brown, black,
No. o.f'S1cL:iar
and white. Males and females show slight differences in color pattern.The
Vulncrahlc,
Black Sittella is mainly confined to higher-elevation forests; Varied Sittellas Endan,qcrnl. o, o
occur in a range of habitat types, including forests, woodlands, shrublands,
No of-Spttiu Extintt
orchards, parks, and gardens. Sinr t6oo: ct
\Vren, in addition to its wide range in North America, occurs over a broad
srvath from northern Africa through Eurasia (where, understandably, it
is usually known simply as Wren). All in the family are generally called
wrens except one marsh-inhabiting South and Central American species,
previously believed to be part of the mockingbird family, called the Black-
capped Donacobius.
Ranging in length from 4 to 8.5 inches (ro to zz cm), many toward the
smaller extreme,wrens appear usually in shades ofbrown or reddish brown,
with smaller bits of gray, tan, black, and white. Some are mainly black and
white, and some are heavily spotted or streaked;wings and tails are frequently
embellished with fine bars. Bills in the group are slender and slightly down-
curved; eye stripes are common. Wrens have rather broad, short wings and
owing to this, are considered poor flyers.The sexes look alike. Some of these
birds are tiny,weighing less than half an ounce (r5 grams).
!'l1/RENS
s6s
Most wrens skulk about in thick ground vegetation, but a few are
arboreal, staying in trees in more open areas. Wrens'cryptic coloration is
advantageous as they flip, flutteq hop, and poke around low levels offorests
and through thickets, grasslands, and marshes, foraging for insects and other
small arthropods. Some,like the Cactus, Canyon, and RockWrens, inhabit
avariety ofbarren rocky and arid areas, such as those ofthe southwestern
United States and northern Mexico. Manywrens live year-round in pairs,
defending territories in which during the breeding season they nest. Some
larger species spend their days in small family flocks and, owing to their size,
are a bit bolder in their movements. After using their nests for breeding,
wrens will use them as overnight roosting sites.Those that breed in northern
climes are migratory, those in Canada and the northern United States, for
instance, moving to the U. S. coasts or southern states for the winter. Wren
vocalizations have been studied extensively. A pair will call back and forth as
they lose sight of each other while foraging in thickets, keeping in contact.
In certain species, mated pairs sing some of the world's most complex avian
duets, male and female alternating song phrases so rapidly and expertly that
it sounds as if one individual utters the entire sequence. Such duets probably
function as keep-out signals, warning away from the pair's territory other
members of the species, and in maintaining the pair-bond between mated
birds. Other wrens, such as the Winter Wren, have amazingly complex
songs, trains ofnotes in varied sequences up to ro seconds long.
Most wrens, especially the tropical ones, are monogamous, with a
single pair carrying out all nesting duties, but some breed cooperatively,
with members of the small family group helping out at the single nest of
the parents. Several species, such as North America's Marsh Wren, are
polygamous. Nests, generally ofwoven grass, are placed in vegetation or in
tree cavities. (The family name,Tioglodytidae, arose because many species
nest in cavities, both natural and artificial; troglodytes are cave dwellers.)
Nests are small but elaborate, roofed, with inconspicuous side entrances. In
some species, the male builds many more nests on his territory than his mate
(or mates, in polygamous species) can use, apparently as a courtship signal,
perhaps as an inducement for a female to stay and mate. Only the female
incubates, sometimes being fed by the male; both parents feed young. Most
wrens are fairly or very abundant. However, six species (half of them island
dwellers) are threatened: three are r,ulnerable, three are endangered.
to that group. Gnatcatchers and gnatwrens are known among bird fanciers Vulnaroh/e,
EndangerLtd: o, o
as active, agile little birds that often constantly wave or twitch their tails,
which are usually held in an upright, or cocked, posture. No. o.f- S2tcies lixti rttt
Sintc r6oo: o
Four to 5 inches (ro to rz.5 cm) in length, gnatcatchers are mainly bluish
gray, with long, narrow black and white tails and, usually, some black on their
heads. Gnatvurens, 4to 4.75 inches (ro to rz cm) long, as you might expect,
are more wrenlike in appearance, being predominantly brown. Two of the
gnatwrens have very stubby tails, and one, the Long-billed Gnatwren, has a
long tail. All in the family have long, slender bills,longer in gnatwrens. Males
and females look alike or almost so.
Gnatcatchers, chiefly arboreal, move quickly about forests, forest edges,
rvoodlands, mangroves, and even some semiopen scrub areas. Most usually
stav fairly high in trees, but gnatwrens prefer undergrowth regions offorests
andr,voodlands.Theyall take small insects and spiders from foliage and other
vegetation. The birds'rapid movements and constant tail-waving may help
flush bugs from hiding spots.These birds occur solitarily, in pairs, or small
eroups; some Wpicallyjoin mixed-species feeding flocks.The most northerly
species, the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher,which occurs over a good portion ofthe
',.,
-f
LONG-B] LLED GNATWREN BLAC K-TAILED GNATCATCH ER CUBAN GNATCATCHER
Ra mpbotaenu t mela n u ru t Poliootila melanura Polioptila lembeyei
4 5 in (rz cm) + in (ro cm) 4 in (ro cm)
Mexico, Central America, South Arnerica Norrh America Cuba
<t\+--
\
because sometimes the brightly colored feathers are only erected during No ol'S2ttit' l'):,titt, /
breeding behaviors such as singing and courtship. Females are drabber than Sirt,t t6oo o
males and maylackbright head coloring.
Kinglets occur mainly in coniferous forests, but also in some deciduous
and mixed forests, woodlands, and parks. They move quickly and actively
about the canopy, searching for insects (they also take spiders and small
amounts of seeds).They usually travel over small outside branches, probing
bark and leaves, and often hang and flutter under leaves, to search for prey
there. Northerly breeding kinglet populations are migratory. Kinglets are
monogamous, pairs defending territories during the breeding season. Both
sexes or only the female builds small elongated or cup-shaped nests of
various plant materials that hang high in trees; only the female incubates,
sometimes surprisinglylarge clutches often or more eggs;both sexes feed the
young. None of the kinglets are threatened; some are incredibly numerous
forest birds, and the Golden-crowned Kinglet has even been expanding its
breeding range.
I GREAl pARRot'BrLL
Conos/oma oemodiunt
rr in (zS cnt)
Southern Asir
FRICAN PENDIII-TNE,TIf
lnl/totro?ilt tdt tli
3 ; in (9 cnr)
Aliica
Parrotbills;
PcndulincTits
birds with unusual, somewhat parrotlike bills. Often yellow, the bills are I)i;tribution
stubby but broad, slightly bulging, and powerful-sometimes even used L)r.rusia
to strip bamboo stalks.There are a total of twenty parrotbill species, family No o.f-Liting
Paradoxornithidae. Most occur in China, Nepal, and eastern India; one, Spetit:s: zo
named the Bearded Reedling,with a non-parrotlike bill, occurs in Europe. No. of Spetits
Parrotbills are 3.5 to rr inches (9 to z8 cm) long, with short, rounded wings, Vu lncrab/t:.
Endangerad:3, o
generally longish tails, and strong legs and feet. Plumage, soft and loose-
looking, is mostly brown, bufl and gray. Many species have black markings No of'S2cciat I:xtintt
Sincc 16oo: o
on head and/or throat.The sexes look alike.
Birds mainly of reeds, tall grasses, dense scrub, and, especially, bamboo
thickets, some parrotbills also inhabit forests, although usually the lower
parts. Many occur in mountainous regions, some at uP to r2,ooo feet(3,7oo
m) in the Himalayas.They feed chiefly on insects, but also on berries, seeds,
and some other plant materials such as buds and shoots.They are gregarious,
foraging in small to largish groups. Parrotbill breeding is not well known, but
manymaybe monogamous; both sexes incubate eggs and feedyoung.Their
nests, situated in reeds or lowvegetation, are usually cups ofgrass with strips
of bamboo leaves, bound with spider webbing.Three parrotbills, one Indian
and two Chinese, are considered r,'ulnerable, owing to habitat loss and small
ranges. A-lthough known about them, they apparently have very small
little is
and declining populations. One of them, China's Rusfy-throated Parrotbill,
is seen infrequently, and may actually be endangered. A fourth species,
mainly to Asia and Africa, but with single representatives in Europe (the
Eurasian Penduline Tit) and North America (the Verdin). Their reputation
is as active foragers that acrobaticallypursue bugs in trees and bushes.The
thirteen species in the family, Remizidae,range in length from 3 to 5 inches
(8 to 13 cm) and are typically brown, olive ,and/or grayish above and lighter
below; many have black facial masks.They have short, rounded wings and
short legs. Bills are short, conical, and finely pointed.The sexes look alike.
Many penduline tits inhabit open scrubby areas, where they move
around trees and bushes, seeking food. Howevet the African species are
P Ii N D I] L I N E 'I I T S
t
l
1
r
I
of Central Asia. Only one, the Bushtit, occurs in the NewWorld, from
'\|' o.l- S?t, i t t l: x t i tt tt
the southwestern corner of Canada southward to Guatemala.The family, SittLr: t(too. o
Aegithalidae, contains only eight species. In the past, they were usually
included with the "true" tits and chickadees in family Paridae, but recent
studies, including o N e evidence, suggest they are not closely related to that
group and warrant separate family status.
Most of the long-tailed tits are 4 to 5 inches (ro to 13 cm) in length, but
Eurasia's Long-tailedTit ranges up to 5.75 inches (16 cm) and Indonesia's
tiny PygmyTit measures only about 3.5 inches (4.5 cm). All have compact
bodies, very short wings, and narrow, disproportionately long tails. Their
legs are longish and the feet strong.The bills are stubby and conical, and
somewhat compressed from side to side. Body feathers are rather loose,
providing these birds a "fluffball" appearance. Most are gray or brownish
above,lighter below; many have black masks or eyelines.The sexes look alike.
Long-tailed tits are chiefy arboreal inhabitants of forests, woodlands,
parks, and some scrub areas, although some frequent shrubs and forest
BI-ACK.THROATED TI]'
,4cgi/balas rontinnus
4 5 in (rr crn)
SotLthcrn Asir
4 5 in (rr crn)
Sourhe: n Asir
undergrowth.They feed on insects, spiders, and other small invertebrates,
which they take from leaves and twigs; small seeds are occasionally eaten.
They move systematically about the outer reaches of trees and shrubs,
searching for prey, and will frequently hang upside down,with one or two
feet anchored to a twig to reach an escaping bug or probe under a leafor into
a bark crevice. Movement from tree to tree is with a characteristic skipping,
BRIDLSD TITMOU SE
Baeo/ophus uol/ueberi
5in (r3 cm)
North America
r t r s and c H I c KA D E E s are small, quite social, arboreal birds found l)istt ihrrtion.
li tr rt ti t, A/i i ro, Nr,r t h
mainly across the colder, northern portions ofthe world.They are known for
tln t:t'ita
their often plump silhouettes and the lively,busywaytheymove through the
No. ol-Liring
canopies oftrees and bushes, hopping through branches, poking into corners,
52r, irs. .;.J
and hanging upside down, all in search of insects.The tit family, Paridae, has
,
No. r,.l'Slttitr
about fifty-five species distributed through much of North America, Europe,
l,1r/rt L nr h/t:,
Asia, and the forested regions ofAfrica. Birds in the family are often called lirrdnrr,qLrt,/. t, o
"true"tits to distinguish them from members of two other, smaller families
No of- S1,Lsi 1q !. 11 i 71,7
of somewhat similar birds, the penduline tits (family Remizidae) and long- Sinu t6oo o
tailed tits (familyAegithalidae).The name tit is shortened from the original
name for some of these birds, titmousel both mean, generally, "small bird."
Seven ofthe eleven tits that occur in NorthAmericaareknown as chickadees,
after the "chick-a-dee-dee-dee"calls of some of them;the others are called
titmice. Old World species are all called tits.
Most of these birds range from 4 to 5.5 inches (ro to r4 cm) long (but
Asia's showy Sultan Tit is about 8 inches [zo cm] ). They have short, strong,
conical bills, short, rounded wings, square or slightly notched tails, and short,
strong feet for hanging from twigs. Some tits, including North America's
titmice, have jaunty crests. Most are brown, gray, or bluish gray above and
whitish, gray, or yellow below, but some are mainly black and white, and
many have black and white heads. White wing bars and white outer tail
feathers are common. Chickadees are gray, brown, or reddish brown with
dark caps and throats and light cheek patches. Sexes in the family usually
look alike, although females are often duller than males.
ro s wA L L o w s are small, streamlined birds that catch insects on the wing D' tribution:
r8 during long periods ofsustained flight.Their pointed wings and often forked All continents except
Antarctira
m teil5,6,[i6[ enable them to sail through the air with high maneuverability,
rg No. ofLiring
and their conspicuousness in a variety of habitats as they fly back and forth
Species:89
st during their foraging fights, make swallows familiar to many; and owing
Jt to this familiariry they have a long history of association with people.The No. of Species
Vulnerable,
rd ancient Greeks revered swallows as sacred birds, probably because they Endangered:4, o
rll nested in and few around the great temples.In the NewWorld, owing to
No. of Species Extinct
their insect-eatingways, swallows have been popularwith people going back Since t6oo: r
er to the ancient Mayans.Today, arrivil.of the first migratory Barn Swallows
IC in Europe is considered a sign ofapproaching spring, as is the arrival of Cliff
d, Swallows at Capistrano, an old Spanish mission in California.
t
1S
The approximately ninety species of swallows (family Hirundinidae),
f, including birds called martins and sawwings, have a worldwide distribution.
il, Ranginginlengthfrom 4.5 to 8 inches (rr.5 to zo cm),theyhave shortnecks,
.s.
bills, and legs. Some are shades ofblue, green, or violet, but many are grzy or
:s brown; in most,the sexes lookalike.
Swallows occurpredominandyin open or semiopen habitats,often near
t: freshwater,over and around lakes,rivers, marshes,cliffs,grassland, savanna,
ly and forest edges and clearings.They sometimes seem to fly all day, circling
is low over land orwater or in patterns high overhead, snatching insects from
d the air. But they do land, usually resting during the hottest part of the day.
Direcdy after dawn, however, and at dusk, swallows are always airborne.
SwALLOWS 377
BARN SWALLOW MANC ROVE SWALLOW
Hirundo rustiia Tarhycineta a/bilinea
6 5 in (r7 cLr) 4 5 in (rz cm)
Worldrvide Norrh America. Central America
swAr-r,ows 379
RED-WHISKERED BULBUL
Pycnonotus jotosus
8 in (zo cm)
Southern Asia
YELLOW-VENTED BULBUL
Pycnonotut goiavier
8 in (zo cm)
Southeast Asia
Bulbuls;
Hypocolius
tbrest-dwelling songbirds,usuallywith conspicuous crests,which are widely l)i stri htr t i on:
distributed throughout much ofAfrica and southern Asia.They are known ,4f t i to, to tr t/tt rn,4 : i u
and brownbuls, as well as birds called finchbills, bristlebills, and nicators) No. ol SV,:cits
and their abilities to conform to new realms when people have transported Vu/ntrallr,
Endnn,qttrl. to,,1
them from their native regions to alien lands. For anyone who bird-watches
in, say, Southeast Asia,bulbul diversity and abundance quicklybecome clear: No. ol STttirs E:lt in;/
some days most ofthe birds one sees are bulbuls, often manyvarieties within Sinct: t6oo o
the same forest habitat. As for their adaptabiliry the best example is the
Red-whiskered Bulbul, a native of southern Asia that now, through human
transportation, is a thriving inhabitant of such far-flung sites as Australia,
Florida, Hawaii and other Pacific islands, and various Indian Ocean islands.
Because oftheir singing abilities,bulbuls are also popular cage birds in many
parts of their range; their singing is a prime reason people introduced them
to various parts ofthe world.
Bulbuls,5 to 9 inches (ry to 4 cm) in length and slender, have narrow,
moderately long, often slightly down-curved bills and longish tails.They
tend to have hairlike feathers on the back ofthe head that often form into
crests. Most are dully turned out in subdued grays, browns, or greens; the
sexes look alike.In manyregions severalbulbul species occur that are difficult
to distinguish, differing only slightly in eye, throat, or tail color.
Hemixotfatala
8 5 in (zr cm)
Southern Asia
STRIATED BULBUL
PycnonatuJ striatus
9 in (23 cm)
Southern Asia
COMMON BULBUL
Pycnonotu barbatus
7in (r8 cm)
Africa
BLACK-FRONTED BULBUL
3 HYPOCOLIUS
Pltnonotus nigricans Hlpocolius ampelinu:
8in (zo cm) 9 in (23 cm)
ln
ut
1d
rst
ly
rYt
SC
o
It) t
WH ITE-EYE S
385
JAPANESE WHITE-EYE ORIENTAL WHITE-EYE BLACK-CAPPDD WHITE-EYE
Zattero?rja?oniur Zosterops palpebrotut Zoierops atricapi//a
4.5in (rr cm) 4.5 in (rr cm) 4 5 in (rr cm)
Asia Asia Southeast Asia
€
SILVE-EYE AUSTRAL]AN YELLOW WH]TE-EYE
Zosterops /ateralis Zortero?t luteilt
45 in (rr cm) 4 5 in (rr cm)
Australia,Tropical Pacifi c islands Australia
wHrrE-EYEs 387
, C,z
u
YELLOW-BELLlED PRINIA GOLDEN-HEADED CISTICOLA BLACK-CAPPED APALIS
Prinia fla.tirentris Cisticola eillis Apalit nigrircps
5 in (rj cm) 4 5 in (rr cm) 4 5 in (rr cm)
Southern Asia Southern Asia, Ausrralia, New G ui nea Africa
tall grass, shrubs, or tree foliage mainly in Africa but also, to a much lesser
extent, in Eurasia and Australia. Being often tiny, visually inconspicuous )-o o1 Lit'tr,y
birds, they are usually noticed only by bird-watchers, and they are notorious
for being bewilderingly similar in appearance. Typically there are at least ,\ r .,7 \),, l, ,
three or four similar-looking species present in, for example, anyAfrican I:tt,l,ttt1.t,,l t,,I
grassland, shrubland, or savanna. Identification of particular species,
.\,. oi\'1'.,;'1';
therefore, is extremely challenging, usually accomplished by using some t()t)t.\ t.)
'\'itttt
combination of a particular bird's specific habitat choice, its tail length,
and its vocalizations. Sometimes identification must be left until the birds'
breeding seasons, when their species-specific songs and courtship displays
are evident.There are approximately rro species in the family, Cisticolidae,
including a few called longtails, camaropteras, and warblers.The group in
the past was considered part of the huge assemblage of small birds known
as the Old World warblers (family Sylviidae), but recent research, including
DN A comparisons, suggest these African warblers, as they are sometimes
known, warrant separate family status.
Cisticolas and theirrelatives are 3.5 to 6 inches (9 to 15 cm) long,usuallyslim-
bodied, with slender, pointed bills, some ofwhich are slightly or moderately
- down-curved. Many have short, rounded wings, and most are rather short-
tailed.Many are unobtrusively colored in brown,buff,gray,or green, often with
streaks, but some tropical species, especially among the apalises, are brighter
and more striking. Males and females usually look alike, although males may
in grass clumps. Depending on species, one or both sexes build the nest; the
female only or both sexes incubate eggs, and usuallyboth feed the young.
Cisticolas and their relatives are often very common and some have
enormous distributions (such as the Golden-headed Cisticola of Asia and
Australia and the ZittingCisticola of Eurasia,Africa, and Australia). Still,
ten species, almost all endemic to Africa, are considered threatened: six are
lulnerable and four are endangered (one of the latter, Kenya'sTaita APalis,
critically so). Restricted ranges,tinyPopulations, and continued habitat loss
are the main threats to these smallbirds.
{
Old World Warblers
l,
)
S
i,
r
',1
t
I
t oLD woRLD wARB LE RS comprise ahuge,diverse groupofsmall,mostly Dirtribution:
l. Africa, Eurnsia,
plain, inconspicuous songbirds that make their livings chiefly by moving
r) Austrolis, Neu
actively through dense foliage, seeking insects.That so many of them are Zcalortd, Alaskt
r
) undistinguished-looking brown birds naturally leads most North American
No. o/'I-iving
, bird-watchers who first see them in, say, Europe, to conclude quickly that Species:279
', they are the unidentifiable LBJs (little brown jobs) of the OldWorld (LBJ
No. of'Species
being the despairing epithet Americans often use for sparrows and other Vnlnarah/e ,
difficult-to-identifr, small, dark, flitting birds). Aside from their diversiry Dndongercd: 23, 9
usually drab plumage, and insect-catching ways, the group is probably No. ol-Species Extintt
most recognrzedfor its songs,which, as the name warbler connotes, are Sinca 16oo: z
CLAMOROUS REED-WARBLER
,4 crocq h a lus s te n tore uJ
IMM
-Fo
habitat destruction and alteration, especially for forest species. Also, some
No. of'S1,Lti,''
Asian babblers are trapped in large numbers for the pet trade; caged, vocal
Vu /rtL t rr b/t,
rt
'e
Larks
,e
I,
IS
v
o
b
,f
o
b
n
:S
L A R K s are small or medium-size, ground-dwelling, open-country songbirds, Distribution:
.S
typically outfitted in dull brown, often streaked plumage that allows them Ewasia, Africa,
Australia, North
to meld well into their grassland habitats. They are known widely for their Amerira
x
rich, melodious songs,which are delivered sometimes while in flight (during
e No. oJ'I-iving
breeding-season aerial territorial displays) orwhile perched atop a bush.The Spetie.r:
e 9t
musical vocalizations ofthe broadly distributed Eurasian Skylark, for instance,
il No. of Species
are considered by many to be among the bird world's most beautiful songs.
Vulnerab/e,
Among bird-watchers where larks are plentiful, however, they are perhaps Endangered:4, I
Yt
most noted for their cryptic plumage (larks are often essentially invisible
n
No. oJ' 51>e cies E xtinc t
until fushed) and for the fact that so many of them are similar in appearance Since t6oo: o
r,
and therefore difficult to tell apart. Field guides sometimes provide complex
charts that (supposedly) help bird-watchers identi$,larks by comparing
minute differences in structural features, bills types, and plumage markings.
The ninety-one larks, familyAlaudidae, constitute an almost entirely Old
World group,with drier regions ofAfrica having the most representatives. A
single species,the Horned Lark,long ago crossed the Bering Strait and now,
in addition to its Eurasian and African range, occurs across much of North
America (with isolated populations in Colombia).
Larks, 4.5 to 9 inches (n to z3 cm) in length, have relatively long, pointed
wings and, often, shortish tails.Their strong bills vary, depending on feeding
';
specialization, from slender and fairly straight or slightly down-curved to
t short and conical. Lark feet are strong, each having a long, straight hind
I claw that furnishes good support while walking. Because they spend a lot
LARKS 4Ot
EURASIAN SKYLARX CLAPPER LAR( SABOTA LARK
,4lauda artensis Mirafra apiata Mirafra sabota
7 in
(r8 cm) 6 in (r-5 cm) 6 in (r5 cm)
Eurasia, Aiiica Sourhern Africa Southern Africa
--?
-I
V'
LARKS 4O3
CHESTN UT SPARROW GRAY-HEADED SPARROW YELLOW-SPOTTED PETRONIA
Parer eminibel Patser grieus Petroniabtrgita
4 5 in (rr cm) 6 in (r5 cm) 6 in (r5 cm)
Africa Atiica Africa
renowned because several of them (and one in particular) have adjusted No. of Litting
their ecologies and now "make their livings" in association with people.
That is, they live in parks, villages, towns, and cities, nest in these places, No. of Specics
sometimes in buildings, and eat a variety of foods, including what many refer Vulnerablc,
l)ndangerel: o, o
to euphemistically as table scraps (and more directly as garbage).The House
Sparrow, having been introduced from its native Eurasia and North Africa No. of-STecies Extintl
Sinrc 16oo: o
to many other regions, now flourishes over vast stretches of the terrestrial
Earth, essentially wherever there are people, excepting rainforests, deserts,
and arctic tundra areas. Living in and near cities and towns at elevations
from sealeveltor4,Too feet (4,5oo m),it is one ofthe globe's most common,
widespread, and well-known birds.The F{ouse Sparrow probably began
associating with people when towns and cities were first developed, and
transport animals such as horses filled streets with their seed-rich droppings.
Europeans brought House Sparrows with them when they colonized great
sections ofthe planet during the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries,
and these birds adapted to new realms swiftly. The species'first successful
North American introduction occurred during the mid-r85os in New
York. It then took only 5o years for the bird to reach the continent's Pacific
coast, essentially occupying all suitable habitat on the U.S. mainland.It
now occurs over much of subarctic Canada, Mexico, and Central and South
America, and is still spreading; it also thrives in Australia, New Zealand, and
Weavers
)
{
j
)
S
t
f
)
i.
w E Av E R s comprise alarge group of mainly small songbirds that primarily l)i:/ t i/,trlion
) ill) i,rr. totrlhl tt,,l'i,r
inhabit savanna, grasslands, and other open habitats ofAfrica and, to a lesser
f extent, southern Asia. They are most celebrated, as their name suggests, No o.l-l-it,ittg
l for their nest-building skills: they construct elaborate, woven, roofed grass
1
nests. Because they typically breed in colonies, trees festooned with several No. o./-Sp,:iit;
t hanging weaver nests are a common sight through many regions ofAfrica. 11t/trLroh/i,
l )rtiottgt:rnl. 7, 7
The weaver family, Ploceidae, contains r14 species, variously named weaver,
,
sparrow-weaver, buffalo -weaver, s ocial-weaver, fody, m alimbe, quele a, No ol'57a, it' Er/ ittt/
5'itttL tboo o
Y
bishop, and widowbird.In addition to their nests, these birds are noted
;,
for their gregariousness and for their numbers.They sometimes gather in
;,
enormous groups, flocks so huge that, as they move , they resemble clouds of
r
dark smoke. Some in the family-the widowbirds-are renowned for the
1
males'very long tails.
S
Weavers, chiefly 4.5 to ro inches (rr.5 to z6 cm) long (widowbirds
with long tails range up to z8 inches [7r cm]), have short, stout, conical
t,
bills, rounded wings, and strong legs and feet.In many species, male and
f
female differ markedly in appearance, especially during breeding, when
1
males become more colorful or elaborate, sometimes spectaculady so, but
r
females retain their year-round, subdued, streaky brown, olive, buff and
t black coloring. The largest subgroup in the family is the yellow weavers,
such as the Village and Spectacled Weavers, wherein many males have black
heads or face masks and many species look rather alike. Sparrow-weavers
are brown and white, generally larger than yellow weavers, and their sexes
are similar. Buffalo-weavers, also fairlylarge,are black or black and white,
with hearybills. Social-weavers are small,brown orbrown andwhite birds.
\^/EAVERS 407
PARASITIC WEAVER WHITE-BROWED SPAR ROW WEAVER
Anomalotpiza imberbis P/otebaster nahali
4.5 in (rr crn) 6 5 in (r7 cm)
Africa Africa
BLACK CAPPED SOCIAL WEAVER RED B]LLED BUFFALO WEAVER V]LLACE WEAVER
Pseudonigrita cabanii Bulhalornit niger P/oceus cucu//atus
5 in (r3 cm) 8 5 in (zz cm) 65 in (r7 cLr)
Africa Africa Aliica
\
SOCIAL WEAVER RED.BILLED QUELEA
Philetairus socius Que/ea quelea
5.5 in (r4 cm) 5in (r3 cm)
Southero Africa Africa
Quelea erythrols
Euplectesfranciscanu
5 in (r3 cm) 4.5 in (rr cm)
A Fri ca Africa
FIRE-FRONTED BISHOP
Euplectes diadematut
4 in (ro cm)
Africa
YELLOW.CROWNED BI SHOP
Euplertes afer
.1in (ro cm)
Africa
Fodies, of the Madagascar region, are red, brown, and black. Malimbes are
red and black forest weavers. Male queleas, mostly brown and streaked,
during breeding have varying amounts of red on the head, chest, and bill.
Male bishops during breeding adopt black and red or black and yellow
plumage, and male widowbirds grow long, elaborate tail feathers and bright
shoulder patches.
Although most common in open, grassyhabitats,weavers occupy avariety
of environments, from dry shrubland and agricultural areas to marshes
and forests. They are typically seed-eaters but some species, particularly
forest dwellers, eat a lot of insects, and most provision their nestlings with
insects. While grassland and open-country species are often social, staying
in groups, forest weavers are usually more solitary; they tend to form pairs
that defend territories year-round,while the social, colonial-nesting species
only defend a small area around their nests during the breeding season.
After breeding,weavers often form mixed-species flocks that are sometimes
nomadic, moving long distances to find goovd supplies of food.
Some weavers are monogamous, breeding in solitary pairs or colonies.
Others are polygynous: a male builds a nest, displavs from it, attracts a female
to it, then starts a second nest, attracting to it a second female, and so on.
Some are intensely colonial, with southern Africa's Social Weaver at the
extreme: it lives in groups ofup to three hundred, and each group constructs
and maintains a single, huge, domed grass nest-the largest nest structure
built by any bird. Most weaver nests, round or onion-shaped, are woven of
grasses, palm-leaf strips, and other plant materials, and suspended from the
outer branches oftrees and shrubs.The sizes ofweaver colonies vary from
about a dozen nests to several hundred. Buffalo-weavers build large, unruly,
communal nests of twigs and grass in large treesl each pair has a separate
nest chamber within the larger nest. Most widowbirds and bishops nest
solitarily; they have oval-shaped, simpler nests made of coarse grass, usually
placed in grassland or a marsh. Depending on species, the male weaver, the
female, or both sexes build nests; the female only or both sexes incubate eggs
and feed young.
Manyweavers are extremely abundant, some, such as the Red-billed
Qrelea (likely one of the world's most numerous land birds), forming
seasonally into vast flocks that are serious grain pests. Fourteen weavers are
threatened (seven are vulnerable, seven are endangered), thirteen African
and one Indian.
WEAVERS 4il
DOUBLE-BARRED FINCH CHESTNUT-BREASTED NIAN NIKIN CRItrTSON FINCH
Ta e ni o?lgi a b i r b e n a v i i L o n th u ra u s la n e o tb orax Neochmia phaeton
4 5 in (rr cm) 4 5 in (rz cm) 5 in (r3 cm)
Australia Australia, New Guinea Ausrralia, New Guinea
I
RED-HEADED
FORNI
RED-EARED FIRETAIL
Stagonopleura ocu/ata
4 5in (rz cm)
Australia
Waxbills
wAx B I L L s , also called estrildid finches and grassfinches, are small, usually I)irtt ibutiort
abundant Old World birds that mainly occupy grassy, brushy, open-country S t r h - S a h a rd n,tl f i' i t tr,
sol/htrtt tlsit,
lands.Their famtly,Estrildidae, contains about r4o species of seed-eaters /trt/ru/tsia
of southern Asia, sub-S aharanAfrica, and Australasia. Included are birds
Na. o.l'Lir irtg
called antpeckers, pytilias, crimson-wings, seedcrackers, bluebills, twinspots, STttits tqo
firefinches, firetails, cordonbleus, avadavatsr parrotfinches, and waxbills
No. ol-Sqtcics
(because they have red, waxy-looking bills), among others. The group is
Iir /tt tnr hla,
recognized for several features of its members'biology, including coloring, lin,/rrngtrit/.8, -t
socialiry and suitabiliry for captivity. Many are drably clad in shades ofbrown, t\ o of'S t,,'t iL t ]'. r / i n, /
often with barring patterns, but some have large bold patches ofblack andl Sirttt t6oc> t>
orwhite and others are quite colorful. Northern Australia's Gouldian Finch,
for instance, is one of the globe's most visually arresting birds, with a green
back, purple chest, yellow belly, and red, blue, and black head. Many species
are extremely gregarious, sometimes coming together into huge focks that,
in agricultural districts, can cause significant crop damage.The Nutmeg
Mannikin, for example, native to Asia but introduced to Hawaii during the
r86os, was largely responsible for eliminating rice farming in Hawaii and
is now something of an agricultural pest in eastern Australia. Some waxbill
species, such as Australia's pretty Zebra I'inch,live and breed well in captivity
and have become popular cage birds; the ZebraFtnch especially has become
a common lab study subject for animal behavior research.That these birds
thrive in captivity also makes them good candidates for successful human
transport, the result being that many waxbills now occur in the wild outside
their native ranges, in such locations as the \Mest Indies, many Pacific and
WAXBILLS 413
CREEN-WINCED PYTILTA COMMON WAXBILL
Pytilia melba Estrilda astrild
5 5 in (r4 cm) 4in (ro cm)
Africa Africa
bills of some species appear disproportionately large for such small birds,
but they are required to handle and crush se eds. Patches of red are common
in the group, particularly on head, rumpr or upper tail; many species have
white dots on their sides. Members of one subgroup, usually slightly heavier
looking than others and mainly dully colored, are called munias (typically
the Asian species) or mannikins (African and Australian species; not to be
confused with the South American manakins).Waxbill sexes look alike in
some species, different in others.
Principally occupying tropical regions, waxbills are predominantly birds
of open and semiopen habitats, including grasslands, brush and scrublands,
forest edges and clearings, reedbeds, and agricultural areas. But some dwell in
woodlands and even dense forests.Most are seed-eaters (but some also take
insects; naro African species specialize on ants), with grass seed, collected
from the ground or pulled from grass stalks, being the primary diet item;
many species switch to an at least partial insect diet during breeding. A
high degree of sociality is usual in these birds: various species flock all year
(often in groups of five to fifty or more individuals), nest in colonies during
breeding seasons, or flock together after pairs nest solitarily. Large numbers
ofindividuals spend the entire day together, feeding, drinking, bathing, and
roosting in flocks; during rests, they often preen each other.
Waxbills are usually monogamous, a male and a female maintaining
a stable pair-bond for one or more breeding seasons; some may mate for
life. Most build untidy domed nests of grass and other vegetation placed in
shrubs, trees, or sometimes on the ground in tall, dense grass. Some nest in
holes. Both sexes construct the nest (the male usually doing more finding
and delivering materials, the female doing more actual building); the sexes
take turns incubating eggs; both feed the young.
Waxbills are some of the world's most popular cage birds and some
areas in which they are heavily hunted and trapped for the pet trade have
experienced significant declines in these birds.TheJava Sparrow, for instance,
introduced to various parts of the world, including Hawaii, is now scarce
over parts ofits native range in Bali andJava.It, and seven otherwaxbills,are
considered lulnerable; two others, including the gorgeous Gouldian Finch,
are endangered.
and is most known for its unusual breeding. All its members are brood No. oJ-l,iting
Species r9
parasites,like many cuckoos and cowbirds: they do not build nests, they
do not incubate eggs, and they do not feed young. Rather, the "parasitic" No. of Sparies
females, after mating, deposit their eggs in the nests of other species, the Vulnerab/r,
Ilnlnngertl. o, o
host parents then raising the indigobird or whydah young as their own.
The species that are parasitrzed in this case are all waxbills, members of the No. oJ-Spuits Extintt
Sinca t6oo: o
family Estrildidae,which are closely related to the indigobirds and whydahs
(in fact, the indigobirds and whydahs are sometimes placed within family
Estrildidae).The parasitism is highly specialized and species-specific: in
most cases, each species of indigobird or whydah places its eggs solely
in the nests of a single waxbill species. Further, presumably to avoid the
host recognizing the parasitic nestling for what it is and not feeding it or
ejecting it from the nest, indigobird and whydah chicks have evolved mouth
markings and colors that match those ofthe host's own young. For example,
the Village Indigobird, the most widespread of the ten indigobirds, only
parasitizes the Red-billed Firefinch; and Village Indigobird nestlings,when
they open their mouths to beg to be fed by firefinch adults, have the same
internal mouth color and spot patterns as the firefinches'own offspring.As
an added layer of deceit, the young indigobirds also imitate the host species'
begging calls, which stimulate parents to feed their young. Whydahs are
also noted for the males'elaborate, elongated tails when in their breeding
*-
VILLAGE INDIGOBIRD
Vidua challbeata
4 in (ro cm)
Africa
plumage. And indigobirds are notorious among bird-watchers for their
similar appearances-many are little blackish (male) or streaked brownish
(female) birds with small white bills, identifiable as to particular species only
by the color of the gloss on the males'dark plumage, by leg coloring, and,
sometimes, only by vocalizations and mating behavior.
These birds, occasionally called widows, widow-finches, indigo-finches,
or steel-finches (all referring to the males'dark coloring), are only 4 to 5 inches
(ro to 13 cm) long, but breeding male whydahs have long central tail feathers
that add another 6 to ro inches (r5 to cm) to their total length (the four
z5
whydahs have long, slender tails; the five paradise-whydahs have long,wide,
elaborate tails). Male indigobirds when breeding are mostlyblack (with blue,
purple, or greenish gloss); females and nonbre eding males are brown, streaked,
sparrowlike. Breeding male whydahs are combinations of black, white, buff,
and reddish brownl females and nonbreeding males are brown and streaked.
Bills in the family,generallyreddish orwhite, are stout and conical,very short;
wings are short and rounded;legs are short;feet are small.
Whydahs and indigobirds inhabit mainlywoodlands and savannas but also
areas around human settlements.They perch in trees and shrubs but generally
feed on the ground. Small grass seeds are their main diet items, but some insects
are also taken.Most species eat seeds that they either pick up from the ground
or pull directly from grass stems. Although fairly solitary during breeding
seasons, manywhydahs and indigobirds form flocks afterward, sometimes
with other species.These flocks will move considerable distances searching
for wet weather and, consequently, growing grasses with seeds.
The whydahs and indigobirds have lek-type mating systems inwhich males
display to attract females and then, after copulation takes place, females go off
by themselves to lay their eggs in appropriate host-species nests. No long-
term pair-bonds are formed. Males space themselves in conspicuous spots
at intervals ofseveral hundred yards, often on branches or wires, and sing for
long periods. A female arriving in the lek area visits a number of males,which
court them with aerial displays. After i nspecting a number of males, the female
chooses one and mates. Often one male is particularly popular (presumably
because his looks and/or displays communicate his potential superiority a
^s
genetic father for females'offspring) and copulates with many of the females
in an area. None of the indigobirds orwhydahs are threatened.
wAGTAI rs and pI pIT s are small to midsize, slender, ground-dwelling Distrihu tion.
songbirds that are probably most recognized for their incessant tail-wagging: All conlirrcnts cxcept
Antarctiru
as theywalk or run along they constantly move their tails up and down; most
continue bobbing their tails even when perched-they never seem to stop.The No oJ'Lit,ing
Sptci cs: 6z
family,Motacillidae,with about sixty-nvo species, includes seven in Africa
known as longclaws, and is noted for its worldwide distribution (excepting No. oJ-SVerict
Vu/nerahla,
Antarctica, the high Arctic, parts of South America, and some oceanic Endangtrtl:.1, z
islands). In addition, pipits are notorious among bird-watchers because so
No. of-SpL:ciu Extinct
many of them look alike and thus are difficult to identi8, to species-clues Since 16oo o
to their identification in the field sometimes lie in minor differences in their
displays and fight calls. Of special interest to those familiar with North
America's birds, some ofAfrica's longclaws look eerily similar to Eastern
and Western Meadowlarks, streaked brown above, yellow below, with black
chest markings.It is a clear case of convergent evolution: two groups, not
closely related (meadowlarks are in the NewWorld blackbird family) and in
different hemispheres, coming to look like each other, presumably because
they have adapted to blend in to similar grassland environments.
Birds in this family have long toes and especially long hind claws (up to
r.5 inches [+ .*] long, in longclaws), that furnish support as theywalk, and,
generally,long tails with white edges. Bills are slender and pointed.Wagtails,
which are mainlylimited to the OldWorld (two species crossed the Bering
Strait and now breed in Alaska), are conspicuous, brightly marked birds,
either black and white or with mixtures of black, white, gray and yellow;
brownish and streaked, with narrow tails somewhat shorter than in wagtails;
the sexes look alike. Longclaws (6.5 to 8.5 inches ltzto zz cml) are streaked
brown above and yellow, orange, or reddish below,with a black chest band.
Pipits and wagtails spend most of their time on the ground feeding,
pursuing insects and other small arthropod preywith short sprints;theywill
sometimes fy up a short distance to capture an escaping bug, and will perch
on bushes,wires, or buildings.Wagtails mainly occur along rivers, streams,
and pond edges, or in wet meadows. Some associate with large mammals,
such as cows, and capture insects that flush when the mammals move. Pipits
tend to be in drier grasslands, meadows, pastures, and grassywoodlands, but
several species commonly occur in wet meadows, bogs, or wet cultivations.
Pipits eat insects but also some seeds and other plant materials. Crypticallv
colored, they are often invisible to people until flushed, at which point they
ascend, circle, and either fy away or drop back to the ground. Wagtails, when
flushed, typically fly in large arcs, calling loudly. Both wagtails and pipits fly
with a strongly undulating flight. Atl these birds tend to form flocks in the
nonbreeding season, and many are migratory.
Most ofthe birds in this group breed monogamously,withpairs defending
territories together in the breeding season. Male pipits give advertising
displays in which, while singing, they ascend quickly into the air and then
either drop fast or flutter down slowly.Wagtail courtship displays stay more
on the ground and involve tail- and wing-spreading. A11 nest on the ground
or in rock crevices.The well-concealed nest, sometimes sheltered by a rock
or overhanging grass, and built in a depression, is cuplike and constructed
of grasses, plant fibers, moss, and hair.Typically the female alone incubates;
both parents usually feed young.
Pipits and longclaws,primarily grassland species, arejeopardizedwhere
their habitats are widely converted to crop agriculture. Currently five species
are threatened (three vulnerable, two endangered); three are African, one
is South American. The fifth, Sprague's Pipit, which breeds in the north-
central part of North America, is lrrlnerable because its prairie breeding
habitat continues to shrink, the land taken for farming and degraded by
livestock grazing.
r.5
.re
Accentors
ls;
:d
d.
8,
ill
:h
lSt
Is,
.ts
ut
IS.
AccENToRS are small, drablycolored, sparrowlike songbirds of Europe, I)irt ributiorr
-lv Asia, and northern Africa. There are thirteen species in the family, litrrosia, ttort/ttrn
3\' A.fiittr
Prunellidae. All are called accentors except one: the common Dunnock
ln (sometimes called European Hedge Sparrow or Hedge Accentor),which No ol'Litting
1v STerics'r,1
is distributed broadly in Europe and parts ofwestern Asia. Accentors are
te recognized for their unusual Old World, temperate-zone-only distribution, No ol-S1tciLs
Vu/tttruhlr,
their almost universal confinement to mountainous environments, and for
En,/tngtril'o, o
ig their variety of mating systems.The Dunnock is the only species that, in
rg No. o.f 57,:titt l')xt itrtt
addition to inhabiting higher-elevation sites (in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Si ntL t6oo o
:n the Caucasus, for example), occurs in lowland areas also (in European
re forests, woodlands, shrublands, hedgerows, and gardens). The Dunnock
,d
is also widely known for its variable breeding system, in which monogamy,
:k polygyny (one male matingwith more than one female), and polyandry (one
d female matingwith more than one male) are all observed.
S;
Accentors range in length from 5.5 to 7 inches (r4 to 18 cm).They have
slender, pointed bills, rounded wings, and short, strong legs. Their thick
'e
plumage is brown, reddish brown, and/or gray above, often streaked, and
'q
grayish or tawny below. Some have black or black and white spotted or
e
barred throat patches, and/or white eye lines.The sexes look mostly alike
although males are a bit larger and sometimes brighter during breeding.
Birds mainly of high-altitude scrub and brush, mountain slopes, and
alpine meadows, some accentors, such as the Alpine and Himalayan
Accentors, routinely breed at up to 16,5oo feet (5,ooo m).The former species,
AccENToRS 423
HIMALAYAN ACCENTOR ROB]N ACCENTOR
Prunel/a hima/a1ana Prune l/a r u bercu/oides
6 in (r5 cm) 6 5 in (16 cm)
Asia Asia
ACCENToRS 425
FI RD-BREASTED FLOWERPECKER
Dicaeum ignipertus
r s in (q cLr)
Southern Asia
F>\
SCARLET.BACKED E LOWERPECKER ORANCE-BELLTED FLOWERPECKER YELLOW-VENTED FLOWE RPECKER
Dicaeum cruentatuu Ditaeum trigonostigmo Dicaeum chrltsorrheum
35in(9cm) j5in(9cm) 4 in (ro cm)
Southern Asia Sourhern Asia Southern Asia
I
I
African songbirds. Because they are endemic to southern Africa, sugarbirds l)ittr ihtrtion'
are sometimes used as symbols of that regions biodiversity.The family, Sot/htrn,tlfiiru
Promeropidae, contains onlytwo species, the Cape Sugarbird and Gurney's No. o.l Lit'irrg
Sugarbird. Formerly thought to be close kin ofthe Australasian honeyeaters, Sl,'ti,s.z
sugarbirds are now thought be more closely related to sunbirds (family No o./-STLritr
Nectariniidae).The two sugarbirds are much alike, being dull brown above 14r/rrtnhlt,
and whitish below, with brown or reddish brown on the chest and yellow Enlttgrnl. o, o
under the tail. They have slender, down-curved bills, short rounded wings, No o.l'S7r:t iLr l')xtintt
and strong legs and feet.The sexes look alike, although males have longer Sirttr' t6oo' o
h
Sunbirds and
Spidcrhuntcrs
n
:S
rt
n
t,
5,
5! s u N B I R D s are tiny to midsize, often very pretry arboreal birds with long Di;tribution:
e down-curved bil1s designed to probe and penetrate into flower parts to get Sub Saharan Al)'ica,
sou/htrn Asia,
nectar. Distributed mainly through sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia,
,4us/ rt/itr
e and northeastern Australia, they are noted for the rapid, acrobatic way
No. ol Litting
they flit in and out of flowering trees and shrubs as they search for flowers
Speciu. t7o
and insects. Because oftheir iridescent colors, bill shape, nectar-feeding
No. of'Species
behavior, and aggressiveness in defending feeding territories, sunbirds are
Vulne rable,
considered by many to be the Old World ecological equivalent of the New Ett,lnngered: 1, :
World hummingbirds.The two groups are not closely related; rather, the No. of Species l')xtittct
similarities are superficial, brought about by parallel evolutionary responses Sinr,: r(too'o
to similar habitats and ecological needs-in otherwords, the great similarity
in form and behavior between sunbirds and hummingbirds is a good case of
convergent evolution.The sunbird family, Nectariniidae, contains about 13o
species,including ro inAsia called s p I DE R H uNT E n s.Most areAfrican
or Asian; a single species, the Olive-backed Sunbird, occurs in Australia.
Ranging from 3.5 to 8.5 inches (9 to zz cm) long, sunbirds have
relatively thin, down-curved bills that vary in length among subgroups;
some have shorter, sharper bills suitable for a more insect-centered diet;
spiderhunters, essentially large sunbirds, have extremely long, curved
bills. They all have short, rounded wings and strong legs; some, such
as Africa's Black-bellied Sunbird, have very long central tail feathers.
The often spectacularly colorful sunbird males typically have patches
of red, blue, andlor yellow, with many having metallic green or blue
iridescence that sparkles in the sun. Females are much duller, usually
,.r
> I
LITTLg SPIDERHUNTER
I ra c b n o t h era / ongir os tra
6 5 in (16 cm)
Southern Asia
EASTERN VIOLET-BACKED SUNBIRD COLLARED SUNBIRD
Antbreptes orientalis Hedydipna collaris
55 in (r4 cm) 4.5 in (rz cm) 4 in (ro cm)
Southeast Asia Africa Africa
P]NE SISKIN
Cardue/fu pinus
5in (r3 cm)
North America, Central America
F'inches, Siskirs,
Crossbills,
and Canarrcs
C
-\
C l' 1.,*
also take some insects. House Finches consume mostlygrass andweed seeds,
but also some tree buds and fruit. A few fringillids, such as the Chaffinch,
defend large territories during breeding seasons, in which they nest and
locate all their food,but most nest in loose colonies, defend only small areas
around their nests, and feed in groups away from the nesting area.
Fringillids breed in monogamous pairs,the female alone usuallybuilding
the nest and incubating eggs, her mate sometimes feeding her as she
incubates. Open, cup-shaped nests are constructed typically of twigs, grass,
fine roots, moss, and lichens, and placed in trees or shrubs; some species, such
as redpolls and rosy-finches, nest on the ground or in rock crevices. Both
male and female tend nestlings, feeding them insects, insects and seeds, or,
in crossbills, siskins, redpolls, and linnets, seeds alone. Many fringillids are
common,widespread birds; nine are threatened (three are vulnerable, six are
endangered).The prime threat theyface is destruction and alteration oftheir
natural habitats, mostly for farming and ranching.
I
I
i
i
, -t!il
CRAY-AND-GOLD WARBLER SPECTACLED REDSTART BANANAQUIT
Basileuterusfraseri My i o b o ru s me / an oc ep h a I us Coerebafauo/a
5 5 in (r4 cm) 5 in (r3 cm) .+ 5 in (r2 crn)
South America South America West Indies, Central America,
South America
Wood Warblers
foliage.They are widely acclaimed among bird-watchers for their beauty No. o.l'Li.-ing
and diversity. Unfortunately, manywarblers look much alike, their myriad Spctit:s'tt7
plumage color combinations ofyellow, olive, gray, black and white differing No of-Sp,:cits
only subtly. This, added to their sizes and agile natures, sometimes causes Vu/n t rah /c,
Dnlurtgtrcd: 6, 7
even experienced birders to despair oftrying to identift the various species
in the wild. Warblers are also recogntzed for their ecological importance No o.f-Spttits Lx/ i tttt
Sinct r6oo t
especially in North American forests, where they are often so diverse and
numerous that, as a group, they make up more of the birdlife than all other
birds combined. The wood warbler group (also known as New World
warblers), family Parulidae, contains approximately t7 species (including
parulas, yellowthroats, redstarts, chats, waterthrushes, and the Ovenbird),
about 5o of which breed in the United States/Canada, the remainder
ranging from Mexico to southern South America and the Caribbean. One,
the Olive Warbler, which occurs from the southwestern United States to
Central America, is sometimes classed in its own single-species family,
Peucedramidae. And the common Bananaquit, distributed from southern
Mexico and the Caribbean to northern Argentina, has been variously
lumped into the warbler group, considered with the tanagers, or made the
sole member of its own family, Coerebidae.
Warblers are predominantly yellow or greenish, often mixed with
varying amounts of gray, black and whitel a few have patches of red, orange
or blue, and a few are brown. Many have conspicuous whitish wing and tail
g
f
PAIN'fED REDSTART MACNOLIA WARBLER COLOEN BROWED WARBLER
Myioborus pic/ut l)endroica magnolio Ratileuterw be/li
6in (r5 cm) -5
in (r3 cn:) 5 in
(I3 cm)
North America, Central Arnerica North America, Central America, Mexico, Central Americ;r
Wesr Iodies
flying insects in the air; the Black-and-white Warbler moves over tree trunks
and large branches, picking insects from bark; and waterthrushes and the
Ovenbird walk along the ground, foraging among dead leaves. Bananaquits
eat nectar and fruit. Many warblers typically join mixed-species feeding
flocks with other small songbirds. Many temperate-zone species migrate
long distances to tropical wintering grounds.The Black-and-white Warbler,
for instance, nests as far north as northern Canada but winters as far south as
Peru.Warblers generally are territorial: either during the breeding season (in
migratory species) or year-round (in nonmigratory,tropical species) a male
and female defend a piece of real estate from other members of the species.
Some tropical warblers remain paired throughout the year. Consistent with
the name warbler, many songs of these birds are melodic, but they range in
quality from loud, clear notes to insectlike trills and btzzes.
Mainly monogamous breeders,warblers build open-cup or domed nests
in trees or shrubs, but sometimes on the ground or in cavities. Often the
female builds all or most of the nest, and incubates eggs;the male may
feed his incubating mate, and both parents feed young. Both Bananaquit
sexes build the round, domed, breeding nest; they also build lighter, domed
"dormitory"nests,which they sleep in individually.
Six warblers are considered l'ulnerable; seven are endangered. This
includes the Golden-cheeked Warbler (endangered), which breeds in
central Texas, Kirkland's Warbler (vulnerable), which breeds in Michigan,
and Semper's Warbler (critically endangered), which occurs only on the
Caribbean island of St. Lucia. Bachman's Warbler, a swamp breeder of the
southeastern United States,likelybecame extinct in the 196os.
ia,
rse
1S,
of
en
CS
Ch
ks coN ofprettylittle
F Low E RpI E RCE RS and EB I LLS are distinctgroups
fe songbirds, mainly South American, that are now often considered members ;,;;:;;:.".'
rts
of the tanager family,Thraupidae. But their position in bird classification NL'otrofiitr
rg schemes is controversial.In the recent past theywere sometimes formed into 'l,ittin,q
No. of
te
a separate family (Coerebidae) with honeycreepers, dacnises (both now also Sp,:tiL: t8
considered tanagers), and the Bananaquit; or conebills were included with No of'S2tti,tr
the NewWorldwarblers (Parulidae). Both flowerpiercers and conebills are ltn/nLrah/,',
Enr.ltrng,'rcl. r:, t
associated with flowers, and both are predominantly higher-elevation birds
of the Andes Mountains. Flowerpiercers are noted, and named for, their No o.l STLtits Extirt, t
Sinrt r6r>c:'o
peculiar feeding method: they use their highly specialized bill to make holes
in the bottoms offlowers to get at nectar.The upper part ofthe bill,which is a
bit longer than the bottom part and has a sharply hooked tip, is used to hold
part ofthe flower steady;the lowerpart ofthe bill,which is slightlyupturned
tS
and ends in a sharp point, then makes a hole through which the long tongue
te
is inserted to suck up nectar. In parts of the Andes, most large flowers at
ry mid- to high altitudes eventually have tiny holes in their bottoms, indicating
it the ubiquity of these small birds. Conebills, named for their mostly short,
rd
pointed bills, also forage at flowers, but they are normally there not for
nectar but to search for insects.The eighteen flowerpiercer species occur
1S
from Central Mexico southward to northern Argentina, and the eleven
:n
conebills range from Panama to northern Argentina.
n, Varyingfrom 4.5to6.5inches (rr.5 to 16.5 cm) inlength,flowerpiercers are
TC
chiefly black or shiny blue, and some have white or reddish brown markings.
IC
TA NAGER s comprise a large New World group of beautifully colored, I )iitt ihtttion
small songbirds, most ofwhich are limited to tropical areas.They are among ,\', t ll1r,t /,1
the American tropics'most visible birds, primarily owing to their habit of No a.l Li; in,1
associating in mixed-species flocks that gather in the open, often near human .\),,, i,., :7.;
habitation,to feed in fruit trees. Bird lovers appreciate them for their diversity No r,.l'Si7t,i,
'
ofspecies andwonderful,bright hues. Many are strikingly markedwith patches
Lrt,/trrr,,4itt,/. t 1, 7
of color that traverse the entire spectrum;indeed, the group is internationally
recognized as being among the most fabulously attired ofbirds.There are some .\'o ,,1 .\ip,', i,'t Lttil;/
,\in,i rhoct rt
245 species in the family,Thraupidae, including typical tanagers, honeycreepers,
dacnises, and euphonias. (Conebills and flowerpiercers, treated separately in
this book, are sometimes also considered tanagers.) Most tanagers are South
American,with maximum diversity in the Andes, About 3o species occur in
Mexico; only four occur north of the Rio Grande.
Ranging from 3.5 to rr inches long (g to z8 cm, most near the smaller end
of the range), tanagers are compact birds with medium-long tails. Bill size
and shape vary considerably among species, from slender and down-curved
to short, stout, and hooked; legs vary in length and thickness. Yellows, reds,
blues, and greens predominate in tanager plumage, but a good number are
fairlyplain,mainlyblack,brown,or gray. Euphonias are small, stout tanagers,
their appearances revolving around a common theme:blue black above,with
yellow foreheads, breasts, and bellies. Honeycreepers also sport brilliant
plumage and have slendeq down-curved bills and brightly colored legs.
Dacnises are small tanagers with distinctive short, pointed bills.Tanager
sexes tlpically look alike or nearly so.
TANAGERS 45t
6
--r:-
i
./{- -
8o
he
its
he
NEw woRLD spARRows andolo woRLD BUNTINGs constitute Distrihution:
fS, Wor/lzuidc Lxctpt
a diverse group of small seed-eaters, totaling about three hundred species
CS 11us/rulia and
that includes some of North America's most common and visible songbirds, ln l arcticu
ry
such as Song Sparrows,White-crowned Sparrows, and Dark-eyedJuncos.
he No. of-Lioing
The group, family Emberizidae, while not closely related to the Old World Sle cics'.1o.y
er
sparrows (family Passeridae) or "true"fi.nches (Fringillidae), contains many
ar No. o.f-Spctict
species called sparrows or finches, as well as seedeaters, grassquits,longsPurs, Vtlncroblc,
tls
and towhees.There are three main subgroups: Eurasian and African buntings; Ettdongarcd.'rg, t7
rS
North American sparrows and others; and South American seedeaters, No of'Sptcit: Lxtirttt
AS
grassquits, and finches. Central America has elements of both the North Si n te t 6c:<> o
and South American subgroups.In North America, the sparrow/bunting
)f (emberizid) family is infamous among bird-watchers for its sparrows, many of
:d
which are small, brown, and streaked, differing only subtly from one another in
St
plumage pattern, and therefore being extremely difficult to identify to species.
le
Indeed, these birds are undoubte dly the origin of the term LBJ (little brown
jobs),which American birders now applyliberallythe world over to hard-to-
n
identi$, small, darkbirds. Other celebrated American emberizids are the Song
fl,
Sparrow, the study of which provided the basis for much of what we know
Ie
about avian territoriality; the White-crowned Sparrow, the species of choice
:e
for many investigations of bird physiology and the relationships befween
ecology and physiology, especiallywith regard to the timing of breeding and
rf
migration; the Snow Bunting, which breeds farther north than any other
land bird; and Galdpagos fi.nches, thirteen species of drab black, brown, and
,.'*.-- /--<\
WHITE-WINGED DIUCA-FINCH
Diuca tpeculifera
7 5 in (r9 cm)
South America
r!*
B
t
defined areas.In many sparrows,pairs stay together allyear; other species often
travel in small family groups. Sometimes territories are defended year-round
and almost all available habitat in a region is divided into territories. Some
species form into large flocks during nonbreedingperiods. Songs ofemberizids
vary from btszzes and trills to pure tones and short, loud melodies.
Most sparrows and buntings are monogamous. The female of a parr,
sometimes with the male's assistance, builds a cup-shaped or, often in the
NewWorld tropics, domed nest, from grasses, rootlets, and perhaps mosses
\ and lichens. Nests are concealed on the ground orlow in shrubs or trees.The
female alone or both sexes incubate eggs; both sexes feed the young. Many
emberizids are abundant, widespread birds; however, nineteen species are
currentlyvulnerable, seventeen endangered (six ofthe latteq mainlyin South
America, critically endangered).
4"
,
I
.nd
Ine
NcwWorld Blackbirds
:th
.e S,
f,st
he
Ch
ies
tal
or
ng
ies
Lre
N Ew woRLD B LAC KBI RD s are mid- tolarge size songbirds renownedfor Distrihtrtion:
rn their ecological diversity and success.They are often abundant, conspicuous Netr: World
he
birds throughout their range,which encompasses all of North, Central, and No. o.f Lilirtg
in South America and the Caribbean. The family,Icteridae, includes about Spuitt'97
N_
ninety-seven species,variously called blackbirds, caciques, cowbirds, grackles, No of-Sqtcics
al, meadowlarks, orioles, and oropendolas; theyvary extensivelyin size, coloring, Vu/n cro h la,
of feeding method known as gaping:bird places its closed bill into crevices or
a No. of Sprcias Dxrirtrt
re Sini:,: t6oo t
under leaves, rocks or other objects, and then forces the bill open, exposing the
3e previously hidden space to its prying eyes and hunger. Many of these birds,
le,
collectively termed icterids, have adapted well to human settlements and are
m
common denizens of gardens, parks, and agricultural areas.
?y
Ranging from 5 to zz inches (r5 to 56 cm) long, icterids generally have
rS
sharply pointed, conical bills. Black is their predominant color, but many
:h
combine it with bright reds, yellows, or oranges. In some, the sexes are alike
(particularlyin tropical species),but in others, females lookquite different from
v males, often more cryptically outfitted in browns or grays. Pronounced size
h differences between the sexes, females being smalle! are common. Grackles,
h common in urban areas, are primarilyblackbirdswith slenderbills and,usually,
h long tails. Blackbirds (the term also used sometimes for the entire family, as in
S.
NewWorld Blackbirds) are often marsh dwellers. Caciques, sleekblack birds
e
frequently with red or yellow rumps and yellow bills, typically occupy forests,
ls
forest edges, or thickets. Orioles are brightly marked birds in yellow or orange
mixed with black and white; their preferred habitat is forest. Meadowlarks are
\
YELLOW-RUMPED CACIQUE CRESTED OROPENDOLA RUSSET.BACKED OROPENDOLA
Pwrocolius deilmanus Pv rocoli us a ngus I ifron s
95-rr 5 in (24-29 cm) r4-19 in (j6-48 cm) r4-19 5 in (35-49 cm)
Central Arnerica, South America Central America. Sorrth America South America
.i=+
-,,
ORCHARD ORIOLE SCOTT S ORIOLE
Itterus spuriut hterur ?aritorun
7 in (r8 cm) 9 in (23 cm)
Norrh America, Sou rh America, West Indies North America
-Y
6
I
yellow, black, and brown grassland birds. Oropendolas are spectacular,larger
birds of tropical forests and woodlands. Cowbirds, usually quite inconspicuous
in shades ofbrown and black, have a dark secret-they are brood parasites.
Icterids occur in all sorts ofhabitats, including vroodlands, thickets,
grassland, marshes, forest edges, and even rainforest canopies, but they are
especially prevalent in more open areas. Their regular occupation of marshes
is interesting because they are not obviously adapted for living in aquatic
environments; they do not have webbed feet, for example, nor can they float or
dive.They eat a wide variety of foods including insects and other small animals,
fruit, and seeds. Some are fairly omnivorous, as befitting birds that frequently
become scavengers in urban settings. A common feature of the group is that
seed-eaters during the nonbreeding periods become insect-eaters at breeding
time and feed insects to theiryoung.Tiopical orioles and caciques commonly
join in mixed-species foraging flocks. Outside of the breeding season, icterids,
particularly blackbirds and grackles, typically gather in large, sometimes
enormous, flocks that can cause damage to roosting areas and agricultural crops.
Icterids pursue a variety ofbreeding strategies. Some, such as the orioles,
breed in classically monogamous pairs, male and female defending a large
territory in which the nest is situated. But others, including many caciques
and the oropendolas, nest in colonies. Some species, such as Red-winged and
Yellow-headed Blackbirds, are strongly polygynous,with a single male during
a breeding season mating',vith several females. Nests, almost always built by
females, range from hanging pouches woven from grasses and other plant
materials, to open cups lined with mud, to roofed nests built on the ground,
hidden in meadow grass. Nestlings are fed by both parents (monogamous
species) or primarilyby the female (polygynous species). Most cowbirds are
brood parasites, building no nests themselves. Rather, females, after mating,
lay their eggs in the nests ofother species and then let the host species raise
theiryoung.
Some ofthe most abundantbirds oftheWestern Hemisphere are icterids,
such as Red-winged Blackbirds and Common Grackles. Brown-headed
Cowbirds, open-countrybirds, have been increasing, actually expanding their
range with deforestation. Some tropical orioles have been severely reduced
in numbers because they are hunted as prized cage birds. Currently eleven
icterids are threatened: four are vulnerable and seven endangered, three ofthe
latter critically so (Montserrat Oriole ,Brazil's Forbes'Blackbird, Colombia's
Mountain Grackle).The Slender-billed Grackle, a Mexican marsh dweller,
became extinct in the early 19oos.
Abookseekingto
introdu :["',1t"']]]*JJ:::t
an easY number
to
fot
ing the real nurnber
of
into several
hird species interestin
are 'd"gli*p'"t
of ornithology'th dividuals of a species
^ro..,. sPecies are
Animal
rePro ies of populatio
ofas freelywitheach
we shouldbe abl
liil'iri'g. so,atleas
.*oit .r.r*b.r ofbir nd produce fertile
young
female birds together
i not, are not'
are members of
the sa Captive breeding
tests
e.
,.#.nff:':;',|u.#
i
;'llJff;','J,lJil:H
kinds of birds, even fic issues that prevent,
or
There are also historir ber of bird species'
Most
at least inhibit,
easy tal number ofbird
species
469
AND BIoGEoGRAPHY
AvrAN DIvERsITY
is growing with passing decades. Indeed, the birds of the world expanded
generously during the past century and a hal{, from a count of 7,5oo species
in the r85os, to 8,5oo in the mid-r93os, to about 8,6oo from the r95os through
the r97os, to 9,ooo during the r98os, to between 9,6oo and 9,9oo from the
r99os to today.
What's going on here? Are new species still being discovered and
described by science for the first time? Certainly some newly discovered birds
have been added to the list ofspecies during the past r5o years, especialh'
earlier in that period.Today, even though most of the terrestrial world has
been explored,bird species newto science continue occasionallyto appear. Of
all the bird families, it is probably among the NewWorld flycatchers (family
Tyrannidae) that the most undiscovered species remain.This is because
there are many species of flycatchers; they live in nearly every terrestrial
habitat; and many of them are drab and inconspicuous. As bird experts
reach previously inaccessible locations-hidden valleys, cloud-draped
mountain plateaus-in the remotest parts of South America, previouslv
unknown flycatchers are indeed sighted. For instance, one new species was
first identifi ed rn ry76 in northern Peru, and another was found in 198r in
southern Peru. Two more were first described in the scientific literature
inry97.Birds in other families also have been discovered recently-a new
species of barbet was identified in Peru inryg7,a new manakin in Brazil in
:1998ra new seedeater in Venezuela in zoor, a new owl in Malaysia in zoor,
and a newwren in Colombia in zoo3.
But relatively few species have been discovered in, say, the past 5o years,
and now, for every few new species discovered,probably a fewbecome extinct.
So what accounts for the large recent increases in the number of known
living bird species? The answer has to do with avian taxonomists, that is,
biologists who study bird classification. One might think that after a couple
of hundred years of effort, the scientific classification of birds would be
relativelystable. Butwith each generation oftaxonomists,new classifications
emerge, sometimes because new methods are used, sometimes because old
methods are employed in differentways.With the advent of molecular
taxonomy methods (including ones that allow comparative studies ofbirds'
DNA), classifications of birds that were first worked out during the r8oos
and early rgoos are undergoing alterations, sometimes radical ones.
The main type oftaxonomic change resulting in an increase in the number
ifonly a single specimen has been found,perhaps the species is now extinct.
For instance, the Negros Fruit-dove is known only from a specimen found
on the island of Negros in the Philippines in 1953; the Red Sea Swallow, from
a specimen found on the Red Sea coast of Sudan in 1984; and the Cone-
billedTanager, from a specimen found in southern Brazilin 1939. All three
of these are considered existing species in most current bird taxonomies.
For all the reasons above, the assignment of species status to various
groups (populations) ofindividuals is an inexact science, and there are manv
controversial species assignments that bird classification authorities will
argue over for decades. This inability to know the exact number of living
bird species on Earth reflects a deep and genuine interest on the part of
avian taxonomists and others concerned with birds to get the classification
"right"-thatis,to make it as consistentwith nature's groupings as (humanlv)
possible.In addition to sowing confusion among the uninitiated, reference
books issued every few years that give different species totals frustrate bird-
watchers, who like to list the bird species they have seen and know the
number remaining they might someday spot. For instance, someone who
had seen 8oo species by r98o would have calculated he or she had seen
8.9 percent of the globe's birds (based on the then total number of species
estimated at 9,ooo), but in the first decade of the twenry-first century, that
person would have seen only 8.2 percent of the birds (based on a total of
rits is to consider bird families. Families of animals, such as birds, are groups
containing closely related species (they share a relatively recent common
ler ancestor) that are often very similar in form, ecology, and behavior. For
)nt instance, the BlueJay, GrayJay,Black-billed Magpie, American Crow,
)nt Common Raven, Australian Raven, and Eurasian Jackdaw, which share
ilI, many anatomical and behavioral traits, are closely related genetically and
ct. therefore are all considered members of the globally distributed j ay/crow
nd family (Corvidae; all species in the family can be referred to as corvids.)
)ln Similarly, all the different kinds of ducks (Mallard, Northern Pintail, Lesser
S caup, etc.) are members ofthe worldwide duck/geese/swan family, Anatidae
e-
'ee (anatids). And all the NewWorld blackbirds (Western Meadowlark, Red-
winged Blackbird, Common Grackle, Baltimore Oriole, etc.) are members
US
of family Icteridae (icterids). Families are, in a sense, artificial constructs-
n), ways that people choose to place various species into related groups; there is
i1l no absolutely correct way to distribute the world's birds into families, only
1g better and worse ways (that more accurately or less accurately reflect the
of natural relatedness ofvarious bird groups), and today's family groupings
)n are bound to undergo changes. But the familylevel of classification is useful
for delineating many rypes ofbirds, and bird-watchers often organize their
v)
CC
sightings by the various families.
t- So, can I tell you the total number of bird families? Well, not exactly.
te The problem is that, although many families comprise fairly distinct and
ro obvious aggregations of closely related birds-the three examples above
)n are somewhat representative of this group-others are less distinct,
3S
the relationships among a family's members less understood and more
at controversial.The result is that avian taxonomists argue about the assignment
rf of species to various bird families and, indeed, about the identities, sizes,
Hotu does bird diaersity compare uitb that of other vertebrate groups?
How does the total of about 9,8oo bird species compare with the numbers
for other kinds of terrestrial vertebrate animals? There are about 4,8oo
mammal species, about 78oo reptiles, and about 4,8oo described species
of amphibians. (Almost all birds, mammals, and reptiles living on Earth
have been discovered, characterized, and named-that is, scientificallr'
Why are some bird species abundant, others somewhat common, and some
rare?Two main factors influence the total size ofbird populations: the extent
ofthe geographical range of the species and the density of individuals within
the range. The former factor is easy to understand-species with larger
ranges, inhabiting more areas, generally can have larger total populations
than species with smaller ranges.The latter factor, population densiry is
more complex. Main infuences on population density are available food
For most species, no true count is possible. But for some highly endangered
species, because so few individuals are alive, precise counts are feasible.
For instance, when a particular bird species is re stricted to a single small
island, researchers, through careful surveys, can determine that there are,
say, fewer than r,ooo individuals left alive, or fewer than roo. For some,
such as the Hawaiian Crow-which occurred only on the Big Island of
Hawaii, is on the verge ofextinction, and is the subject ofmuch research and
conservation effort-fairly precise numbers are known: there were perhaps
T5Hawaian Crows still in the wild during the mid-r97os, only rr or rz in the
early r99os, only3 in :999,and none today (some still live as captive birds).
Or take the Whooping Crane: wildlife experts know the exact number of
living Whooping Cranes (usually fewer than zoo individuals) because this
endangered North American species is closely monitored. But for most
species, only rough estimates of population sizes are available.
Bird populations (as well as many other types of animals) experience
seasonal differences in abundance numbers. Let us say that most birds
breed in spring and summer, and most ne sts successfully fledge, on average,
z offspring.In this case, if a species has one million members in winter
(divided about half and half between males and females), then it will have
z million members in the summer. Following fledging, and during late
summer, fall, and winter, about 5o percent of the total population dies, so
that come the next breeding season, about one million individuals are again
left alive.In otherwords, during breeding seasons, the increase in population
size viareproduction outpaces mortality rate; during nonbreeding seasons,
mortality decreases the population. For example, in an extreme case, it is
estimated that each April in North America,when breeding season begins,
there are approximately r65 million Red-winged Blackbirds; postbreeding,
eachJuly, there are about 35o million of these pretty and prolific birds.
Some bird families are huge, containing 3oo or more species; others are tiny,
with ro or fewer species.In the classification scheme used in this book, 13
families have zoo or more species (table r lists the zo largest); about zo are
single-species families;36 families contain 2,3,or 4 species; and z7 others
in
)n have 5 to ro species. Why such differences in "species richness" among
)n families?There are a number of factors,which are not mutually exclusive.
First, family age may play arole. Families of animals, just like species
ny or individuals, have a certain lifetime, at the end of which they die out,
that is, they become extinct. A family might have many species at some
points in its lifetime (when it has expanded its range and,through evolution,
diversified and moved into various habitats and achieved various lifestyles)
and few species at others, for instance,when it is very old (after many of its
constituent species have run their courses and died out).Therefore, older
lY'
tlpes ofbirds that today have limited diversity may have been more diverse
13
in the past. For example, the ratites, the ancient group that includes the
re
rS
ae)
:by Hons about the species that some taxonomists place in single-species
to uncertain.In the latter case, taxonomists have placed the species in a single-
he species family, keeping it separate, until convincing evidence is found to
rte assign it to another family. Many of the birds that provide taxonomists with
ill' classification problems are "oddball"birds-such as the Shoebill (storklike
he with massive bill, from Central Africa; family Balaenicipitidae), Hoatzin
ut (a large, primitive-lookin g, Amazonranleaf- eater; Opisthocomidae), Kagu
-'r We all know that ifwe traveled to Africa, most of the birds we would see
are different from those we would see in South America or Australia.
le
This is because there are geographic patterns in bird distribution. When
o
discussing the distributions of animal (or plant) groups, we are delving
ORIENTAL
ATLOIROPICAI,
NEOTROPICAL
AUSTRALASIAN
The first two of the six zoogeographic regions are located north of the
tropics: the Nearctic (encompassing North America fnorth of the tropics]
and, sometimes, Greenland) and the Palearctic (Europe, northern Asia, and
northern Africa).The next three are largely tropical: the Neotropical (Central
and South America and the West Indies), Afrotropical (or Ethiopian; sub-
Saharan Afrrcaand Madagascar), and Oriental (all of southern Asia from
India to Southeast Asia to Japan) regions. The final one, the Australasian
region (or Australian; encompassing Australia, New Guinea, and New
Zealand), has both tropical and south temperate components. These 6
regions contain most of the world's terrestrial wildlife. Antarctica is not
included because the 7th continent has few terrestrial vertebrates (though
penguins, for instance, breed there). For convenience, many bird references
include Antarctica with the Australasian region. Other problem places with
respect to regional classification are the remote Pacific islands; they have
few unique groups of birds or other animals that would set them apart in a
separate region, and they have small numbers of groups from several of the
continental faunas.
The six zoogeographic regions separate areas ofwildlife with common
characteristics.Among the birds,various groups are restricted to,concentrated
in, or characteristic ofthe respective regions.
species richness, and it is likely that some combination ofthem accounts for
the pattern. Most basically, there is increasing more availability of sunlight J
tl
energy, higher photosynthetic rates, and therefore more available food closer
to the equator. In other words, because animal and plant life is ultimately
supported by the energy ofthe sun, where there is greater sun energy, there
will be more species. More sun (together with other factors such as increased
moisture and higher temperatures,which are also typical of the tropics)
means more photosynthesis (more plant "productivity"),which means more
plants,larger plants, and lusher habitats, such as rainforests. Because animals
live on plants, both physically and as food sources, more plant material, more
kinds ofplants, and more complex forests in a region mean more animals can
live there. So the greater sunlight energy ofthe tropics translates to greater
plant productivity, which, ultimately, supports more animal species.
Regardless ofthe causes ofthe global diversity gradient, the contemporary
rn
Islands-Size and Distance Matter
rw
ral Another major pattern of species richness concerns islands.The general
CS rules are that the size of anisland's avifauna decreases as island size decreases
and as distance to the nearest mainland increases.In otherwords, the smaller
er and more remote the island, the fewer bird species found there.The reasons
na for these island biodiversity trends are clear.To explain,we need to consider
CC how organisms first arrive on islands.
CS If a new island appeared today just offthe coast of California, either
is it split offfrom the coast and so will have most of the animal species that
ry occur on the adjacent mainland, or it arose from the sea floor, perhaps via
.d, volcanic or earthquake activiry and now is pretty much barren oflife.In the
t€, latter case, many animal species from the mainland, especially birds, which
St; can fly easily to the nearby island,will soon occur on the island. (But not all
species of birds on the mainland, or other types of animals, will cross to the
1n new island, thus explaining whv even near-shore islands tend to have fewer
br species than the nearest mainland areas.)
ht Butwhat about remote islands, such as volcanic ones that arise from the
er sea floor in midocean? Consider the Hawaiian Islands, volcanic cones in
,ly the mid-Pacific that are about as isolated and remote as you can get-2,ooo
re miles (3,zoo km) from North America and 3,3oo miles (5,3oo km) from
:d Japan. Islands such as Hawaii are too far away from mainland areas for
:S) mainland species to colonize easily. Only a few organisms will be able to do
re so, and which species succeed will be governed largely by chance. A large
Lls ocean in the way is probably nature's most effective barrier to the spread of
re terrestrial animal and plant species. Only a few types of terrestrial organisms
In have the ability to cross oceans (and even then, by chance, only a few species
er of each type will). How do these species cross oceans?
ry
numbers presented here are estimates only, because the total number ofspecies
.A/ale: Species
in a country or region varies slightly depending on the method ofcounting and the source
S
consulted. For example, sources may or may not include seabirds in their counts. Some
,f avifauna totals include only birds that breed within a given region; others include all birds
in the region, including nonbreeding migrants. Some include species seen only occasionally
o
in a given country, while others do not. Also, species numbers change when various new
ir systems of classification come into vogue.Therefore, most important to note in the table
notthat 7,727 species have been seen in Colombia, but that Colombia, a
is, for instance,
moderate-size tropical South American country supports a huge number ofbird species,
more than 1,700.
TA BL E 3. Number of Bird Species in the United States,
Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom
NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIEs
Nola: Species numbers presented here are estimates only, because the total number ofspecies
in a country or region varies slightly depending on the method ofcounting and the source
consulted. For example, sources may or may not include seabirds in their counts. Some
avifauna totals include only birds that breed within a given region; others include all birds
in the region, including nonbreeding migrants. Some include species seen only occasionally
in a given country, while others do not. Also, species numbers change when various new
systems ofclassification come into vogue.
of species? Smaller islands tend to have fewer species, say of birds, because
smaller islands have fewer habitat types and so there are fewer niches that
bird species can occupy.Think about it this way: A large island may have
almost all the kinds of habitats that a mainland region has: low, middle, and
high elevation zones, beach, scrub, forests, grasslands, wetlands, and so on,
and each habitat can support a characteristic avifauna. But small islands
may have just a few habitats-some coastal islands are comprised ofjust
rocks along the water and forested interiors, and atolls, barely rising from
the ocean's surface, often consist simply of coral beach, some grasses and
shrubby vegetation, and coconut palms. Another factor contributing to
larger islands having more species is that they support greater population
sizes than smaller islands. Because large populations, on average, are less
likely to become extinct than small populations, species on large islands are
more likely to persist. Therefore, even if similar numbers of species become
established on both large and small islands,large islands, over long periods
oftime,will retain more ofthem.
Why are some species endemic to small areas while others are spread over
huge regions such as multiple continents or even most ofthe world (the Barn
Swallow, European Starling, House Sparrow, Peregrine Falcon, and Osprev
Another way of asking this is: What
are more or less globally distributed)?
determines a species'present distribution? History is the answer. When a
species'distribution is confined to a restricted or small area, (r) there are one
or more barriers to further spread (an ocean, a mountain range, a thousand
miles of tropical rainforest in the *"y); (r) the species evolved only recenth'
and has not yet had time to spread; or fu) the species evolved long ago, spread
long ago, and now has become extinct over much of its prior range. A histon'
ofisolation also matters.The longer a group of animals and plants are isolated
from their close relatives, the more time they have to evolve by themselves and
to change into new, different, even unique groups.The best examples are on
islands. Some islands once were attached to mainland areas, but continental
drift or changing sea levels (or some combination) led to their isolation in
the middle of the ocean; other islands arose wholly new via volcanic activitv
beneath the seas. For instance, the island ofMadagascar was once attached
to Africa and India.The organisms stranded on its shores when it became an
island had probably roo million years in isolation to develop into the highlv
endemic fauna and flora we About 8o percent of the island's plants
see today.
and animals are thought to be endemic, including half the bird species and
essentially all the mammals and reptiles. Other examples of islands or island
nations with high concentrations of endemic animals are Indonesia, where
about 15 percent ofthe world's bird species occur, a quarter of them endemic,
and New Guinea,where 45 percent ofbirds are endemic.
373 Australia(mainland)
rer
185 Brazil
ifn
185 Philippines
'ey
714 Peru
rat
1a
105 Madagascar
ne 92 Mo<ico
7y 74 NewZealand
ad 70 China
ry 67 Colombia
ed 67 United States (mainland 9; Hawaii 36)
1d
58 India
)n
43 Solomon Islands
ral
40 Venezuela
in
37 Ecuador
ty
:d 28 Ethiopia
tn 26 Jamaica
ly 25 FrenchPolynesia
2t Cuba
2t Japan
Narc The number ofendemic species for each area varies depending on source consulted,
Factors that affect different counts include the date ofthe count (more species being
discovered or delineated in lateryears); whether all outlying islands that are political
possessions ofthe country in question are included in the count; and the avian taxonomy
used for the count.
Which birdfamilies ltave the most narroztsj endemic species
and tphich haoe the least?
One way to look at this is to examine species that have relatively small.
or restricted, ranges, defined as a species having a total range ofless than
5o,ooo square kilometers (about 19,3oo square miles; about the same size oi
Costa Rica). About 25 percent of all bird species and about 75 percent of all
threatened species have restricted ranges bythis definition.Table 5lists bird
families with the most and least restricted-range species.
Although currently there are vast numbers of individual birds and a large
number of qpes ofbirds, many species are now threatened with extinction.
We know (from historical documents and, for many species, surviving bodv
materials) that at least rz8 bird species became extinct during the past 5oo
years, ro3 of them in the past 2oo years. Currently about rz percent ofbird
species (about r,r8o of them) are considered by authoritative conservation
organizations (for example, International Union for Conservation ofNature,
and Birdlife International) to be globally threatened, that is, in danger of
total extinction. After years of careful field surveys, consultation of scientific
literature, and gathering data from international sources, an exhaustive
compilation of information about threatened birds was produced in zooo
(Birdlife International's Threatened Birds of the World); it presents current
ranges and population sizes, threats, and conservation information for each
threatened species. According to this comprehensive source, about 68o
species are r.ulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction in the medium-term
future); about 3zo are endangered (facing a very high risk of extinction in the
near future); and about 18o are critically endangered (facing an extremely
high riskof extinction in the immediate future).After considering available
evidence and analysis ofpopulation trends, this source predicts that, unless
significant conservation measures are undertaken,perhaps 46o ofthese r,r8o
threatened species will become extinct by zroo.
Restricted-Range Species
Lall, RESTRICTED- PERCENTAGT
TOTAL SPEClES RANCE SPECIES OF 6PECIES
lan
30f
Drepanididae (Hawaiian
iall 18 18 100
honeycreepers)
,ird
Mesitornithidae (mesites) J J 100
Zosteropidae (white-eyes) 94 79 84
Todidae (todies) 5 4 80
Para&saeidae (birds-of-paradise) 44 29 66
Megapodiidae (megapodes) 79 11 58
LEA6T
8e
Hirundinidae (swallows) 89 8 9
)n.
Paridae (tits and chickadees) 55 5 9
dy
co Anatidae (ducks, geese, and swans) t57 11 7
)o Ciconiidae (storks) t9 0 0
nt Gruidae (cranes) 15 0 0
io Recurvirostridae 11 0 0
(stilts and avocets)
m
IC
Ly
Wltat are the main tbreats to birds?
le
'S
The sources of threats to birds are primarily linked, as might be expected, to
o their interactions with humans and to the consequences ofhuman activities,
such as agricultural, residential, and economic development.In fact, 99 percent
of the r,r8o bird species now threatened are so classified owing to human
ie
S, Which kinds of birds are tbreatened, and nshere are they located?
)r
Many types of birds are threatened with extinction but there are some
rl
general patterns in what kind they are and where they live. Some types of
c
5
birds are more susceptible than others to the negative impacts of humans
\'.
and to natural catastrophes. Species with small ranges are particularly
vulnerable. When and if their numbers fall, these species or groups face a
)'
greater chance ofextinction than others because they lack other places "to
,/
go,"otherpopulations in far-offplaces that might survive. Narrowly endemic
e
birds, such as the restricted-range species referred to inTable 5, are subject to
e
such extinctions. Particularly good examples are species that are endemic to
islands.If a species of bird occurs only on a single island or on a small group
f
-I
oftiny islands near to each otheq all its eggs are, so to speak, in one basket.
If there is a calamity there-a powerful hurricane, a volcanic eruption-the
f Peru 73 46 23 4
c China 73 59 11 3
.t India 68 52 o 7
c Philippines 65 41 12 72
e Ecuador 62 43 13 6
:) New Zealand 62 40 76 6
Mexico 39 t9 1.2 8
Argentina 39 31 4 4
Russia J6 27 8 3
Malaysia 35 29 3 3
Thailand 35 26 5 4
Myanmar JJ zo 4 3
Vietnam .).) 2t 10 2
Australia JJ 20 11 2
Ttnzrnit 33 23 9 1
Japan 32 22 8 2
changes wrought by people, but even thrive, increasing their ranges and
numbers.Those that have benefited from people's alterations ofhabitats and
other developments include some members of the heron and egret family
(Ardeidae), some gulls and terns (Laridae), some nightjars (Caprimulgidae),
some pigeons and doves (Columbidae), some thrushes (Turdidae), some
swallows (Hirundinidae), some blackbirds and cowbirds (Icteridae), some
in the crow family (Corvidae), and many finches and sparrows (Fringillidae,
Estrildidae, Emberizidae).
Threatened bird species are not evenly distributed among the various
regions ofthe world.They are concentrated in the Neotropics and Southeast
Asia, areas with very high species diversity and many endemic birds.
Countries with the most threatened species are listed inTable 6. Some small
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504 BIBLIOGRAPHY
General Index
A bare-eyes,245
barn owls, r7r-4
Ctrdinalidae, +6r
cardinalids, 46r-z
crombecs,3gr
croP, 136
Acanthisittidae, 238
barwings,397 cardinals,46r-z crossbills, 435-8
Acanthizidae, 275
batises,3357 cardinal-grosbeals, 46r Crotophagidae, r67
accentors,4z3-5, 487
bazas, Tr Cariamidae, ro4 crowned-pigeons, r47
Accipitridae, 7r
becards,257 cassowaries, r3, 15-6, 484 crows,3or-4,5or
accipitrids, Zr-5
bec-eaters, zo5-6 Casuariformes, r3 crow-shrikes, 3rr
Aegithalidae, 37r, 493
bee swu, zz5 catbirds,3518 crltic coloration, rro, rZ5
rn Aegithinidae, 474
bellbirds, z5r, 285 Cathartidae, 69 cuckoo-rollers, zo9
1, Aegothelidae, r79
bell-magpies,3u Certhiidae, 263 cuckoos, r63-5
African buntings,455
belly-wefting, r45 chachalacas, 9r-2, 487 cuckoo-shri kes, 3zr-z
African warblers, 389-9o
berryoeckers, 4218 chaffinches,435 Cuculidae, r63, r67
)ry, Afrotopical region, 4867 biodiversity, T, 474-6 Charadriidae, u9 Cuculiformes, r59, r63
liluraedu,47r bird abundance, 478-8o Charadriiformes, rr \ rrg ng,n3, curassows,9r-2
^kilats,347 bird biogeography; +83-e5 t25tt29, r3t,r35,t37 curlews, rr5
A)zudidae, 4or, 472, 48o, 487 chats, 277,347, 443
bird distribution, 483-95 currawongs, lrrS
albatrosses, 3r-2, 476 chatterers,397
b\r d diver stty, 4691 4, 496-5o z
Alcedinidae, r95,488
AJcidae, r4r, 479
bird families,48o1
birds-of-paradise, 3o57, 487
chat-tyrants,257
chickadees, 375-6
D
; aJcids, r4r-z dacnises,45r-4
rrla. bird species, number of,46913 chiffchafri,39r
alethes,34r DDT,z8
bird-watching, r-3 Chionidae, r39
alien species,498 Dendrocolaptidae, 239
bishops,4o1rr Ciconiidae,55
amakihis,44r Dicaeidae ,428
bitterns,5rl Ciconiiformes, 5r, 55-7
I
Anatidrc,7, g, 473, 479, Dicruridae, u 97
487 blackbirds, 4637, 487, 5or Cinclidae,345
Anhimidae, 62,487 dikkops, rz3
bluebills,4r3 cinclodes,244
fe anhingas,49-5o Diomedeidae,3r
bluebirds,34r Cinclosomatidac, u 9r
Anhingidae, 49 dippers,34r-5
bobwhitcs, ST cisticolas, 389-9o, 487
anis, r619 distraction display, rzr, r33
tE. Bombycillidae, 3_j9, 485, 487, 493 Cisticolidae,389, 487
Antuctica, zI-2, I39,486
8, distribution, 8, 483-95
iast boobies,45-7 class,5
dive-hunting, z7
lon. antbirds, 2457,487 classification, 3-5
boubous,3zg diversity, 3,7, 46914
antpeckers,4r3 clay licks, I55
I. bowerbirds, 2697o,487 diving birds, zr-2, z 5-6,27-g, +4,
antprttrs,245 CNoropseidae, 474
bowers,269-7o
antshrikes,245 47,5o,67, t4t-z
Brachypteraciidae, zo9 Climacteridae,263 diving-petrels, 37-8
ress, antthrushes,245
breeding: polyandrous, ro, zo, 86, cochoas,347
domestic ducks, 63
antureos,245 rrr, rr8, rz4,4z3; polygamousl cockatoos, 157-8
double-scratching, 459
ant\wens,245 ro, rro; polyglnous, ro,4z3, cocks-of:the-roc( z5r
doves, r415o, 5or
anvil-headed srorks, 56 467; promiscuous, ro, 89,3o7 Coerebidae, ++7,474
dowitchers, r15
apalises,389-9o bristlcbi.lls, 38r colies, r89
Drepunididae,43g, 482
,4qhelocona,47r brisdefronts, 249 Coliidae, I89 dreps,439
Apodidae, r8r brisdeheads, 3o9-ro Colliiformes, r89, 494 Dromadidae, rz7
Apodiformes, r8r, r85 broadbills, u37 Columbidae, r47, 479, 5or
IT drongos,297-9
,NS Apterygiformes, r4 bronze-cuckoos, 163 Columbiformes, r43, r47 duclc, 63-7,487
aracafls,223 brood-parasitism, r 6j, 166, 2251, come ts, r85
Dulidae,34o
Aramidae, ro3 467 condors,6g-7o
arboreal, g brownbulls,38r
conebills, 4419
dynamic soaring, 3r, lj
Ardeidae,5r,5or brush-turkeys, 8r
h Conopophagidre, z5o
Artamidae,3og Bucconidae, zl7
conseruation status, ro E
asities,238 Bucerotidae, zrr,487 cooperative breeding, 4oo eaglcs, 7r-5
1g
astraplas,305 buffalo-weavers, 4o7 eared-nightjrs, r77
coots,918
Atrichornithidae, 267 bulbuls,38r-4, 487 Coraciidae, zo7 earthcreepers,244
at-risk spccies, rr bullfinches, 435 ecological diversiry
Coraciiformes, r95, t99,2ot, zo5l 7
attilas,257 buntings, 455-9, 46r 2O7, 2rt egrets,5rJ
auklets, r4r Burhinidae, rz3 Corcoracidre, zgo elaenias,257
aulo, r4r-z bushbirds,245 cordonbleus,4r3 elephant birds, 482, 484
Australasia,8 bushshrikcs, 129-1o co rm orants, 49--50 Embcrizidae, 455, 487 5or
Australasian region, 4867 bustards, 97, ro9-ro, 487 Coruidae, emberizids, 455-9
7, 3or, 473-4, 5or
Austlrlasian babblers, 289-9o butcherbirds, 3r r-3 con'ids,3ol-4 emeralds, r85
Australasian mudnesters, z9o buttonquail, 83-6,97 cotingas, 25r-3,487 Empidonax,472
Australasian robins, 283-4 buzzards, Tr Cotingidae, z5r, 487, 493
emu-wens,27r-3
Australasian treecreepers, z6j-4 couas, r66 endangered species, ro, rr
Australian chats, 2718r
avadavats,4r3
C coucaLls, r66 endemic species, 8, 493-5
Estrildidae, 4r3, 48o, 487,5or
Cacaruidae, r57, 424, 488 countershading, z5
avian biogcography, 483-95 caching,3o4 coursers, 13r- estrildid fi nches, 413-6
avian distribution, 48j-95 caciques,463-7 courtship displrys, r o, 26, 29, 32, Ethiopian region, 486-7
avian diversiry 46914, 496-5oz Crillaeidae, z9o -56,
ror, 256,4o3 Euphonies, 45r-4
avifauna,488 camaropteras, J89 corvbirds, 463-7, 5ol Eurasian buntings,455
aYocets, r2g--lo Campephagidae,3:r crab-plovers, rz7 Eurasian tits,47z
canaries,435-8 Cracidae, 9r, 487 Eurylamidae,237
B ctrnasteros,244 Cracticidae, jl Eurypigidac, ro7
Capitonidae, 2r9,487 crakes,97 extinct species, 20, 2 g, l8, t27, | 42,
babblers, 289, z9r, 3914oo
cranes! 9z 99-ror t5o, r55, z1z, z8r, 287, z9o , 3o4,
B;Llaenicipitidae, 56, 483 Caprimulgidae, r75, 5or
creepers,263-4 472, 44t, 446, 467, 496, 5oo
bananaquits, 443, 446 Caprimulgiformes, r75
barbets, zr9-zr, 47o, 487 caracaras! 77 crescent-chesrs,249
crrmson-wngst 4r3
J
I
grasslinches,4rj_6 .lacamafs,2rJ_5 mergf,nscrs,67
families, single_specics, grassland birds, rhrerts .Jacanas, rII_3 IIeropidae.:o5
4g 1 to,5oo
ramltv, S,4ZJ_4 grassquits,455 Jacanidae, rrr mesltes, ro5-7,492
lantails,:95 grasslvrens,27r_J jackdarvs,3or
Me sitornirhidae, roz
faunal regions,484_g grebes,2Z_9 a8:
Jaegers, rl7_g meraltails, rg5
hnchbills,38r greenbuls,38r JaYS,Sor-4 Micraeu, zg4
finchs, lJJ. 4rl-6. greedets,472 jewel-babblers,
4JS-4r, 4r5, u 911 mrmrcry 26j, 1ir, 1\7
467, \or griffons, Juncos,45g It{imldre, j57.lS7
Tr
6nfoots, lo5-7 grosbeaks,
435, 46r_z mtners,244
6rcfinches,4r3
hretails,4r3
ground-cuckoos, r67
ground-hornbills, 2rr
K mrntvets,
J2r_2
kagus, ro7 minhs,397
6scirls,3zg ground-rolJers, zo9 kestrels, tnoas,4gz,
famingos,6r_z TT-8 494
ground- thrushes, mobbing behavior,
34r kingbirds,257 rzr
flightless birds, r37,97_8, ground-rpants,257
rso. kingJom,5 ,3sT8,
484! 5oo grouse,8j_7 487
kingfishers. r95_7 a8z
floricans, ro9 Gruidae, gg kinglers, jo5-7 or,487, 493
flowerpeckers, Gruiformes,86,97
4:7_g kites,7r1
flowerpiercers. 99, ro5, roq tchers,295_6
447_9 guaDo,14t 17 kiwis, 13. ro7,48a
tlycrtchers, 295_6, j9_4o, 295
3 147_so.
guano birds,44 klepropuasirism, monjitas,257
467 guans,9r-2, 4r. r3o_9
497 mots. rr5 monogamous breedins.
flying rbility,78, r88, guillemots, r4r ro
a75_o kookaburras, rg5-7 moorhens, gT
lodres,4o7_rr
guineafowl, g7 korhaans, rog
foliage-gleaners, 244 91_5, agz
gulls, 135-0, 5or
toraging fl ocks, mLred_species. r' 472, 487
forest-falcons, H L 487
77 lancebills, r85
forktails, j47 Haematopodidae, rz5. mountain_frnches,435
472 Laniidae.3:7 487
namerkops,56 mousebirds. rg9_9r
lapwings, lo_:r munras,416
murres, I4r
Muscicapidae,34T
llusophagrdae, r59,
487, 491
, 275, mutronbirds,
Jj
leafbirds,3r5_0, mlnas,35r-5
487
leaftossers,244 Myzomela,277
lek breeding, ro, rro,
rg8,4rq
Himantoput, rzg
Hirundinidae,
Leptosomidae,2oq N
377, 48o, 5or lerp, z8r natlve, g
noatzrns. r6g
lily-trotters, rrr Nearctic region,4go_7
honeycreepers.
439_4r, 45r_4 limpkins, roj near-threatened species,
honeydew,2gr tr
linnets,4j5
honeyeaters, :71gr,
4g7 logrunners,:gg
honeyguides, :25_7,
agz Iongbills,39r,
hoopoes,:15 az8
G longclaws,
longspurs,455
4zr
Megapodiidae,
79, a8i
Baeolo2bus wollueberi, 374 Capr imulgu s ridgeuayl t76 Cindora npbus tru ralis, 394
Anhima carnuta,6o
Balaenkeps rex,54 Cardelliaa rubrifront 444 Ciacloso ma castanotut, z9z
.4 a binga mela aoga s le r, 48
Ba/earita regulorum, too Cardinalis sin ua tus, 46o Cinclosona 2uncla/um, z9z
,4nodorblnilut byacin t bin us, r5z
Bartram ia longicauda, 16 Corduelisfommea, 434 Cinclus leucocelbalul 344
lnomaloEiza imberbis, 4oB
Barylbtbengus martii, zoz Carduelis mage/lania, 434 Cinclus mexicanut,344
,4norrhinus ticke//i, zro
Basileuterut be/li, 444 Carduelis nolala,4j6 Cinryri iaclus le utogas ler,
c
353
.4aout stolidut, r34
Culiiala
I us soli ta r i us, 164
ceyloneruis, 346
E Fra ncoli n ut teucostepus, 85
Egretla ?iala, 52 Fra te rc u I a cirrh a t a, t 4o
Cnem o7 h i / u t macgregorii, 3o 6 Cursorius lemmin ckii, r3z
Egretta thila,5z Fratercu la corn it u lata, r4o
Cocco I hra u tet a lbei I lei, 436 Cutia aipalensis,396 Elaenia martinio, z6o Fregata ariel, 4o
Cotra t bra ur tet
oes?ertinus, 434 Cyanerpes cyaneus,453
Elanut leuturus, T3 Fregala magnifceru, 4o
Cotcyzus ameri.canus, t6z C)anocitta slelleri, 3o2
Eleilron urinatum, zoz Fregata minor, 4o
Corclzut ery tbra?tbalm us, t6z Cyanotompsa tyanoidet 46o Elertron platyhyntbun, zoz Fregeila lroPica,36
Cocyzut minor, t6z Cyanocarax cyanomelas, 3oo
Elminia longiauda,294 Fulica alra,96
Coth leariu s coch /earius, 5z Cyanocorat dickeyi, 3oz
Elselornis melanops, rzo N'u/marus glacialis, 34
Cochoa oiridis, 348 cora x m o r i o, 3oo
C.)1 o n o
Emberiza tapensis,458 Furnari us leucolut, z4z
Coeligena torqaala, r84 Cyanocorax m1$acalis, 3oo
Coerebafaoeola, 442 Cyanocorax violaceous, 3oo
Em be riza f a.t ioe n tr i s, 458
Emberiza ia?ctudni, 458
Cola?tes Mm?eslris, 23o Clanotorax ytcas, 3oo Enberiza tahapisi,458 G
Co/a?let ?uNtigula, 228 Clta n ocorax y ucatan i cut, 3oo Gilbahyblncbus leutotis, zr 4
Emblema pictum, 4tz
Co/a?let ru?iilla, 228 Cy an o lan i u s ma daga ari n u s, 332 Calbula dea, zt4
Empidonax (fi.nit 258
sc
I ! e t er op h a s ia Pi a o i d e s, 3L;19
Li b! n ot tan u s Jien dt ut, 27 g M icro h ie rax caeru let cens, 76 Oc e an a dr o m a Jit ca t a, 36
Heleroscelus incanus, tt4 Li he noilom u s fust u s, z7 9 Mim u longitaudatut, 356 Oceanodroma melania, 36
Himanlopus biman loPus, rz9 Lithtnos tom us oersito lo r, z7 9 Minus folyglotros,356 Oceanodroma letbys,36
Himan topus ln udscni, rz9 L i b n e ra in di st i n t ta, z7 9 M i nla rya nouroPtera, 399 Ocrea tus underuoodii, t86
Himantopus mexicanw, tz8 Li n no,lron u t griseus, tt 4 MiraJra apiata,4oz Ory?ha?s la?botet,49
Himalione sanguinea, 44o Lintota ldppanita, u4 MiraJro jaunia, loz Oena capensis, r48
Hirun daPus caudacul us, t9z Lisotis melanogtster, to8 MiraJru saho/a,4oz Oenaa the monticola, 348
Hirundo rustio,378 Loilih ura iailancathorux, 4rz M itrep ha n e t Vha eocerc us, z6o Oeflanthe ?ileata, 348
Hydropha sian u s c hir urgus t rr2 Londu ra puntt ulata, 4t5 Mitu saltini, go Onyc hogn ath u t sa laadorii, 353
Hylatola caula,274 Lophrrra ignita,Sz Mniotilta wria, 444 Onycbo rhlnchu s corono t us, 259
Maloca?teran magn u nl' 396 Mrciaxicola alqina, 259 Otur lenniilttii, r73
lndicator minor zz6
Musophaga roxae, 16o Otus lenpiji, r7o
I ndicator xan tbonotus, zz6 Milacoftila fima, zt6
Myadu les elisabeth, 342 Oxyruncut ristalus, z5z
lred iparra gallinatea, ttz Malatoptild panamensi, zt6
s' 66 M;tadestes genibarbi, Oxyura dominia,65
Irena Vuella,314 Ma la corhlntb us m embro n a ce u 342
Strix uoodJbrdii, t7o Tbp bro d o rn is gu laris, 326 Turdoides bicoloti 399 Vireo modestus, 324
Struthidea cinerea, 288 Te rp s ipb o n e para d is i, zg 4 Turdoidet rubiginosus, 399 Vireo oliaaceus,3z4
Strutbio tamelus, rz hrsina oiridis, 452 Turdus nudigenis, 342 Vireo solilariu, jz4
Sturnella belliosa, 464 Thalasoia antarctica, 34 Ttrdus 4lumbeu, 342 Vireolanius leucotis, 3z 4
Stumelh militari, 464 Tlta I ura a ia furata, r84 Tardus rul|aen tr is, 342 Vultur gry2bus, 68
Stumella neglecta, 466 Tban nopbilu doliatus, 246 Tamir suscilator,85
Sturnus tontra,354 Thaumas/ura cora, t86 Tyra nnu cardifu sciatus, z6o
Sturn us nigriollis, 354
Slurnus sineruis,354
Tberistitus caerulescent, 58
Theris titus caudatus, 58
Tyannut forftatus, 259
Tlrannus saoana, 258
x
Xa ntltot epb a / us xaa tbot epha lus,
Sturnus uulgaris, 354 Tbin ocoru s rumiciqorus, tzz Tyrannus tyrannu,258
466
Sula dac!1latra,46 Tbreskiorn is aethiopicus, 58 Tlto alba, ryz Xema sabini,44
Su/a leatogastel 46 Tbres ki orn is s2inico I I i s, 58 Xen o? iro s I rir xe n o?iro s tr il 332
Sula nebouxii,46
Sula suta, 46
Tbryotborut eisen man r i, 362
Thrlothorut ludooiianut, 362
U Xeno2t rutilans, z4z
Upupa e2o2t, zr4 Xenus cinereus, tt7
Surnia ulula, ry3 Tiaris canora, 456 Ura egin tb rc be ngalus, Xi2 h id iopi u t 2ercus u, zz|
4t5
S/oietta uhytii, 394 Ticbodroma m uraria, 36o
Uraeginth u s gra na t ina, 4t 4 Xi4boteta 2uniea, z5z
Syn t h li bora mpbus an t ig u u s, r4o Tinamus majo4 18 Uraegittbus iailbitogasleti 4r4 Xipbor bync b u sf aa igatter, z 4o
Titya semifariata, z6o Uria aalge,4o Xolmis velato, 258
T Tme to t)ry la c u s te n e Ilu s, 4zo
Urocira erythrorbyncba, 3o3
Thchyb ap t u s notae bollan d ia e, z8
Th cbyci n et a a / b i I in a, 378
Tbckut albolerminatus, zro
Tockut /eutomelat, zto
Uracolius indicus, tgo
Uro I iu s macro u rrs, t9o
Y
e co
Yubina eoeretti,398
Todira mpbu satct u s, tg6
Taclrycineta ryaneoo irid is, 378 Uropsalit lyra,q6 Yubin a zantboleuca, 3gB
Todi roilrum marula t um, 258
Tadorna radjab,66 Urotbraupis ttolzmar n i, 452
Tod u s a tg u t t iro $ ris, tg9
Th en ioplgia b icbenooii, 4rz
field research on the ecology and behavior of birds at the University ofWashington in
Seattle and was a visiting scholar at that universiry's Burke Museum. He has published
dozens of scientific articles and many books. He is the editor of the Tiavellers'Wildlife
Guides series and a connoisseur ofwildlife art, particularly paintings ofbirds. Les and his
wife, Cr.nthia, divide their time befween Seattle and Whidbey Island, Washington.
JoHN srrl
is a veteran freelance wildlife artist. Book credits include Ecuador:
Tratellers'Wildlt; Guide (lnterlink Books, zoo5),About Crustaceans:A Guidefor Children
(Peachtree Publishers, zoo4),Alaska:Zbe Ecotravellers' Wildlife Guide (Academic Press,
zooo), Bey,ontl Bird'uatching: Mare than There Is to Knotu about Birdizg (Peachtree
Publishers, rg93), and A Field Guide to Little-Knoun and Seldom-Seen Birds of North
Arnerica (Peachtree Publishers, 1988). Exhibits include "Birds in Art" and'Art of the
Animal Kingdom."
FRANK KNrcHr isoneofAustralia'spremierwildlifeartists.Bookcreditsinclude
Parrots of the World: An ldentifcation Guide (Princeton University Press, zoo6), Field
Guide to the Birtls afAustralia:Zbe Graham Pizzey and Frank Knight Field Guide (Harper
Collins, zoo5), and A Field Guide to the Mammals ofAustralia (Oxford University
Press, zoor).
BRIA N L is a masterful bird artist, teacher, and nature tour leader. Book credits
sM A L
include Field Guide to the Birds ofEastAfrica (T. &A. D. Poyser and A & C Black, zooz).
He has contributed many color plates to the Handbook of the Birds of tbe World (Ly*
Edicions). He is working on new bird field guides for Africa.
DAVID BEADLB is an experienced bird artist. Book credits include Birds of Chile
(Princeton University Press, zoo3),A Guide to the ldentifcation and Natural History of
the Sparrozus of the United States and Canada (Academic Press, 1996),Tbe Red-Winged
Blackbird (Academic Press, 1996),arrd Warblers of theAmericas:An ldentifcation Guide
(Houghton Miffiin, rgg 4).
DAN LANB is a bird artist, bird tour leader, and research associate at the Museum of
Natural Science at Louisiana State University. He has contributed bird artwork to
scientific publications and books such as Trogons and Quetzals of the World (Smithsonian
Books, zooo) and E cuador: Trauellers' Wildlife Guide, Peru: Travellers Wildlife Guide, and
B ra zi I : Trao e I I e r s' W i I d I ife G u i de (Interlink B ooks, zo o5 ).
llltiiili