Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am

34 (2007) 421–441

Postpartum Hemorrhage
Yinka Oyelese, MD*, William E. Scorza, MD,
Ricardo Mastrolia, MD, John C. Smulian, MD, MPH
Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology,
and Reproductive Sciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey-Robert
Wood Johnson Medical School, Clinical Academic Building, 125 Paterson St,
New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA

‘‘She died in childbirth.’’ These haunting words have echoed throughout

the ages. Hemorrhage probably has killed more women than any other
complication of pregnancy in the history of mankind. Annually, an esti-
mated 150,000 maternal deaths worldwide result from obstetric hemorrhage
[1,2]. The majority of these are from postpartum hemorrhage (PPH). In
countries with less developed medical facilities and limited access to blood
transfusion services, obstetric hemorrhage continues to take a tremendous
toll on women’s lives. In fact, in both Africa and Asia, PPH is the leading
cause of pregnancy-related mortality [1]. During the past century, in the
developed world, maternal deaths resulting from obstetric hemorrhage
have dropped precipitously, mainly because of the advent of blood transfu-
sions, fluid management, coagulation factor replacement, and improved
surgical techniques. A significant proportion of deaths from PPH are poten-
tially preventable. At least one study has indicated that 90% of deaths from
PPH were preventable. Thus, those caring for pregnant women must be
aware of the risk factors for PPH and be prepared to deal aggressively
with this complication when it does occur. This article focuses on the etiol-
ogy, prediction, prevention, and management of PPH.

Definition
PPH traditionally has been defined as blood loss in excess of 500 mL after
a vaginal delivery and 1000 mL after a cesarean delivery. Such traditional
definitions are not that helpful, however, because studies have demonstrated

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yinkamd@aol.com (Y. Oyelese).

0889-8545/07/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ogc.2007.06.007 obgyn.theclinics.com
422 OYELESE et al

that the average blood loss is about 500 mL at a vaginal delivery and 1000 mL
at cesarean delivery [3]. Furthermore, there is consistent evidence that
obstetricians frequently underestimate blood loss at delivery. Using the
traditional definitions, at least one half of deliveries would be categorized
as having PPH. Perhaps a more useful definition of PPH would include
blood loss sufficient to cause symptoms of hypovolemia, a 10% drop in
the hematocrit after delivery or to require transfusion of blood products
[4]. Such loss occurs in approximately 4% of vaginal deliveries and 6% of
cesarean deliveries [5]. The majority of PPH occurs within the first 24 hours
after delivery and is called ‘‘primary PPH.’’ Secondary PPH occurs between
24 hours and 6 weeks after delivery.

Clinical implications
PPH is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. In fact, it is
the leading cause of death in pregnancy worldwide and is second only to
thromboembolic events in Europe and North America. Hypovolemic shock,
blood transfusion and its attendant complications, surgical injury, fever,
renal and hepatic failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome, disseminated
intravascular coagulopathy, loss of fertility, and Sheehan’s syndrome are
among the consequences of PPH.

Relevant physiology
To understand the causes and management of PPH, it is important first
to understand the mechanisms by which excessive blood loss is prevented
during normal pregnancy. Blood flow to the gravid uterus at term is 800
to 1000 mL/min, and large amounts of blood can be lost rapidly. Without
mechanisms to minimize blood loss, maternal exsanguination could occur
rapidly. After delivery of the placenta, the uterus contracts. Because the
myometrial fibers run in different directions, contraction of these fibers
occludes blood vessels, preventing blood loss. This contraction, rather
than formation of clot or aggregation of platelets, is the major mechanism
for hemostasis after delivery. Thus, if the uterus is well contracted immedi-
ately after delivery, and hemorrhage develops, the bleeding is most likely the
consequence of a genital tract laceration or injury. Strategies to treat pri-
mary PPH first must ensure uterine contraction and then identify and repair
any genital tract injuries.

Maternal adaptation during pregnancy

Maternal blood volume expands by 40% to 50% during pregnancy, the
result of a rise in both plasma volume and red blood cell mass. This increased
blood volume to some extent protects the mother from the consequences of
 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE 423

hemorrhage during and following delivery. Thus, following delivery,

a woman may lose up to 20% of her blood volume before clinical signs
become apparent. In volume-contracted conditions such as pre-eclampsia,
women may be more vulnerable to the effects of blood loss at delivery and
may decompensate more quickly.

Risk factors and etiology

Risk factors for PPH are listed in Box 1. A history of PPH in a prior
pregnancy, abnormal placentation, and operative delivery rank among the
most important risk factors [6]. More direct causes of PPH are listed in
Box 2. Essentially, they may be categorized into two groups: those in which
the uterus is not contracted, and those in which it is. By far the most
common cause of early PPH, contributing to approximately 80% of cases,
is uterine atony. If the uterus is contracted, the leading causes of primary
PPH are genital tract trauma and pathologic placentation. Secondary
PPH is caused most frequently by retained products, subinvolution of the
uterus, and uterine infection. Coagulopathy is a relatively uncommon cause
of primary PPH; it typically occurs when one of the other causes already has
produced significant blood loss. The retained dead fetus syndrome,
described in most obstetrics texts, clinically manifests about 6 weeks after fetal
death and is rarely seen in modern obstetrics. Congenital coagulation

Box 1. Risk factors for postpartum hemorrhage

Prior postpartum hemorrhage
Advanced maternal age
Multifetal gestations
Prolonged labor
Polyhydramnios
Instrumental delivery
Fetal demise
Placental abruption
Anticoagulation therapy
Multiparity
Fibroids
Prolonged use of oxytocin
Macrosomia
Cesarean delivery
Placenta previa and accreta
Chorioamnionitis
General anesthesia
424 OYELESE et al

Box 2. Causes of postpartum hemorrhage

Primary causes
Uterine atony
Genital tract lacerations
Retained products
Abnormal placentation
Coagulopathies and anticoagulation
Uterine inversion
Amniotic fluid embolism
Secondary causes
Retained products
Uterine infection
Subinvolution
Anticoagulation

disorders such as Von Willebrand’s disease or specific factor deficiencies (fac-

tors II, VII, VIII, IX, X, and XI) are uncommon individually but as a class of
disorders may be present more frequently than commonly thought.

Uterine atony
Uterine atony may result from overdistension of the uterus, as occurs
with polyhydramnios, multifetal gestations, and fetal macrosomia. Other
causes of uterine atony include the myometrial laxity that is associated
with multiparity, prolonged labor, use of large quantities of oxytocin, toco-
lytic therapy, and general anesthesia.

Genital tract trauma

Upper genital tract trauma most often is the result of uterine rupture,
which may result from separation of a prior cesarean or myomectomy scar.
There also may be bleeding from direct uterine injury at the time of cesarean
birth or through injury of associated vascular structures such as the uterine
artery or broad ligament varicosities. Lower genital tract trauma includes
perineal, cervical, or vaginal lacerations, which may occur spontaneously
or result from episiotomy, obstetric maneuvers, or operative instrumented
deliveries.

Prediction and prevention of postpartum hemorrhage

Perhaps the most important aspect of the management of PPH is its
prediction and prevention. In all pregnant women, early in pregnancy,
 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE 425

a detailed history should be taken to determine whether or not the patient

has risk factors for PPH (see Box 1). In addition, the patient should be ques-
tioned regarding any religious beliefs that may lead to the patient’s declining
blood transfusions. Any history of heavy menses or bleeding abnormalities
should be noted carefully. In all women, especially those who have identified
risk factors, anemia should be corrected before delivery.
Women identified as being at risk should be delivered at a center with
facilities for blood transfusion and with properly trained obstetric and anes-
thesiology personnel. Prolonged labor should be avoided if at all possible.
Any anticoagulation agents used during pregnancy should be stopped
before the onset of labor. Large-bore (at least 18-gauge) intravenous cathe-
ters should be inserted when labor is established. Patients having protracted,
difficult labors and those who have intrapartum intraamniotic infection also
should be considered at risk of PPH. Immediately following delivery of the
placenta, uterotonic agents should be given and uterine massage performed
to minimize the chance of bleeding from uterine atony. The active manage-
ment of the third stage has been shown to reduce the risk of PPH. Fluid
replacement should be timely and adequate. The Joint Commission on
Accreditation of Health care Organizations recommends that regular clini-
cal drills be conducted to enhance the management of PPH [7]. In addition,
there is evidence that training of health care personnel on estimating blood
loss improves the accuracy of blood loss estimation [8].

Personnel in management of postpartum hemorrhage

The basic principles of PPH management involve relieving the causative
factors (especially surgically correctable injuries) and prompt replacement of
intravascular volume, blood, and coagulation factors as needed. Perhaps the
most important aspect in the management of PPH is the attitude of the
attendant in charge. It is critical to maintain equanimity in what can be
a chaotic and stressful environment. Confusion and paralysis of assistants
may result if too many orders are given at once and are not directed to spe-
cific individuals. Assistants should be designated with specific tasks; instruc-
tions should be clear, distinct, and brief. Only support staff with a crucial
role should be in the room. An excessive number of well-meaning individ-
uals increases the ambient noise, adds to confusion, and opens the door
to communication errors. The newborn infant should be removed from
the room by nursery personnel, and it usually is appropriate to have any
family members who are present accompany the infant. In massive PPH,
it is important to inform and mobilize all necessary staff. These personnel
include the most experienced obstetrician and anesthesiologist available,
the operating room staff, nursing staff, the hematologist/blood bank staff,
critical care/intensive care staff, and, where available, interventional radiol-
ogy personnel. Finally, having a readily available obstetric hemorrhage
procedure tray that contains all the instruments that could be needed for
426 OYELESE et al

the management of PPH along with personnel familiar with the instruments
may help improve outcomes [9].

Initial therapy
Prompt recognition of excessive bleeding after delivery is crucial. A
healthy woman may lose 10% to 15% of her blood volume without
a drop in blood pressure [4]. The initial finding is a very modest increase
in pulse rate. By the time her blood pressure drops appreciably, the woman
frequently has lost at least 30% of her blood volume. Thus, depending on
vital signs alone to make a diagnosis of PPH, or to determine its severity,
may be misleading. Initial therapy should be aimed at simultaneous aggres-
sive fluid and blood replacement to maintain adequate circulating volume
and direct treatment of the cause of the hemorrhage. Several wide-bore
intravenous catheters should be inserted, and aggressive volume replace-
ment should be commenced.
The first interventions should be directed toward ensuring that the uterus
is contracted. Often uterine contraction can be achieved initially by biman-
ual compression. Manual exploration of the uterus should be performed to
ensure that there are no retained secundines. The bladder should be emp-
tied, and uterotonic agents should be administered. If the uterus is well
contracted, the lower genital tract (cervix and vagina) should be examined
carefully to determine whether there are any lacerations. This examination
requires good exposure, adequate lighting, good pain relief, and a competent
assistant. This often is best done in an operating room. If genital tract
trauma is identified, and the uterus is well contracted, these lacerations
should be repaired promptly. It is important to keep up with volume
replacement.

Medical treatment of postpartum hemorrhage

Medical treatment of PPH comprises two main categories: (1) medica-
tions that cause uterine contraction, and (2) medications that promote coag-
ulation or correct abnormalities of coagulation. This discussion focuses, for
the most part, on uterotonic medications that promote uterine contraction.

Medical therapies that cause uterine contraction

Oxytocin
Oxytocin is the most common medications used to achieve uterine
contraction and thus is the first-line agent for prevention and treatment of
PPH [4]. It may be administered intramuscularly or intravenously. The par-
enteral dose is 10 mg. Oxytocin generally is well tolerated and has few side
effects, but rapid intravenous push may, rarely, contribute to hypotension.
Oxytocin also is commonly administered by an intravenous infusion of 10
 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE 427

to 20 units in 1000 mL of lactated Ringer’s solution, with the infusion rate

titrated to achieve adequate uterine contraction. Oxytocin, a nonapeptide
produced in the neurohypophysis, has biologic similarity to antidiuretic hor-
mone; therefore large doses administered with large volumes of fluid may re-
sult in water toxicity.

Ergot alkaloids
Ergot alkaloids such as methylergonovine rapidly induce strong tetanic
uterine contractions. They also have been used widely as first-line agents
in the prevention and treatment of PPH [4]. They may be given orally or
parenterally. In cases of PPH, the intramuscular route is the route of choice
with dosages of up to 0.2 mg. These medications may cause significant rapid
elevation of the blood pressure and thus are contraindicated in patients who
have hypertension or pre-eclampsia. Except in very unusual circumstances,
intravenous use should be avoided.

Prostaglandins
The 15-methylated prostaglandin F2a analog carboprost is a potent
uterotonic agent that has a long duration of action. It may be administered
in a 250-mg dose intravenously, intramuscularly, or injected directly into the
myometrium. The dose may be repeated every 15 to 20 minutes up to a total
of 2 mg, although a single dose is effective in most patients. Increased doses
up to 500 mg can be used if the initial 250-mg doses are ineffective. This
prostaglandin agent may cause bronchoconstriction and elevation in blood
pressure and therefore is contraindicated in asthmatics and patients who
have hypertension. It also has significant gastrointestinal side effects and
may cause diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting as well as fever.
Misoprostol, an inexpensive, relatively new prostaglandin E1 analog, is
used in obstetrics primarily for cervical ripening and induction of labor. It
is a potent uterotonic and has been used for both the prevention and treat-
ment of PPH. Meta-analyses have found that misoprostol is less effective
than ergot alkaloids and oxytocin in the prevention of PPH and that miso-
prostol has more side effects [10–12]. Studies, however, have found that
misoprostol is highly effective in the treatment of PPH caused by uterine
atony [13–16]. Misoprostol may be administered by the oral, vaginal, or rec-
tal route [17]. The typical dosage for the treatment of PPH is 400 to 1000 mg
[14,17]. Side effects include diarrhea and fever.

Surgical therapy
Surgical therapies may be divided into four groups: (1) those that
decrease blood supply to the uterus, (2) those that remove the uterus, (3)
those aimed at causing uterine contraction or compression, and (4) those
that tamponade the uterine cavity.
428 OYELESE et al

Surgical techniques the reduce uterine blood flow

Uterine artery ligation
Uterine artery ligation is one of the easiest and most effective surgical
measures for controlling PPH refractory to initial attempts to control the
bleeding. This technique is particularly useful when excessive bleeding
occurs during cesarean section. A large curved needle with an absorbable
#1 suture is directed anterior to posterior through the myometrium, approx-
imately 1 to 2 cm medial to the broad ligament. The suture then is directed
posterior to anterior through a cleared avascular space in the broad liga-
ment close to the lateral border of the uterus and tied. The suture may be
passed from posterior to anterior if doing so facilitates an easier
approach. The suture usually is placed at the level of the internal cervical
os (which lies at the junction of the corpus and the lower uterine segment)
but, depending on ease and safety, may be placed higher or lower. The tech-
nique is a mass ligature, and the uterine artery does not have to be dissected
or mobilized. Personal experience supported by the literature has proven
efficacy in 75% of cases of severe PPH [18–20]. Successful pregnancy follow-
ing uterine artery ligation can be expected [21].
A few case reports have described a vaginal approach to uterine artery liga-
tion [22,23]. In this technique, an anterior colpotomy is created, the bladder is
reflected cephalad, and caudad traction is placed on the cervix with sponge
forceps. Traction on the cervix is maintained in a direction contralateral to
the side on which the uterine artery ligation is to be performed. The uterine
artery then is ligated at the insertion into the uterus [22,23]. Ureteral injury,
bleeding, and hematoma formation are potential complications that have
raised concerns about the safety of the operation [24]. The abdominal
approach is performed under direct visualization, has a documented low com-
plication rate, a high success rate, and a large amount of literature supporting
its validity, making it the approach of choice.

Ovarian artery ligation

The anastomosis of the ovarian vessels with the uterine vessels can be li-
gated near the insertion of the utero-ovarian ligament. Alternatively the
ovarian artery can be ligated directly between the medial margin of the
ovary and the lateral aspect of the fundus in the area of the utero-ovarian
ligament. A stepwise combination of unilateral and then bilateral ligatures
starting with the uterine artery and working to the ovarian vessels can be
an orderly and effective strategy [25].

Hypogastric artery ligation

Ligation of the internal iliac (hypogastric) artery should be performed
only by an experienced surgeon who is familiar with pelvic anatomy and,
most importantly, with the retroperitoneal course of the ureters. In the
United States this procedure is performed less often than in the past [4],
 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE 429

perhaps because the procedure is more complicated and requires more time
than uterine artery ligation, has potential serious complications, and, if not
successful, may delay recourse to hysterectomy [26]. This procedure, how-
ever, is effective in perhaps two thirds of cases in which a woman wishes
to maintain her fertility [27,28]. If this procedure fails, it is important to pro-
ceed quickly to more definitive therapy (ie, hysterectomy) [29].
Several approaches can be taken to access the retroperitoneal space to
locate the anterior division of the internal iliac artery. The round ligament
can be divided, the area between the infundibulopelvic ligament and the round
ligament can be incised, direct incision into the posterior peritoneum can be
performed, with care taken to avoid the ureters, and a primary retroperitoneal
approach can be employed. The ureter is reflected medially, the areolar tissue
in the retroperitoneal space is dissected away carefully, and the branching of
the common iliac artery into its external and internal branches is identified.
The internal iliac artery should be grasped with a Babcock clamp and gently
elevated. Then a large silk suture is passed beneath the artery about 2 to
3 cm distal to the bifurcation where the anterior division of the hypogastric
artery is located. Only a blunt-tipped instrument such as a Mixter clamp
should be used to avoid a disastrous puncture of the vessels, especially the in-
ternal iliac vein. The tip of the clamp should be passed in a medial-to-lateral
direction to reduce further the likelihood of vessel injury. The suture is tied,
but the artery is not divided. It is preferable to ligate the anterior division
because ligation may decrease the amount of collateral flow that can ensue
to the area of distribution; however, this vessel is not always readily obvious.

Surgical techniques that remove the uterus

Hysterectomy
Hysterectomy is required in the management of PPH in approximately
1 in 1000 deliveries [30,31]. The procedure should be reserved for cases in
which other measures have failed, and the American College of Obstetri-
cians and Gynecologists recommends that if hysterectomy is performed
for uterine atony, there should be documentation of first attempting other
therapies [4]. In most cases of suspected placenta accreta, however, hyster-
ectomy should be the primary management, especially when the woman
does not desire future fertility [32]. Seventy percent of peripartum hysterec-
tomies follow cesarean delivery, with the remaining 30% performed after
vaginal delivery. In the past most hysterectomies were performed for uterine
atony. Now, however, the increasing frequency of placenta accreta associ-
ated with the dramatic rise in the rate of cesarean sections has made morbid
placental adherence the most common indication for peripartum hysterec-
tomy [31–35]. Even in the modern era, maternal mortality associated with
emergency peripartum hysterectomy can be as high as 5% [35,36].
The technique of peripartum hysterectomy is similar to that performed in
gynecology, but the vascular changes of pregnancy demand a significantly
430 OYELESE et al

modified technique. The blood flow to the uterus is tremendous, and minor
errors acceptable in gynecologic surgery may lead to a life-threatening situ-
ation in an obstetric hysterectomy. There is considerable potential for injury
to adjacent structures, particularly the ureters and bladder. The precise tech-
nique used depends on whether the surgery is performed with a stable
patient or in one who is rapidly losing massive quantities of blood. In the
first situation, it is good practice to keep pedicles small and ensure that
they are carefully and doubly ligated. The engorged and edematous tissues
that exist following delivery can cause vessels tied within large pedicles to
slip and retract, which may lead to massive bleeding. In the latter, more
emergent situation, rapid control of blood loss calls for quick clamping
and cutting until the bleeding is controlled or the uterus is removed. Only
when hemostasis is secured are the pedicles tied off. The risk of injury to
adjacent structures is greater when hysterectomy is performed rapidly in
a blood-filled field. Urinary tract injuries complicate 5% to 22% of peripar-
tum hysterectomies, with the bladder being the most frequently involved
structure [37,38]. Tissue malacia can develop, particularly in cases of
placenta accreta, rendering a wet-cardboard consistency to the uterus and
parametria. In cases of suspected placenta accreta, placenta previa with
prior cesarean sections, or other cases in which there is a high probability
of hemorrhage, preoperative placement of a three-way Foley catheter con-
nected to a bladder-irrigation infusion can be useful in identifying injuries
to the bladder. The drainage port can be clamped, and an infusion into
the catheter of sterile saline containing indigo carmine or sterile milk at
room temperature is commenced. A temperature difference will be noticed
between the bladder and adjacent structures. Injury may be detected by ob-
serving fluid or dye leaking into the operative field. Distending the bladder
also helps define tissue planes between the uterus, bladder, paravesical, and
parametrial areas. The authors have found large, noncrushing angulated
Glassman intestinal clamps invaluable because they prevent the tearing
into pedicles that often occurs with crushing clamps. These clamps can be
placed along almost the entire length of the lateral margin of the uterus, pro-
viding uterine traction, compressing the uterine vessels, and providing
a stopgap measure while bleeding is assessed and hemostasis is being
achieved. If a ureter is grasped in this clamp inadvertently, a crush injury
is much less likely to ensue than when crushing clamps are used [39].
Because the cervix frequently is involved with a complete placenta previa,
total hysterectomy generally is the operation of choice; however, supracer-
vical hysterectomy may be preferable, especially when the bleeding is caused
by uterine atony, when removal of the cervix is not essential for hemostasis,
or when there is difficulty maintaining the patient in stable condition. The
cervico-vaginal junction can be identified either by placing a finger through
the uterine incision and hooking the finger between the cervical rim and the
vaginal wall or by palpating the upper vagina, pinching to palpate the
cervix.
 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE 431

Surgical techniques that cause uterine compression

The B-Lynch stitch and other uterine compression sutures
In 1997 Christopher B-Lynch and colleagues first reported an innovative
approach to the surgical management of PPH in a series of five patients [40].
This surgical technique is based on the principle that a contracted uterus
does not bleed. The suture is sometimes referred to as the ‘‘brace suture’’
because of its resemblance to trouser suspenders. The B-Lynch suture
aims at compressing the uterus in women in whom bimanual compression,
administration of uterotonic agents, and other early interventions have
failed. Following their initial report of the technique, B-Lynch and associ-
ates, and others, have published several reports documenting wide success
in stopping uterine hemorrhage and preventing hysterectomy [41–45]. This
technique is performed most easily at the time of cesarean section. It
requires that the uterine incision be reopened. Following vaginal delivery,
a laparotomy must be performed, and the lower uterine segment must be
opened through a transverse incision. The technique begins using a rapidly
absorbable suture on a large, curved needle, taking a bite approximately
3 cm medially from the lateral margin of the uterus and 3 cm below the
inferior edge of the uterine incision [46]. The needle then exits about 4 cm
from the lateral margin of the uterus and 3 cm above the superior edge of
the uterine incision. The suture is drawn over the serosal surface of the
fundus and then down the posterior aspect of the uterus to the level of
the uterine incision on the opposite anterior wall. A horizontal bite is taken,
entering and exiting 3 to 4 cm from the lateral margins of the uterus. Next
the suture is drawn back over the serosal surface of the fundus, down the
anterior wall, and a bite is taken 3 cm from the superior edge of the uterine
incision and 4 cm from the lateral margin. The needle exits 3 cm below the
inferior edge, approximately 3 cm from the lateral margin. The suture is tied
firmly, compressing the uterus directly. Initial reports suggested that the
procedure was safe and associated with no significant morbidity. Subse-
quently, however, there have been reports of severe uterine necrosis, infec-
tions, and other complications following this technique [47–49]. Erosion
of the suture through the uterine wall into the cervical canal also has been
described [50]. The B-Lynch suture is best used for PPH resulting from uter-
ine atony; the successful use of this technique in controlling PPH associated
with placenta previa accreta also has been described [51]. Successful term
pregnancies following the B-Lynch technique have been reported [52,53].
Similar compression techniques have been described by Ouahba and col-
leagues [54], Cho and colleagues [55], Ghezzi and colleagues [56], and Hay-
man and colleagues [57]. The hemostatic suturing technique of Cho and
colleagues [55] often is referred to as ‘‘box’’ suturing [55]. In this procedure
the anterior and posterior uterine walls are sutured together so that the
space in the uterine cavity is eliminated. At an arbitrary point in an area
of heavy bleeding, a straight needle with an absorbable suture is passed
432 OYELESE et al

through the anterior wall of the uterus, exiting on the serosal surface of the
posterior wall. The needle is reinserted several centimeters lateral to the exit
in the posterior wall and is drawn right through the uterus to the serosal sur-
face of the anterior uterine wall. The needle then is redirected 2 to 3 cm
above the second exit point, from anterior to posterior as described previ-
ously. The suturing is completed by passing the needle 2 to 3 cm to the
side of the previous exit point through the uterine walls and tied securely,
forming a box. Several of these sutures can be placed from the fundus to
the lower uterine segment, as needed. Cho and colleagues [55] reported
success with this technique, avoiding hysterectomy in 23 women who had
not responded to other conservative methods. These authors and others
also noted a return to normal fertility in women treated by this technique
[55,58]. A case report has described the formation of uterine synechiae
following this procedure [59].
Hayman [57] reported a technique that combined modifications of both
B-Lynch and Cho techniques and employed compression by suturing the
anterior and posterior walls of the uterus. In this method, which has the
advantage of not requiring that the uterus be opened after vaginal delivery,
the needle is passed from the anterior wall through the posterior wall about
2 cm medial to the lateral margin of the uterus. The suture then is tied over
the fundus. Four such sutures are placed, two on each lateral border of the
uterus. In addition, isthmic-cervical compression sutures can be placed
below the bladder reflection by driving a #2 absorbable suture on a straight
needle anterior to posterior and then reinserting the needle 2 cm medially
posterior to anterior and tying the suture. An instrument such as a clamp
can be placed between the areas to be sutured to ensure patency of the cer-
vical canal [57].

Techniques for uterine tamponade

A variety of techniques have been used to tamponade the uterine cavity.
These techniques include uterine packing [60], the umbrella pack, the Seng-
staken-Blakemore balloon, and a variety of other adapted balloons and
packs. Some obstetricians have used a large, inflated Foley catheter [61].
Condous and Arulkumaran [62] described the use of the tamponade test
to determine whether an intrauterine balloon would be effective in the man-
agement of PPH and to select patients who required further surgery. The
Sengstaken-Blakemore tube, with the stomach end cut off, was inserted
into the uterine cavity and then inflated with 75 to 150 mL of saline. If
bleeding stopped after inflation of the balloon, the woman was considered
not to require further surgery. Seror and colleagues [63] used an intrauterine
Sengstaken-Blakemore tube inflated with 250 mL of saline in 17 women who
had PPH that had not responded to conventional conservative therapy.
Hemorrhage was controlled in 71% of cases, and further surgery was
avoided in 88% of cases [63]. A similar technique using a Rusch urological
 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE 433

hydrostatic catheter, which can be inflated with 500 mL of saline, has been
used successfully to manage PPH refractory to conventional therapies
[64,65]. In a variation of this technique, Bakri and colleagues [66] developed
a commercially available balloon for use in the management of PPH. These
authors claim that the balloon may be used successfully in the management
of hemorrhage caused by placenta previa.
Uterine packing also has been used successfully in controlling PPH in the
past but is used infrequently in more modern obstetrics [60,67–70]. Nonethe-
less, the technique may be very effective in stopping postpartum bleeding
and avoiding hysterectomy. The packs generally are removed 24 to 48 hours
after delivery.

Pelvic pressure packing

In 1926, Logothetopulos described a pelvic pressure pack also known as
a mushroom, umbrella, or parachute pack for the control of PPH [71]. This
pack is filled with gauze swabs and is inserted in the pelvis with the stalk
passing out into the vagina. Gravity traction is applied to the end of this
stalk, thereby pressing the pack against the pelvic vessels. This technique
is rarely used today but may have a role in massive hemorrhage that has
not to responded to other therapies [71,72]. Occasionally, when all else
has failed, packing the pelvic cavity with swabs in bags at laparotomy
with enough pressure to tamponade bleeding vessels and closing the abdom-
inal incision is effective in stopping hemorrhage. The patient may be reop-
erated on in 24 to 48 hours to remove the sponges. This procedure carries
significant risks including infection and bowel ischemia/infarction.

Uterine artery and internal iliac artery embolization

Embolization in obstetrics was described first for the control of intracta-
ble PPH [73]. The procedure, performed by an interventional radiologist,
now is used widely in obstetrics and gynecology. Numerous reports have
documented the efficacy of this technique in controlling life-threatening
PPH [74–81]. In the most common approach, the femoral artery is catheter-
ized, and the catheter is passed under fluoroscopic guidance into the anterior
branch of the internal iliac artery or into the uterine artery. These catheters
may contain balloons at their tips, which may be inflated to occlude blood
flow to the uterus. An occlusive material then is injected under fluoroscopy
until arterial flow to the uterus ceases. Typical embolic agents include
absorbable gelatin sponge and clear acrylic microspheres. Side effects and
adverse reactions include inadvertent embolization of collateral structures
leading to necrosis and gangrene, allergic reactions, and renal impairment.
Embolization requires a skilled interventional radiologist and some degree
of stability in the patient. The catheters may be placed prophylactically in
the radiology suite in patients at risk of severe hemorrhage such as those
who have placenta accreta. In general, it is considered best to wait to
434 OYELESE et al

embolize vessels until after the fetus is delivered. Embolization also may be
performed as an emergent procedure in the operating room, using a C-arm.
There have been numerous reports of successful subsequent pregnancies
after uterine or internal iliac artery embolization, although these patients
may be at risk of intrauterine growth restriction or recurrence of hemor-
rhage [79,82].

Special situations
Magnesium sulfate
Women who have received prolonged therapy with magnesium sulfate for
seizure prophylaxis in pre-eclampsia or for tocolysis may be at increased risk
for PPH caused by uterine atony. This type of PPH may not respond well to
usual pharmacologic therapies. Should hemorrhage occur in these situa-
tions, any remaining magnesium sulfate infusions should be stopped, and
calcium carbonate can be administered, which may help the myometrium
contract. Seizure prophylaxis can be resumed later if the mother has been
stabilized and there is no further bleeding.

Uterine inversion
Uterine inversion occurs in approximately 1 in 2000 deliveries and gener-
ally is the result of overenthusiastic attempts to deliver the placenta by cord
traction or fundal pressure before complete placental separation. Inversion
of the uterus may lead to massive postpartum hemorrhagic shock. The
condition is treated by aggressive fluid/blood replacement and uterine
replacement. A variety of techniques have been used to replace the uterine
fundus. These include manual replacement and the use of hydrostatic pres-
sure. Uterine replacement may require general anesthesia and uterine relax-
ant agents.

Morbid adherence of the placenta

Morbid adherence of the placenta (placenta accreta/increta/percreta) is
an increasingly common cause of severe PPH and has become the leading
cause for peripartum hysterectomy [33]. Typically the placenta does not
separate following the delivery, and attempts to separate it are accompanied
by torrential hemorrhage. A multidisciplinary team approach has the poten-
tial to reduce morbidity and mortality [32]. The key to a good outcome lies
in prenatal diagnosis and planned delivery in a center with good blood
transfusion services [32]. Placenta accreta should be suspected in any patient
who has had a prior cesarean and who has a low-lying placenta or placenta
previa. The diagnosis can be made sonographically based on the following
findings: (1) prominent echolucent vascular spaces in the placenta giving
it a ‘‘Swiss-cheese’’ appearance; (2) thinning of the placenta-myometrial
 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE 435

border; (3) protrusion of the placenta into the bladder; and (4) abnormal
turbulent Doppler flow in the vascular spaces and on the surface of the
bladder [83]. It is recommended that no attempts be made to separate the
placenta [32]. The uterus should be opened through a fundal incision and
hysterectomy performed with the placenta in situ. Embolization of the
uterine or internal iliac vessels after delivery of the baby and before the hys-
terectomy may reduce blood loss greatly [32].

Transfusion therapy
The first documented successful transfusion of human blood was
performed by James Blundell in 1825 for a woman dying from PPH [84].
His interest in blood transfusion had been stimulated when he attended
a woman who died from PPH 7 years before [84]. Since that first experience,
transfusion of blood has been a critical component of life-saving resuscita-
tion in PPH.
Recommendations for transfusion based on laboratory values and
changes in vital signs alone are reasonable in a nonpregnant bleeding
patient, but the obstetric patient experiencing rapid heavy blood loss that
cannot be stemmed is subject to sudden decompensation and exsanguina-
tion. Hypovolemic shock, defined as poor tissue perfusion associated with
hypoxia, first must be treated with replacement of vascular volume. Crystal-
loid solutions such as Ringer’s lactate are readily available, inexpensive, and
easily administered. Crystalloids should be administered as a volume three
times the estimated blood loss, because they have a lower oncotic pressure
than plasma and rapidly leave the vascular tree to the extravascular space.
Although colloids have a higher oncotic pressure and can be administered
in less volume, there is little difference in clinical response, and postresusci-
tation diuresis is better with crystalloids. Life can be sustained, temporizing,
by keeping the circulating volume replete and the cardiac pump primed.
Whole blood is rarely used for transfusion, but it has several advantages.
It contains all the coagulation factors. In urgent situations, uncrossed
O-negative blood may be administered. Type-specific blood is preferable.
Packed red blood cells (PRBCs) are the primary transfusion product used
to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity. A typical volume of about
300 mL is mixed with normal saline before infusion. Diluting PRBCs with
Ringer’s lactate can cause calcium to precipitate with the citrate used as
a preservative in stored blood. A single unit of PRBCs can be expected to
raise the hemoglobin and hematocrit by 1 g and by 3%, respectively, in
a nonbleeding patient.
Fresh-frozen plasma is a secondary transfusion product indicated mainly
in states of coagulopathy or with massive transfusion. It comes in 250-mL
units and contains all the coagulation factors, especially fibrinogen. One
unit will raise the fibrinogen level by 10 mg/% in a nonbleeding patient.
It is reasonable to consider transfusing 1 unit of fresh-frozen plasma to
436 OYELESE et al

every 4 units of PRBCs in an actively bleeding patient, but the clinical cir-
cumstances guided by fibrinogen level, prothrombin time, and activated
partial thromboplastin time should dictate the amount transfused.
Cryoprecipitate is a tertiary transfusion product that contains as much
fibrinogen as a unit of fresh-frozen plasma but in a volume of only about
15 mL. It also contains factor VIII, factor XIII, and von Willebrand’s fac-
tor. It also will raise the fibrinogen level about 10 mg/% per unit. Its main
indication for transfusion is in a hemorrhaging patient who is volume
replete but has low fibrinogen levels. A large amount of fibrinogen can be
administered in a small volume using cryoprecipitate.
Platelets also are a tertiary transfusion product and are administered to
heavily bleeding patients who have thrombocytopenia. Platelets are stored
at room temperature on an oscillator in the blood bank and have a short
shelf life of 3 to 5 days. Blood banks preferably issue single-donor platelets
with a volume of about 300 mL. A unit of single-donor platelets raises the
platelet count by 30,000 to 60,000 in a nonbleeding patient. Platelet packs,
which usually consist of 6 units, are less preferred because of the increased
risk of developing platelet antibodies and blood-borne infection, but the vol-
ume and increase in platelet count are similar. The goal of platelet therapy is
to stimulate coagulation and maintain a platelet count of 50,000 to 100,000.
Developments in the field of transfusion medicine have led to new prod-
ucts that hold promise now and in the future. Human recombinant activated
factor VII (rfVII) has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) for treatment of bleeding associated with hemophilia A and B and
congenital factor VII deficiency. Case reports are accumulating describing
successful use of rfVII in the control of life-threatening hemorrhage after
other standard measures have failed [85–87]. It has been successful in stop-
ping hemorrhage in cases of amniotic fluid embolus, disseminated intravas-
cular coagulopathy, placenta previa, placenta accreta, uterine atony, and
hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets syndrome. The dose
of rfVII has varied from 16.7 to 120 mg/kg. A review of the literature
suggests that a dose of 70 to 90 mg/kg could be sufficient to stop 75% of
cases of refractory PPH [88]. Factor VII interacts with tissue factor at
a site of vascular injury; this interaction activates factors X and IX, leading
to a burst of thrombin that in turn leads to a functioning fibrin clot. Platelet-
dependant clotting mechanisms also are stimulated by rfVII [85,89]. It must
be remembered that although rfVII seems to be very promising for treat-
ment of PPH, it is an off-label use, complications have been reported, and
the actual incidence of complications in the setting of obstetric hemorrhage
is unknown. Documented complications include thrombosis, disseminated
intravascular coagulation, and myocardial infarction [90]. The pharmacy
costs of rfVII may be as high as several thousand dollars for a dose of 70
mg/kg.
Blood substitutes have been in development for more than a decade, and
some have been approved for use overseas and in veterinary medicine.
 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE 437

Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers have been prepared from various sour-

ces; at present the most promising are derivatives of either bovine hemoglo-
bin or outdated human packed red blood cells. Hemopure, produced by
Biopure Corporation of Cambridge, Massachusetts, polymerizes hemoglo-
bin obtained from a specially managed herd of cattle into long chains that
resist filtration in the kidney. It has been approved for use in South Africa
for use in general surgery. Its complementary veterinary product, Oxyglo-
bin, has been approved by the FDA and is in current use in the United
States for canine transfusion. Polyheme, developed by Northfield Laborato-
ries, Evanston, Illinois, another erythrocyte-free hemoglobin under trials, is
the product of cross-linked polymers of human hemoglobin. The potential
advantages of these products are a shelf life of about 1 year, lack of need
for cross matching, and decreased risk for the development of antibodies
to red blood cell surface membrane antigens. Potential risks include vascular
reactivity resulting in increased systemic and pulmonary artery pressure and
neurotoxicity. The newer generation of polymerized hemoglobins has not
caused the nephrotoxicity associated with earlier preparations.
An alternative approach to deliver oxygen to the tissues without red
blood cells involves perfluorocarbon emulsions. Oxygent is one such prod-
uct developed by Alliance Pharmaceutical subsidy San Diego, California.
The perfluorocarbon is mixed with lecithin and buffer salts and then is ho-
mogenized. When a high concentration of oxygen (70%–100%) is inspired,
the oxygen is dissolved in the infused perfluorocarbon emulsion. The oxygen
is not carried as with hemoglobin derivatives, but the dissolved oxygen is
able to diffuse into tissues. As with hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers,
this product does not require cross matching, does not carry risk of anti-
bodies developing against antigens in the red cell membrane, can be stored
at room temperature on the floor, and has a longer shelf life than banked
blood. There has been concern about cerebral vascular events with this
product. It is retained in the reticuloendothelial system and can result in re-
ticuloendothelial suppression. Lowering of the platelet count also has been
noted. Another potential disadvantage is its short half-life of about 12 to 24
hours [91].
These innovative products may have a role in the future, but at present
none are approved for clinical use in humans in the United States. It may
take several years before any of these products is perfected and gains
FDA approval.

Summary
The incidence of PPH can be reduced drastically by anticipation and
preventive measures. When PPH does occur, the resulting morbidity and
mortality can be prevented in most cases by early recognition and aggressive
and appropriate management.
438 OYELESE et al

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