Report Carter Centre-Countering Islamophobia
Report Carter Centre-Countering Islamophobia
Report Carter Centre-Countering Islamophobia
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About The Carter Center
The Carter Center was founded in 1982 by former
U.S. President Jimmy Carter and his wife, Rosalynn,
in partnership with Emory University, to advance
peace and health worldwide. A not-for-profit,
nongovernmental organization, the Center has
helped to improve life for people in 80 countries by
resolving conflicts; advancing democracy, human
rights, and economic opportunity; preventing
diseases; and improving mental health care. Please
visit www.cartercenter.org to learn more about
The Carter Center.
I have watched with concern the unprecedented whose communities have suffered oppression
rise of anti-Muslim hate crimes and hate speech. and discrimination.
From surveillance and imprisonment, with In September of 2017, The Carter Center
fewer procedural safeguards against anti-Muslim convened an international symposium of scholars,
legislation, Muslims have been subjected to journalists, civil society actors, and religious leaders
discriminatory and unconstitutional practices. to develop a strategic and sustainable response
Such actions not only infringe on the freedom of to Islamophobia. We concluded that all people
Muslims to practice their faith, but also marginalize of good will have a responsibility to speak out
them as engaged citizens. and hold accountable those who seek to divide
Respect for human rights and the elimination us by derogating others. We must use the laws
of discrimination are essential to advancing global that enshrine human and civil rights to combat
peace and democracy. When we turn a blind eye Islamophobia as they have been used to combat
to discrimination against our Muslim neighbors, other forms of discrimination.
we cannot claim to remain true to our American It is The Carter Center’s mission to wage peace,
values, and if we tolerate discrimination against fight disease, and build hope for all people. In
those of another faith, we undermine our own this guidebook we offer strategies, best practices
cherished religious freedom. and toolkits to fight the spread of Islamophobia
None of us can ignore the challenge that rising and to build a culture of respect for universal
Islamophobia presents to our nation. We must human rights.
resolve to fight fear and abuse with solidarity and
a commitment to justice — especially for those
4
Introduction
Hate crimes in the United States against Muslims condemnation. It is the constant not-so-random
or people who look as if they may be Muslim are stops at airport checkpoints. It is the recently
at an all-time high. According to the Southern renewed travel ban. It is FBI surveillance and
Poverty Law Center, from 2015 to 2016 the policing of the Muslim community. It is when
number of anti-Muslim hate groups in the U.S. merely speaking Arabic is mistaken for an
grew 197 percent and anti-Muslim hate crimes
surged 67 percent. From January to July 2017,
there were 63 attacks on mosques.
In June 2017, Nabra Hassanen, a 17-year-old Islamophobia is not a Muslim problem, but an affront
Virginia girl walking back to her community
mosque after visiting IHOP with her friends, was to our common humanity. It is a fundamental violation
attacked and killed. The month prior, two men of human rights and human dignity.
on the commuter train in Portland, Oregon, were
stabbed and killed after trying to defend two young
women in Muslim garb who were being harassed.
Unfortunately, the list goes on much longer. extremist threat. It is asking Muslims to apologize
Since 9/11, Islam has been unfairly demonized for crimes they did not commit. It is calling for a
and Muslims stigmatized. Muslim youths in the Muslim registry. It is a politician assuring worried
West have grown up scrutinized, shamed, and voters that former President Obama is not a
bullied because of their religion. During the 2016 Muslim but is in fact “a very nice man” — as if the
U.S. electoral campaign, Islamophobic rhetoric two were mutually exclusive.
was an accepted form of bigotry used to spread Islamophobia is not a Muslim problem, but an
fear and garner votes. Anti-Muslim bigotry in the affront to our common humanity. It is a funda-
United States draws upon a significant network of mental violation of human rights and human
funding. The surge in anti-Muslim violence came dignity. It is deeply interconnected with racism,
amid a year marked both by Daesh (aka ISIS) xenophobia, and other forms of dehumaniza-
atrocities and by Islamophobic political rhetoric. tion, often serving those who seek to maintain
Yet the most numerous victims of Daesh have prevailing power structures. Responding to
been Muslims. Muslims are thus beset by both the Islamophobia is vital and a moral responsibility for
hijacking of their religion by groups such as Daesh policymakers, civil rights advocates across religious,
and the rise of Islamophobia. racial, and ethnic lines, and interfaith movements
Islamophobia is more than harsh talk; it is and organizations.
a systemic and institutional form of racism. It
is the silencing of Muslim voices. It is selective
5
Experts Symposium Discussions on The views expressed in the articles of this publi-
Countering the Islamophobia Industry cation are those solely of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the opinions of The Carter
Developing effective responses to the rise of
Center.
Islamophobia has been at the core of the Carter
Center’s project to prevent violent extremism
The Islamophobia Industry in Focus
since its inception. The Center believes that
extremism knows no religious, national, or ethnic Islamophobia is not just an arbitrary and unin-
boundaries. Daesh and Islamophobia are two formed fear of Muslims. Islamophobia is, in large
faces of the same coin, and combating one means part, the function of an anti-Muslim industry,
combating the other. Both portray the West and a well-funded and well-connected network of
the entire Muslim community as being fundamen- individuals (Pamela Geller, David Horowitz),
tally divided along existential fault lines. And both institutions (American Freedom Law Center,
are wrong. Jihad Watch, the Clarion Institute), and donors
In September 2017, the Center convened a (Sheldon Adelson, the Bradley Foundation).
three-day Countering the Islamophobia Industry Historically, Islamophobia is rooted in colo-
Symposium, bringing together 30 international nialism and coalesces around religion only as
practitioners and scholars on Islamophobia, media, antiquated notions of biological determinism and
and political violence. Discussions centered cultural incompatibility lose their persuasive force.
on three major themes: 1) manifestations of It is deployed as a political tactic, peaks in the
Islamophobia and its impact on the ground; 2) public discourse during election cycles, and serves
the symbiotic relationship between Islamophobia to silence and stigmatize Muslim voices, particu-
and radicalization; and 3) strategic and sustainable larly as they claim their rights and speak on behalf
responses to Islamophobia in the U.S., Europe, and of their own interests in the public sphere.
the Muslim world.
The articles in this guide are organized themati- Islamophobia as Law and Policy
cally: “The Islamophobia Industry in Focus” Islamophobia is far more than simply hate speech.
examines the complex of actors, networks, and It is most dangerous when embedded in civil and
institutions that make the Islamophobia industry judicial structures that unfairly stigmatize Muslims
function. “Islamophobia in Law and Policy” distin- in the name of national security. Fear of terrorism
guishes between Islamophobia as mere anti-Muslim has been used as a political device to justify
sentiment and the laws and policies embedded flagrant violations of civil and human rights.
in state institutions that unjustly target and stig- From surveillance, arbitrary arrest and deten-
matize Muslim communities, often in the name tion with fewer procedural safeguards to the mass
of national security. “Countering Islamophobia hysteria surrounding the so-called encroachment of
in the Media” examines the role of mainstream Shari’a law into American courts, Western Muslims
media in perpetuating negative images of Muslims have been at the receiving end of many discrimina-
and inciting discrimination, whose interests this tory practices led by the security apparatuses of
serves, and what we can do about it. Many of their respective countries. Such actions have not
our symposium experts are grass-roots actors and only infringed on the ability of Muslims to freely
community leaders, and their contributions are practice their faith, but have also sought to margin-
divided into two sections. The first, “Grass-Roots alize them as participants in their societies.
Perspectives,” describes the contours and effects of The papers in this section examine the rise of
Islamophobia in and on local communities. The aggressive securitization tactics and the long-term
second, “Developing a Sustainable and Strategic consequences of such policies, the relationship
Response to Islamophobia,” reviews several case between law enforcement and Islamophobia, and
studies of effective responses, offering a toolbox for effective ways to balance national security with
those engaged in combating Islamophobia. civil liberties.
Orientalist representations of Islam and Muslims Voices from the Ground II: Developing
have permeated the media and pop culture. As the
a Sustainable and Strategic
towering scholar of Islamophobia in the media,
Response to Islamophobia
Jack Sheehan, observed, Muslims are too often
reduced to the “three B’s”: billionaires, bombers, Continuing in the essential task of listening,
and belly dancers. This history has created an the papers in this section highlight the often
image of Muslims laden with crude and exagger- innovative efforts of grass-roots activists to
ated stereotypes that have provided the illusion of develop strategic and sustainable responses to
the “Muslim threat” and ideological justifications Islamophobia. Topics include the state of play in
for military incursions. countering Islamophobia, and the toolbox needed
The papers in this section examine the interplay for a better and stronger response. Religious and
of culture, politics and media. It is imperative community leaders must be engaged citizens,
that local Muslim leaders shift their roles from using interreligious collaboration, including public
passive consumers of media to active producers campaigns and advocacy, education initiatives, and
of their own stories. Complex opportunities and shared battles for social justice, in the long-term
challenges exist for Muslims navigating through fight against Islamophobia. Intersectional and
media spaces and alternative platforms, such as intercommunity approaches are critically impor-
citizen journalism and participatory media. Our tant for a pragmatic and long-term solution to all
authors explore mediated resistance, the relation- forms of violent extremism. Many papers in this
ship between online and offline activism, and manual conclude with recommendations on how
how alternative media can be used for social sustainable and strategic approaches can be skill-
change — specifically, strengthening grass-roots fully theorized and implemented in practice.
organizations and sustaining solidarity among local
communities. Conclusion
The manual concludes with an essay from Ebrahim
Voices from the Ground I: Rasool, former South African ambassador to the
Grass-Roots Perspectives United States, who reflects on the lessons learned
It is important to understand the histories, strate- from South Africa’s anti-apartheid struggle. Rasool
gies, groups, narratives and policies that fuel argues that defeating Islamophobia means recog-
Islamophobia, but it is perhaps more important to nizing it as a part of a larger family in a “genealogy
listen to diverse Muslim communities that experi- of bigotry” that includes fear and ignorance,
ence it and resist in ways large and small. The prejudice and discrimination, racism, sexism, and
epidemic of Islamophobia in the U.S. and Europe anti-Semitism. Rasool writes that “the leadership
has very real consequences for Muslims, impacting of South Africa resisted the temptation to monop-
their lives in a myriad of ways. olize or elevate their suffering under Islamophobia
Muslim women college students in the United out of respect for the greater scale and depth of
Kingdom, for example, avoid sensitive political suffering of black South Africans under racism
topics and are less likely to engage in politics for and mineworkers from other African states under
fear of being labeled as terrorists and potentially xenophobia.” The struggle for justice must be an
surveilled. Muslim students in the U.S. are regu- inclusive one, because — to paraphrase Dr. Martin
larly bullied, at times called ISIS and terrorist. Luther King Jr. — dignity, equality and freedom
Muslims in France are closely monitored, and denied to one group is a threat to all.
For the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), It is often assumed the 9/11 terrorist attacks
the first step in combating hate is education, and launched this movement, but that is not exactly
part of that responsibility is learning about hatred’s the case. The seeds of some of today’s major anti-
main purveyors. America’s anti-Muslim movement Muslim organizations were planted in the years
is a relatively new phenomenon, with many such after the terrorist attacks, but mass activism against
Muslims didn’t really develop until 2010, in the
wake of the battle over the so-called “Ground
Anti-Muslim Groups 2010-2016 101
Zero” mosque, purposely labeled in this incendiary
way by its Muslim-bashing opponents. That year,
a planned Muslim community center, Cordoba
House, modeled on Jewish community centers
and to be situated in lower Manhattan, set off a
firestorm among conservatives. Examples include
former American vice presidential candidate Sarah
Palin calling the project, which was not on the site
36 36 34 but near the site of the fallen World Trade Center
30
24 towers, “an intolerable mistake on hallowed
ground.” Many other conservatives expressed the
same sentiment, such as former House Speaker
5
Newt Gingrich, who decried the project as “an act
of triumphalism.”
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 After the outrage on the right and on media
such as Fox News that erupted over the commu-
nity center, anti-Muslim activism grew across the
groups appearing only in the aftermath of the country. A campaign to stoke fears of Muslims
World Trade Center terrorist attacks on Sept. 11, and push anti-Muslim legislation, in particular
2001. That is not to say that anti-Muslim bigotry anti-Shari’a law measures, was launched. As part
did not exist in earlier eras, as it surely did along of this anti-Muslim propagandizing, hate groups
with hatred against black people, Jews, Catholics, argued that Muslims were attempting to overthrow
immigrants and others. However, the development the U.S. democratic system by insinuating their
of a sophisticated network whose ire is directed own legal structures into the country and thereby
specifically at the Muslim community is quite undermining constitutional protections. (This is a
recent. completely bogus argument.) By 2017, according
8
to the Haas Institute at U.C. Berkeley, the total system, Shari’a law. The threat of the Muslim
number of such legislative efforts added up to 217 Brotherhood is also cited, with anti-Muslim groups
bills in 43 states. A handful of states, including constantly attacking Muslim civil rights groups
Texas and Arkansas, have made the bills law.1 and American Muslim leaders for their supposed
At the same time, anti-Muslim groups began to connections to the Brotherhood. Many of these
expand, while securing political allies at the state groups have pushed for the Brotherhood to be
and federal level for their efforts. By 2017, with designated a foreign terrorist organization.
President Donald Trump in the White House,
these groups had access to the halls of power, both
in the White House and in Congress.
This growing anti-Muslim agitation in the Muslims are viewed as a fifth column intent on
United States propelled the rise of these hate
undermining and eventually replacing American
groups. The SPLC found a troubling growth in
anti-Muslim groups between 2015 and 2016, when democracy and Western civilization with Islamic
they went from 34 hate group chapters to 101 despotism, a conspiracy theory known as
in one year. Another rise is expected in 2017.
Largely, this precipitous jump was propelled by the
“civilization jihad.”
campaign and then election of President Trump,
who demonized Muslims during the campaign
and moved quickly to pass a ban on refugees from Anti-Muslim hate groups also broadly defame
Muslim-majority countries once in office (as Islam, which they tend to treat as a monolithic
of early 2018, the ban is tied up in the courts). and evil religion. These groups generally hold
Trump’s endorsement of hate group ideas and that Islam has no values in common with other
bigotry against Muslims both in the campaign and cultures, is inferior to the West and is a violent
since he took office fueled these organizations and political ideology rather than a religion. In 2017,
led to their growth. anti-Muslim rallies put on by ACT! for America
For the SPLC, anti-Muslim hate groups featured members of other American extremist
exhibit extreme hostility toward Muslims. The movements, including white supremacists, neo-
organizations portray those who practice Islam as Nazis and armed militiamen. This represents a
fundamentally alien and attribute to its followers growing radicalization of the entire American hate
an inherent set of negative traits. Muslims are movement against the Muslim population.
depicted as irrational, intolerant and violent, and As the Syrian refugee crisis exploded in 2015
their faith is frequently depicted as sanctioning and 2016, the movement as a whole also became
pedophilia, coupled with intolerance for homo- more aggressive against these newcomers to our
sexuals and women. shores, as anti-Muslim groups have increasingly
These groups also typically hold conspiratorial directed their ire toward the American refugee
views regarding the inherent danger to America program. Refugees are commonly depicted as likely
posed by its Muslim-American community. terrorist infiltrators by these organizations. Small
Muslims are viewed as a fifth column intent on anti-refugee groups have popped up across the
undermining and eventually replacing American country and fought the relocation of refugees at a
democracy and Western civilization with Islamic hyper-local level, sowing anti-refugee discord in
despotism, a conspiracy theory known as “civiliza- towns like Twin Falls, Idaho.
tion jihad.” Anti-Muslim hate groups allege that This growing anti-Muslim bigotry and agitation
Muslims are trying to subvert the rule of law by has come at a steep price for MASA (Muslim,
imposing on Americans their own Islamic legal Arab, and South Asian) communities: increasing
1 Elsadig Elsheikh, Basima Sisemore, and Natalia Ramirez Lee, “Legalizing http://haasinstitute.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/haas_institute_legalizing_
Othering: The United States of Islamophobia,” September 2017, Haas othering_the_united_states_of_islamophobia.pdf, last accessed Feb. 20,
Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Society, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 2018.
2 2016 Hate Crime Statistics, FBI, https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2016, last 3 Hate Crime Victimization, 2004-2015, Bureau of Justice Statistics, June
accessed Feb. 20, 2018. 2017, https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/hcv0415.pdf, last accessed Feb.
20, 2018.
4 I am grateful to Dr. Houda Abadi, Nancy Azar, Annie Sharif, Anthony Backlash: The Attack on the Palestinian Movement and Other Movements
Byrd, and rest of the Carter Center team for facilitating my participation for Justice, March 2015, http://www.ijan.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/
in the Islamophobia conference. I also wish to thank Jaime Veve, Saliem IJAN-Business-of-Backlash-full-report-web.pdf. Hereafter: The Business of
Shehadeh and two blind reviewers for their valuable feedback. Backlash.
5 My use of the term Zionist and Zionism should not be misunderstood as 7 The Arab and Muslim Ethnicities and Diasporas (AMED) Studies,
a code word for Jews, Jewishness or Judaism. I am referring to the political the General Union of Palestinian Students (GUPS), student and faculty
ideology that was launched at the end of the 19th century to create Israel advocates for justice in/for Palestine and I have been a recurrent target of
as a Jewish state in Palestine. Zionists then do not have to be Jewish. the Israel lobby industry. This included sanctioning GUPS in 2002; placing
Indeed, Christians United for Israel, for example, supports Israel as an a moratorium on the Palestinian mural in 2006; canceling searches for our
exclusive Jewish state and justifies its colonial rule, occupation and racism faculty positions in 2009 after Palestinian students hosted an event that
against the Palestinian. Such policies were evident in the recent Israeli army discussed BDS; accusations of terrorist links, anti-Semitism and misuse
deployment of 100 snipers across the Gaza blockaded borders. These Israeli of university funds in 2014; a petition campaign against a cooperation
snipers killed 20 and injured over 1,400 Palestinians, mostly refugees, who agreement I initiated between SFSU and An-Najah National University, a
were protesting peacefully and demanding their right of returns. leading Palestinian university; four wanted-style posters accusing me and
6 International Jewish Anti-Zionist Network (IJAN), The Business of other students and faculty of terrorism and “Jew Hatred”; a lawsuit; and
continuous harassment and bullying campaigns.
14
structural fear-mongering, including Islamophobia, must be seen as integral to and an extension and
anti-Arab and anti-Palestinian racism and all forms development of the institutionalization of the
of racism and racial discrimination. Islamophobic European state-building projects.
Islamophobia is rooted in and integral to
Islamophobia: Structural, European colonial and settler colonial projects.
Historical and Systemic Thus, the emergence and development of white
supremacy, particularly (but not exclusively) in
Before I discuss the Israel lobby industry and its
North America, is institutionally structured and
intimate relation to the Islamophobia industry, let
me offer a conceptual framework for understanding
Islamophobia, the phenomenon under consider-
ation. Islamophobia is not a random, incoherent, The intent of the Islamophobia/Israel lobby industry is
accidental, or ahistorical set of incidents that anti- to create an immutable impression of Arab and Muslim
racist advocates conspiratorially stitch together
under one rubric out of paranoia or in order to (including Palestinian) societies that are static, forever
center Muslim concerns above and beyond other stuck in social and cultural fixity and are therefore an
urgent and pressing issues. Rather, Islamophobia
exception to other societies that are assumed to be
must be seen an institutionalized, structural, and
systemic war on Muslim people and anyone who dynamic and constantly undergoing social change.
is seen as associated with Islam, Muslimness, and
Muslim issues. As such it constitutes a systemic
form of racism and racial discrimination.
ideologically drawn from the cynical interpretation
Indeed, framing Islamophobia as part and
of the Bible to justify the genocide of indigenous
parcel of structured racism and racial discrimina-
nations, the kidnapping and enslavement of
tion eliminates the misperception that combating
African people, and the colonization of Africa and
Islamophobia, anti-Arab and anti-Palestinian
Asia. By the same token, attributing the creation
racism belongs to the basket of special-interest
of the State of Israel, as an exclusivist Jewish state
issue that only concerns Arabs and/or Muslims.
that is built at the expense of the Palestinian
This would be as absurd as suggesting that racism is
people, to a God-given command is an equally
the property of black people, anti-Semitism is the
cynical claim that erases the just demands of the
sole concern of Jewish people, or that only women
Palestinian people to self-determination while
need to worry about sexism and sexual harassment.
undermining the historical and contemporary
Islamophobia is also not a new phenomenon;
struggle against anti-Semitism.
its historical roots can be traced to the European
Islamophobia is also conceptually rooted in
Crusades in the 11th to the 13th centuries (1095-
the paradigm of Orientalism9 that constructs an
1291) and the expulsion of Muslim Arabs and
East/West binary in which the “West” defines the
Africans from Andalucía in the late 15th century,
“East” as the opposite of and inferior to its self-
where 1492 becomes an important historical
perception. Assuming binaries of “savagery” versus
marker.8 This period witnessed two other related
“civilization,” “modernity” versus “medievalness,”
developments that continue to impact the world
“backwardness” or “prehistoric,” the discourse of
today — the inquisition against Andalucían
the “clash of civilizations”10 is deliberately invoked
Sephardic Jews and the beginning of the settler-
by Islamophobes to be subconsciously consumed
colonial project in the Western Hemisphere.
by the public at large and internalized by colonial
The settler-colonial project in the Americas
subjects who reproduce demeaning and humiliating
8 See Ramón Grosfoguel and Eric Mielats, “The Long-Durée Entanglement Society 9 no. 2 (2007): 148-161.
between Islamophobia and Racism in the Modern/ Colonial/ Capitalist/ 9 Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, NY: Pantheon Books, 1978).
Patriarchal World-System,” Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology
10 See Samuel Huntington, The Clash of the Civilizations and the remaking
of Self-Knowledge 5, no. 1 (2006): 1-12; Junaid Rana, “The Story of
of the World Order (Touchstone, 1996).
Islamophobia,” Souls - a Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and
11 Rabab Abdulhadi, Evelyn Alsultany, and Nadine Naber, “Introduction,” 13 Lila Abu-Lughod, Do Muslim Women Need Saving? (Cambridge, MA:
Arab and Arab American Feminisms: Gender, Violence and Belonging Harvard University Press, 2013).
(Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2011): xix-xxxix. 14 The Business of Backlash, 4.
12 Rabab Abdulhadi, “Tread Lightly: Teaching Gender and Sexuality in the 15 Ibid.
Time of War,” Journal of Women’s History, Vol. 17 No. 4 (2005): 154-158.
16 Rania Khalek, “Leaked emails show donors drive Hillary Clinton’s 20 Ibid., 8.
pro-Israel positions,” The Electronic Intifada, October 13, 2016, https:// 21 Jewish Telegraph Agency, “Adelson raises $20 million to fight Israel
electronicintifada.net/blogs/rania-khalek/leaked-emails-show-donors-drive- boycotts,” The Times of Israel, June 10, June 2015, https://www.timesofisrael.
hillary-clintons-pro-israel-positions. BDS is the international campaign com/adelson-raises-20-million-to-fight-israel-boycotts/; Nathan Guttman,
for Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions of Israel launched in 2005 by over “Secret Sheldon Adelson Summit Raises up to $50M for Strident Anti-BDS
170 Palestinian civil society organizations to pressure Israel to abide by Push,” Forward, June 9, 2015, https://forward.com/news/israel/309676/
international law and end its colonial rule over Palestinian lands and it secret-sheldon-adelson-summit-raises-up-to-50m-for-strident-anti-bds-
violations of Palestinian rights. push/
17 Aiden Pink, “U.S. Jewish Leader Ronald Lauder Gave $1.1 Million to 22 TOI Staff, JTA and AP, “Adelson set to give over $100 million to
Covert Group Pushing anti-Muslim campaign,” The Forward, April 6, 2018, Israel-supporting Trump,” The Times of Israel, May 14, 2016, https://
https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/ronald-lauder-gave-1-1-million-to- www.timesofisrael.com/adelson-set-to-give-over-100-million-to-israel-
group-pushing-anti-muslim-campaign-1.5977658 supporting-trump/.
18 “Cambridge Analytica, Trump and 50 Million Facebook Accounts: What 23 Michael Brown, “Settler leaders find warm welcome in Trump’s
You Need to Know,” Haaretz, March 20, 2018, https://www.haaretz.com/ Washington,” The Electronic Intifada, January 24, 2017, https://
world-news/cambridge-analytica-trump-and-facebook-what-you-need-to- electronicintifada.net/blogs/michael-f-brown/settler-leaders-find-warm-
know-1.5918231 welcome-trumps-washington.
19 Ibid., 9. 24 Loveday Morris, “U.S. ambassador breaks with policy: ‘I think the
settlements are part of Israel’,” The Washington Post, September 29, 2017, The Israeli Prime Minister’s rating among Democrats is an even worse
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/09/29/u- 20% to 63%. James Zogby, “New Poll on American Alltitdes Toward the
s-ambassador-breaks-with-policy-i-think-the-settlements-are-part-of- Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Huffpost, accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.
israel/?utm_term=.ce8a66f12c16; Josefin Dolsten, “Meet the Jews in the huffingtonpost.com/james-zogby/new-poll-on-american-atti_b_515835.
Trump administration,” The Times of Israel, January 28, 2017, https://www. html. In their Brookings Institution survey in October and November of
timesofisrael.com/meet-the-jews-in-the-trump-administration/ 2016, Shibley Talhami and Rachel Stattery, observe increasing erosion of
25 The Pew Research Center on U.S. politics and policy found (January US support for Israel, including an almost 60% support among Democrats
23, 2018) found that support for Israel has dropped from 45% in 1978 to for the imposition of sanctions on Israel for its settlements. Shibley Telhami,
38% today, Pew Research Center, “Democrats about as likely to sympathize “American attitudes on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,” Brookings, December
with Palestinians as with Israel,” January 22, 2018, http://www.people-press. 2, 2016, https://www.brookings.edu/research/american-attitudes-on-the-
org/2018/01/23/republicans-and-democrats-grow-even-further-apart-in- israeli-palestinian-conflict/
views-of-israel-palestinians/012318_2/. The poll also found a wide divide 26 JPost.com Staff, “Poll: Israel Viewed Negatively Around the World,” The
between Republicans and Democrats where close to 79% of Republicans Jerusalem Post, May 17, 2012, http://www.jpost.com/National-News/Poll-
supported Israel compared with only 27% among Democrats. The gap Israel-viewed-negatively-around-the-world
becomes much wider among the youth. While 56% of US citizens ages 65 27 Building a Political Firewall Against Israel’s Delegitimization: Conceptual
years and older sympathizing with Israel and only 13% with Palestinians, Framework, The Reut Institute, March 2010, http://reut-institute.org/data/
the rate drops to 32% in favor of Israel and 23% support for Palestine uploads/PDFVer/20100310%20Delegitimacy%20Eng.pdf.
among the 18 to 29 age group, according to analysis of the same Pew
28 Judy Maltz, “Young American Jews Increasingly Turning Away From
poll in the American Conservative, Daniel Larison, “U.S. Public Opinion
Israel, Jewish Agency Leader Warns,” Haaretz, January 22, 2018, https://
on Israel and Palestine,” The American Conservative, January 24, 2018,
www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-jewish-agency-chief-warns-young-
http://www.theamericanconservative.com/larison/u-s-public-opinion-on-
u-s-jews-more-turned-off-to-israel-1.5751616.
israel-and-palestine/. In an article in Huffington Post, James Zogby argued
that in 2009 71% of Americans had a favorable view of Israelis with only 29 See my talk at the annual conference of the Washington Report on
21% rating them unfavorably. In 2010 the favorable/unfavorable ratings Middle East Affairs http://israellobbyandamericanpolicy.org/transcripts/
have shifted to 65%–29%. This is largely due to a significant drop among Rabab_Abdulhadi.html and my statement criticizing SFSU President Leslie
Democrats who now hold a 42% favorable, 49% unfavorable view of Israelis. Wong’s welcome of Zionists to our campus https://www.facebook.com/
rabab.abdulhadi/posts/10155388256458123.
30 Please see my articles, Rabab Ibrahim Abdulhadi, “The spirit of ’68 lives 34 Rabab Abdulhadi, Rabab, interviewed by the Editors, “Resisting the
on! Palestine advocacy and the indivisibility of justice,” Mondoweiss, July New McCarthyism: Rabab Abdulhadi discusses AMCHA’s smear campaign,
14, 2017, http://mondoweiss.net/2017/07/palestine-advocacy-indivisibility/, Palestinian Resistance, and the U.S. Solidarity Movement.” Solidarity, July 21,
and “The Spirit of ’68 Lives On: Zionism as racism, and the network of lies,” 2014. http://www.solidarity-us.org/site/node/4220
Mondoweiss, July 21, 2017, http://mondoweiss.net/2017/07/spirit-zionism- 35 “David Horowitz,” Southern Poverty Law Center, accessed December
network/ 1, 2017, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/
31 Daniel Mael, “SFSU Professor Met with Terrorists Tied to American david-horowitz
Death on Taxpayers’ Dime,” Truth Revolt, May 27, 2014, https://www. 36 Ibid. See also, “Pam Geller,” Southern Poverty Law Center, accessed
truthrevolt.org/news/sfsu-professors-met-terrorists-tied-american-deaths- December 1, 2017, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/
taxpayers-dime. individual/pamela-geller; “Robert Spencer,” Southern Poverty Law Center,
32 “Jewish Community Letter in Support of Prof. Rabab Abdulhadi,” accessed December 1, 2017, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/
International Jewish Anti-Zionist Network, July 1, 2014, http://www.ijan. extremist-files/individual/robert-spencer
org/uncategorized/jewish-community-letter-in-support-of-prof-rabab- 37 Daniel Mael, “SFSU Professor Met with Terrorists Tied to American
abdulhadi/. Death on Taxpayers’ Dime,” Truth Revolt, May 27, 2014, https://www.
33 Stop the Jew Hatred on Campus, “The Top Ten Schools Supporting truthrevolt.org/news/sfsu-professors-met-terrorists-tied-american-deaths-
Terrorists: Fall 2016 Report,” Horowitz Freedom Center, October 5, 2016, taxpayers-dime.
http://www.stopthejewhatredoncampus.org/news/top-ten-schools- 38 Callum Paton, “Richard Spencer Demands Respect on Israeli TV, Says
supporting-terrorists-fall-2016-report; Stop the Jew Hatred on Campus, Jews are ‘Overrepresented’,” Newsweek, August 8, 2017, http://www.
“Posters Targeting Hamas and BDS Supporters.” Horowitz Freedom Center, newsweek.com/richard-spencer-demands-respect-israeli-tv-says-jews-are-
October 3, 2016, http://www.stopthejewhatredoncampus.org/news/images- overrepresented-651739
freedom-center-posters-targeting-hamas-and-bds-supporters-fall-2016
39 Charlotte Silver, “Senate approves bill seen as threat to campus propaganda from Pamela Geller,” Southern Poverty Law Center, October 2,
criticism of Israel,” The Electronic Intifada, December 4, 2016, https:// 2017, https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2017/10/02/can%E2%80%99t-
electronicintifada.net/blogs/charlotte-silver/senate-approves-bill-seen- we-talk-about-more-anti-muslim-propaganda-pamela-geller
threat-campus-criticism-israel-0 42 “AMCHA and Jewish Organizations Write President Wong about
40 Mahmood Mamdani, “Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: A Political Professor Abdulhadi and SFSU Faculty Event Condoning Terrorism,”
Perspective on Culture and Terrorism,” American Anthropologist 104, no. 3 AMCHA Initiative, Scholars for Peace in the Middle East, Simon Wiesenthal
(2002): 766-775. Center Campus Outreach, Zionist Organization of America, March 26, 2014,
41 Hatewatch staff, “Can’t We Talk About This? More anti-Muslim http://www.amchainitiative.org/amcha-and-jewish-organizations-write-
Recommendations
As a recurrent target of the Islamophobic • Reject all old and new McCarthyism that
Israel lobby industry that seeks to dismantle seeks to silence, intimidate, and bully those
the academic program I have built, destroy the who speak up for justice in Palestine and
international collaboration it has with a premier anywhere else
Palestinian university, and erase the legacy of • Insist that justice for/in Palestine is part and
social justice of San Francisco State University, parcel of the indivisibility of justice
my recommendations to combat structural fear
mongering — including Islamophobia, anti- • Demand open and transparent account-
Arab and anti-Palestinian racism and all forms ability and demystify the opaqueness of the
of racism and racial discrimination — are the Islamophobia and Israel lobby industries
following: • Audit the nonprofit status of groups that utilize
• Treat Islamophobia and anti-Arab and anti- tax shelters to hide their financing of founda-
Palestinian discrimination as we treat all tions, religious institutions and Islamophobic
forms of racism and racial discrimination — as and racist groups
structural, systemic, and licensed by official and • Support the building of institutions of knowl-
dominant discourses and policies edge production that place justice at the center
• Reject attempts to construct Islamophobia of their project
and anti-Arab and anti-Palestinian racism as • Support scholars under attack and protect
either exceptional or special interest issues universities as sites of learning and critical
but confront them with the same seriousness thinking, challenging the intimidation and
that we confront white supremacy, racism, and dependence on private funding that makes
anti-Semitism institutions of higher education accountable to
• Reject the cynical use of anti-Semitism to private corporations instead of public funding
equate criticism of Israel and advocacy for • Encourage, support, and fund academic
Palestinian rights as anti-Semitism and disen- exchanges between U.S. and international
tangle the erroneous equation that assumes institutions of higher learning, especially in
that Israel, Jewishness, and Zionism are one Arab, Muslim and Palestinian communities
and the same
Far from being an irrational fear of Islam and or groups of actors. Contemporary Islamophobic
Muslims, Islamophobia is a contemporary form of discourse corresponds to this first characteristic
racism. Racist social relations have gone through since it works by homogenizing two groups:
historical mutations, allowing them to adapt to Muslims and others. The diversity and contradic-
changes in contexts and power relations. Racism tions within these two groups are masked, as are
appeared as an ideological accompaniment to the the similarities between them.
conquest of the New World, then to slavery and • This social relationship is unequal; in other
colonization. Racism as a social relationship first words, it ranks the two groups, justifying differ-
took a biologist form before being forced to mutate entiated treatment, i.e., treatment that applies to
into a culturalist form, and today into culturalism one but not the other. By looking with suspicion
with a religious tone. After quickly going over the at Muslims, who are seen as homogeneous,
history of racist social relationships, the second contemporary Islamophobic discourse legitimizes
part of this essay will discuss the material factors exceptional surveillance and monitoring prac-
that explain the emergence and development of tices for a part of the national community.
this new historical form of racism. The third part
will be devoted to the consequences of the devel- • The social function of the social relationship is
opment of Islamophobia in our world. to justify unequal treatment, namely a distribu-
tion of privileges to one and discrimination to
Racism is a Historical Reality the other. One of the effects of contemporary
Islamophobic discourse is increasingly unequal
One of the most satisfactory definitions of racism access to the market for scarce resources
is the one offered by Albert Memmi: “Racism is (employment, education, housing, etc.) due to
the generalized and final assigning of values to real being stigmatized as a “dangerous Muslim.”
or imaginary differences, to the accuser’s benefit
If Islamophobia corresponds to Memmi’s
and at its victim’s expense, in order to justify the
definition of racism as a social relationship, it was
former’s own privileges or aggression.”47 Starting
preceded by other forms as a function of contexts
from this definition, we can highlight the essential
and power relations. Although relations between
traits that allow Islamophobia to be characterized
human groups prior to our contemporary era have
as a new historic form of racism and not simply a
included unequal relationships, these relationships
fear of Islam.
did not become systemically widespread until the
• Racism is first of all a social relationship, in process of exiting feudalism and the industrializa-
other words, a relationship between two actors tion of old Europe took place. The economist Eric
23
Williams has abundantly documented the links of biologism and its replacement by a new form
between slavery and “amassing the capital that of racism: culturalism. According to Fanon, the
financed the industrial revolution.”48 Although discredit of biologism after the Nazi episode, then
elements of racist ideology could be found in the after the discovery of colonial crimes, required
preindustrial era, it was only with industrializa- racism to change form. As the racist point of view
tion that racism transformed into a system that could no longer be supported by the idea of abso-
structured the relations between the different lute biological difference, it was thereafter based
continents and their populations. The first global- on the assertion of the existence of absolute differ-
ization brought with it racism as an ideology that ences of a cultural nature:
The vulgar, primitive, over-simple racism
purported to find in biology, the Scriptures
The first globalization brought with it racism as an having proved insufficient, the material basis of
the doctrine. It would be tedious to recall the
ideology that justified the dispossession, violence and
efforts then undertaken: the comparative form
exploitation of slavery and then of colonization. of the skulls, the quantity and the configuration
of the folds of the brain, the characteristics of
the cell layers of the cortex, the dimensions of
justified the dispossession, violence and exploita-
the vertebrae, the microscopic appearance of
tion of slavery and then of colonization.
the epiderm, etc. [...] These old-fashioned posi-
The first historical form of racism was biolo-
tions tend in any case to disappear. This racism
gism, which is the dual assertion of the existence
that aspires to be rational [...] becomes trans-
of distinct and classified “human races.” Biological
formed into cultural racism. “Occidental values’
inequality was put forward as a justification for
oddly blend with the already famous appeal to
unequal socio-racial relations. Over more than
the fight of the “cross against the crescent’.50
four centuries of slavery and almost one century
of colonization, the ideal of the natural superiority These remarks by Fanon highlight not only the
of the white man deeply permeated slave-holding transition from biologism to culturalism but also,
and colonial societies. Such a heritage does not ominously, the possibility for this culturalism to
disappear on its own even when the conditions be built up from religious institutions. We believe
that gave rise to it disappear. The imagination and that, in this way, Islamophobia is a variation on
collective unconscious of former slave-holding and cultural racism centered on religious institutions.
colonial societies are still marked by this heritage. It is no longer cultures in general that are ranked,
As Marx pointed out, “Men make their own but religions. This is the reason why traces of
history, but they do not make it as they please; Islamophobia can be found in colonial historical
they do not make it under self-selected circum- narratives. However, this Islamophobia of the past
stances, but under circumstances existing already, is interwoven with a broader culturalist discourse.
given and transmitted from the past. The tradition Islamophobia emerges as a system strengthened
of all dead generations weighs like a nightmare on by previous forms of racism (biologism and cultur-
the brains of the living.”49 So long as no real work alism) only in a contemporary way.
has been done to deconstruct the legacies of the
past, racist social representations inherited from Contemporary Islamophobia’s
the past remain available and can be revived and Process of Emerging
updated for contemporary purposes.
Although mentions of the existence of an
Frantz Fanon aptly explains the obsolescence
“Islamophobia” can be found in the texts of
48 Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery [Capitalisme et esclavagisme], 50 Frantz Fanon, Racisme et Culture: Pour la Révolution Africaine [Racism
(Paris: Présence Africaine, 1968): 6. and Culture: Toward the African Revolution], Complete Works (Paris: La
49 Karl Marx, Le 18 brumaire de Louis Napoléon Bonaparte [The Découverte, 2011): 716.
Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte], (Paris: Editions sociales, 1968: 15. 51 On this topic, refer to: Abdellali Hajjat and Marwan Mohammed,
54 Samuel Huntington, Who are We? The Challenges to America’s National sommes-nous ? Identité nationale et choc des cultures [National Identity
Identity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004): French translation: Qui and Culture Clash], (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2004).
Khaled A. Beydoun56
University of Detroit Mercy School of Law,
University of California Berkeley, Islamophobia Research and Documentation Project
Islamophobia is escalating at a frightening clip in the a legal definition and framework for understanding
United States. Scrutiny of this bigotry, presently Islamophobia is vital.
understood as “fear and suspicion of Muslims,” is
rising at an alarming rate. Its rapid rise is reflected in Introduction: What does
the legal literature, encompassing scholarship analyzing Islamophobia actually mean?57
the emerging national security strategies of the state
to the civil liberties infractions and threats they pose In recent years, Islamophobia has emerged as a
to Muslim subjects. In short time, Islamophobia has term of common popular and political parlance.
become a subject of considerable scrutiny and interest. It saturates media headlines and newsprint,58 is
pervasive on the pages of scholarship, is frequently
Despite this rising scholarly interest, there is uttered from the mouths of politicians and
no singular, cogent, or consensus definition of pundits,59 and is an emerging focus of legal confer-
Islamophobia--and more specifically, there is no legal ences and symposia.60 The mainstreaming of the
definition that adeptly characterizes the state and term “Islamophobia” is a result of the rising fear
private animus directed at Muslim subjects. and suspicion of Muslim Americans — the crux of
This Piece seeks to fill that void. It is the first to provide the term’s common understanding today.
a precise definition of Islamophobia to serve and carry Attempts to coin and define the term
forward the proliferating body of legal scholarship “Islamophobia” are largely driven by expediency
addressing the state, private, and converging targeting and the practical and analytical benefits associ-
of Muslim subjects in the United States. It also aims to ated with packaging a complex phenomenon into
facilitate advocacy countering Islamophobia. During an an operable term. Despite critiques of the term
impasse when suspicion of Muslim subjects is swelling, from both scholars and advocates,61 the term
fear of homegrown “radicalization” rising, and curtail- “Islamophobia” has proven to be both resonant
ment of Muslim American civil liberties deepening,
56 Associate Professor of Law, University of Detroit Mercy School of Law; the-islamic-state/
Affiliated Faculty, University of California, Berkeley, Islamophobia Research 59 Senator Bernie Sanders, in response to Donald Trump’s Islamophobic
& Documentation Project. The author would like to thank Donna Auston, rhetoric and policy proposals, vowed to “end Islamophobia.” See Press
Sahar Aziz, Devon Carbado, Cyra Choudhury, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Erin Release, Council of Am. Islamic Relations, “CAIR Welcomes Bernie Sanders’s
Durrah, Grace Franklin, Justin Hansford, Luke Harris, Margari Hill, Joe Pledge to End Islamophobia and Racism,” October 29, 2015, http://www.
Lowndes, Dalia Mogahed, Jamelia Morgan, Priscilla Ocen, Soyun Park, cair.com/press-center/press-release/13212-cairwelcomesbernie-sanders-s-
Kameelah Rashad, Qasim Rashad, Linda Sarsour, Priscilla Yamin, and Ezra pledge-to-end-islamophobia-and-racism.html/
Young for their insight and comments.
60 For example, the University of California, Berkeley’s Center for Race
57 Tanya Basu, “What Does ‘Islamophobia’ Actually Mean? A Brief History and Gender has held seven global conferences on Islamophobia, with
of a Provocative Word,” Atlantic, October 15, 2014, http://www.theatlantic. the most recent meeting held in April 2016. See “Media & Events,” Univ.
com/international/archive/2014/10/is-islamophobia-real-maher-harris- of Cal., Berkeley Ctr. for Race & Gender, http://crg.berkeley.edu/content/
aslan/381411/ islamophobia/media, last visited Aug. 9, 2016.
58 For an example of the term appearing in flagship newspapers, see Arun 61 Spirited debates between scholars and activists center on the
Kundnani, “Opinion, The West’s Islamophobia Is Only Helping the Islamic connotation of the term, its efficacy, and whether alternatives such as
State,” Washington Post, March 23, 2016, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ “anti-Muslim bigotry,” “anti-Muslim racism,” or “Islamo-racism” are more
posteverything/wp/2016/03/23/the-wests-islamophobia-is-only-helping- precise, practical, and effective tools for characterizing fear, suspicion, and
28
and resilient.62 It is deployed more than any other Islamophobia within the legal literature, filling the
term to explain the rising animus and bigotry void at a point in time in which scholarly interest
targeting Muslim Americans.63 As of June 2016, is rapidly expanding.
Islamophobia was mentioned in 293 law review
articles, the vast majority of which were published
during or after 2011.64
This interest continues today, particularly Islamophobia therefore has three dimensions: structural
amid the expansion of antiterror policing and the policy, private animus, and the dialectical process by
enhanced commitment to counter radicalization
following terror attacks committed by Muslim
which the former legitimizes and mobilizes the latent
subjects in Europe and the United States.65 and patent bigotry of individuals and private actors. The
Underscored in the existing scholarship on result is far more expansive and complex than mere
Islamophobia is the grand question of whether
Muslims could be integrated into American “fear and dislike” of Islam and Muslims.
society.66
As Islamophobia continues to escalate, due to
the expansion of government surveillance67 and This piece defines Islamophobia as the presump-
the brazen political rhetoric that mars the 2016 tion that Islam is inherently violent, alien, and
presidential campaign,68 it will certainly continue inassimilable. Combined with this is the belief
to evolve as a subject of great interest and scru- that expressions of Muslim identity are correla-
tiny within legal scholarship. With each passing tive with a propensity for terrorism. It argues that
day, the urgency of combating a proliferating Islamophobia is rooted in understandings of
and menacing form of bigotry targeting Muslim Islam as civilization’s antithesis and perpetuated
Americans, and those perceived to be Muslim by government structures and private citizens.
Americans, grows. This creates a need for both Finally, this piece asserts that Islamophobia is
a precise legal definition of Islamophobia and a also a process — namely, the dialectic by which
comprehensive framework that encompasses the state policies targeting Muslims endorse prevailing
fear and suspicion emanating from both public and stereotypes and, in turn, embolden private animus
private spheres. This piece is the first to provide toward Muslim subjects.
a comprehensive definition and framework of Islamophobia therefore has three dimensions:
violence toward Muslim subjects. See generally Jaideep Singh, “The Death of (Omar Mateen) who executed 49 people and wounded 53, is considered
Islamophobia: The Rise of Islamo-Racism,” Race Files, Feb. 23, 2016, http:// the “deadliest [terror] attack” since 9/11. See Ana Swanson, “The Orlando
www.racefiles.com/2016/02/23/ the-death-of-islamophobia-the-rise-of- Attack Could Transform the Picture of Post-9/11 Terrorism in America,”
islamo-racism/ [hereinafter Singh, The Death of Islamophobia] (providing an Washington Post: Wonkblog, June 12, 2016, http://www.washingtonpost.
analysis of why “Islamo-racism” is a more effective descriptor of anti-Muslim com/news/wonk/wp/2016/06/12/the-orlando-attack-couldtransformthe-
bias and bigotry than “Islamophobia”). picture-of-post-911-terrorism-in-america/ [http://perma.cc/KY6Q-AGNG].
62 “While other terms or phrases have been used to describe this 66 “[T]he vision of Muslims as part of America” is a dominant theme in
prejudice and discrimination — ‘anti-Muslim hate’ and ‘anti-Muslim academic literatures, reflecting the prevailing popular and political discourse
bias,’ among others — ‘Islamophobia’ is the most widely recognized and around the assimilability of Muslims into the body politic. Edward E.
employed.” Bridge Initiative Team, “Islamophobia: The Right Word for a Curtis IV, “The Study of American Muslims: A History,” in The Cambridge
Real Problem,” Bridge Initiative, April 26, 2015, http://bridge.georgetown. Companion to American Islam, Juliane Hammer & Omid Safi eds.
edu/ islamophobia-the-right-word-for-a-real-problem/ [hereinafter Bridge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013): 15, 26, emphasis omitted.
Initiative, The Right Word]. The Bridge Initiative is a research project, housed 67 The White House, under President Barack Obama, has led the expansion
at Georgetown University, established to monitor, research, and analyze of policing focused on countering violent extremism (“CVE policing”). See
Islamophobia in the United States. See “About,” Bridge Initiative, http:// generally “Fact Sheet: The White House Summit on Countering Violent
bridge.georgetown.edu/about/, last visited Sept. 27, 2016. Extremism,” White House, Feb. 18, 2015, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-
63 Bridge Initiative, The Right Word, supra note 6 (“‘Islamophobia’ press-office/2015/02/18/fact-sheet-white-housesummitcountering-violent-
has already gained wide traction in public discourse, and is the most extremism. Recent terror attacks committed by Muslim culprits, most
concise and recognizable term currently used to describe prejudice and notably the Orlando attack, which President Obama called “homegrown
discrimination.”). extremism,” will likely expedite that expansion. See Kevin Liptak, “Obama
64 From 2010 to 2012, the term “Islamophobia” was featured in the title of Cites ‘Homegrown Extremism,’ Escalates Call for Gun Control,” CNN, June
225 scholarly articles, with the word appearing 6,240 times anywhere within 13, 2016, http:// www.cnn.com/2016/06/13/politics/obama-orlando-gun-
the articles. This includes scholarly works in all academic disciplines. Id. control-homegrownextremism/.
65 The mass shooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlando, Fla., on June 68 “Islamophobia in the 2016 Elections,” Bridge Initiative, Apr. 25, 2015,
12, 2016, which involved a Muslim American shooter of Afghan descent http://bridge.georgetown.edu/islamophobia-and-the-2016-elections/ #
[hereinafter Bridge Initiative, Islamophobia in the 2016 Elections].
69 Bridge Initiative, The Right Word, supra note 6. 73 Eric Lichtblau, “Crimes Against Muslim Americans and Mosques
70 Adam Nossiter, Aurelien Breeden & Katrin Bennhold, “Three Teams Rise Sharply,” New York Times, Dec. 17, 2015, http:// www.nytimes.
of Coordinated Attackers Carried Out Assault on Paris, Officials Say; com/2015/12/18/us/politics/crimes-againstmuslimamericans-and-mosques-
Hollande Blames ISIS,” New York Times, Nov. 14, 2015, http://www.nytimes. rise-sharply.html (on file with the Columbia Law Review).
com/2015/11/15/world/europe/ paristerroristattacks.html (on file with the 74 “Three Muslim Students Killed at North Carolina Campus,” Al Jazeera,
Columbia Law Review). Feb. 11, 2015, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/02/students-murdered-
71 Paloma Esquivel, Joseph Tanfani, Louis Sahagun & Sarah Parvini, university-north-carolinacampus150211093231033.html, [hereinafter Three
“Obama: ‘This Was an Act of Terrorism Designed to Kill Innocent People,’” Muslim Students].
L.A. Times, Dec. 6, 2015, http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-san- 75 “There were 78 instances where mosques were targeted — counting
bernardino-terror-probe-widens-asobamaset-to-speak-20151206-story. vandalism, arson, and other destruction — in 2015, according to the report
html. compiled by the Council on American-Islamic Relations. Thirty-four of the
72 Muslim identity is commonly viewed in ethno-racial identity terms incidents from 2015 came in November and December. There were 20
by private actors, aligning with the narrowing caricaturing of Muslims as total in 2014, the group counted.” Talal Ansari, “There Was a Huge Increase
immigrant, alien, and Arab. See Khaled A. Beydoun, Antebellum Islam, 58 in Attacks on Mosques Last Year,” Buzzfeed News, June 20, 2016, http://
Howard Law Journal 141, 163-70 (2014). www.buzzfeed.com/talalansari/there-was-a-huge-increase-in-attacks-on-
mosques-last-year.
76 Niraj Warikoo, “Anti-Muslim Rallies Across USA Making Muslims 69 N.Y.U. Ann. Surv. Am. L. 29, 37 (2014) [hereinafter Beydoun, Between
Wary,” USA Today, Oct. 10, 2015, http:// www.usatoday.com/story/news/ Muslim and White] (contending that the conflation of Arab and Muslim
nation-now/2015/10/09/anti-islamralliesacross-usa-making-muslims- identity rendered the view that Muslims were inassimilable with American
wary/73672674/ values and prevailing conceptions of citizenship, which from 1790 to 1952,
77 “But Trump has perfected it. For his campaign, Islamophobia is mandated that an immigrant be deemed white by a civil court in order to
political craft — every soundbite carefully assembled and strategically become naturalized).
disseminated — designed to inspire the brazen hate spewed by his 82 This author has reflected on Trump’s proposal before:
supporters, and embolden the racist hate unfolding at his pep rallies.” “Donald Trump’s calls for a ban on Muslims entering the United States and,
Khaled A. Beydoun, “Donald Trump and Electing Islamophobia,” Al Jazeera, more recently, for “extreme vetting” of anyone seeking to immigrate to the
Mar. 13, 2016, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/03/donald- United States have been condemned as breaks from the nation’s traditions
trump-electingislamophobia160313104258994.html. of religious tolerance and welcoming immigrants. Actually, Trump’s
78 “Imam” is an Arabic word for a worship leader at a mosque, who proposals reflect a long-standing, if ugly, strain of U.S. immigration policy,
because of that position, often occupies the role of community leader. one that restricted the entry of Arab and South Asian Muslim immigrants
79 Imam Maulama Akonjee, 55, and his assistant, Thara Uddin, 64, were and barred them from becoming citizens until the middle of the 20th
shot and killed on August 14, 2016, while walking out of their Ozone century.”
Park, Queens, mosque. Pilar Melendez & Ray Sanchez, “New York Imam, Khaled A. Beydoun, “Opinion: America Banned Muslims Long Before
His Assistant Killed Near Mosque,” CNN, Aug. 14, 2016, http://www.cnn. Donald Trump,” Washington Post, Aug. 18, 2016), http://www.
com/2016/08/13/us/new-york-imam-shooting/. Akonjee led the mosque, washingtonpost.com/opinions/trumps-anti-muslim-stanceechoesa-us-law-
located in a burgeoning Bangladeshi enclave of the New York borough. Id. from-the-1700s/2016/08/18/6da7b486-6585-11e6-8b27-bb8ba39497a2_
80 See, e.g., Nihad Awad, “Opinion, Obama Condemned Islamophobia in story.html.
America. It’s Time Republicans Did Too,” The Guardian, Dec. 7, 2015, http:// 83 An influential study published by the Center for American Progress
www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/07/obama-condemned- in 2011 mainstreamed the term in media, scholarly, and political circles.
islamophobia-republicans-should. Wajahat Ali et al., “Fear, Inc.: The Roots of the Islamophobia Network
81 For a comprehensive review of the Orientalist and negative stereotypes in America” Center for American Progress, August 26, 2011, http://
of Islam and Muslims that drove court decisions, see Marie A. Failinger, cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/08/pdf/
“Islam in the Mind of American Courts: 1800 to 1960,” 32 B.C. J.L. & Soc. islamophobia.pdf.
Just. 1 (2012). For a historical perspective, see Khaled A. Beydoun, “Between 84 Id.
Muslim and White: The Legal Construction of Arab American Identity,” 85 Id.
95 AEDPA is often credited with beginning this time of heightened (forthcoming 2016) [hereinafter Beydoun, Between Indigence] (manuscript
surveillance. The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of at 23) (on file with the Columbia Law Review) (“DHS consolidated the state’s
1996 (AEDPA) was the beginning of policing of Muslim subjects and immigration and emigration regimes, and functioned as the institutional
communities. One part of this legislation led to the disparate investigation fulcrum for the sweeping federal and local anti-terror surveillance and
of Muslim American political and social activity, while another led to the policing sanctioned by the USA PATRIOT Act.” (citing USA PATRIOT Act,
deportation of Muslims with links — real or fictitious — to terrorist activity. Pub. L. No. 107-56, 115 Stat. 272 (codified in scattered titles of the U.S.C.));
Beydoun, Islamophobia, supra note 35. see also USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005, Pub.
96 Homeland Security Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-296, 116 Stat. 2135 L. No. 109-177, 120 Stat. 192 (codified in scattered titles of the U.S.C.).
(codified in scattered sections of 5, 6, 18, 44, and 49 U.S.C.). 100 Yaser Ali, “Shari’ah and Citizenship--How Islamophobia Is Creating a
97 For a summary of the 9/11 Attacks, see September 11th Fast Facts, Second-Class Citizenry in America,” 100 Calif. L. Rev. 1027, 1042-43 (2012)
CNN (Sept. 7, 2015), http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/27/us/ september-11- (describing the government’s reliance on “the nation’s fear of another attack
anniversary-fast-facts/. toward Muslims — and those who had physical ‘Muslim’ characteristics” to
support its case for “two costly wars in Afghanistan and Iraq”).
98 Heena Musabji & Christina Abraham, “The Threat to Civil Liberties and
Its Effect on Muslims in America,” 1 DePaul J. for Soc. Just. 83, 99 (2007). 101 Arsalan Iftikhar, “Arab Americans,” in Anti-Immigration in the United
States: A Historical Encyclopedia, Kathleen R. Arnold ed., (Santa Barbara,
99 Khaled A. Beydoun, “Between Indigence, Islamophobia and Erasure:
Calif.: Greenwood, 2011): 40, 43.
Poor and Muslim in “War on Terror” America,” 104 Calif. L. Rev.
Dialectical Islamophobia
Islamophobia is also a systemic, fluid, and deeply
politicized dialectic between the state and its
During moments when structural Islamophobia is
polity: a dialectic whereby the former shapes, broadened to address perceived Islamic extremism, such
reshapes, and confirms popular views or attitudes as the threat of the Islamic State (ISIS) and homegrown
about Islam and Muslim subjects inside and
outside of America’s borders. Therefore, the third radicalization, structural Islamophobic policies embolden
dimension of Islamophobia focuses on “dialectical the private passions of Islamophobes to undertake
Islamophobia,” which is the process by which
violence against Muslim subjects, or institutions, in the
state policies legitimize prevailing misconceptions,
misrepresentations, and tropes widely held by name of revenge, citizenship, and patriotism.
private citizens.
Again, Islamophobia is the presumption of
guilt assigned onto Muslims by state and private
cies’ underlying characterization — is an ongoing
actors. But it must also be understood as a
dialectic that links state policy to hate and
process — namely, the process by which state
violence unleashed by the polity.
policies such as the PATRIOT Act and CVE
policing both endorse ingrained and popular tropes State Endorsement and Emboldening
of Muslims as alien, inassimilable, and prone to Private Islamophobia
extremism114 and embolden the private animus and
The overwhelming attention on Islamophobia has
violent targeting of Muslim subjects. This process
gravitated toward sensational stories or instances
occurs most intensely during the aftermath of
of private Islamophobia. For example, stories about
terror attacks, such as the 9/11 terror attacks or the
“intensifying calls for the exclusion of Syrian refu-
April 2013 “Boston Bombings”115 — points in time
gees and the isolation of American Muslims,”117
when structural Islamophobic policies were typi-
anti-Muslim rallies spearheaded by fringe
cally enacted, advanced, or broadened.116
militants,118 mosque arsons,119 and the January
The state’s rubber-stamping of widely held
2015 murders of three Muslim American college
113 Akbar, supra note 47, at 876. 116 In 2014, hardline CVE policing programs were piloted in Boston in the
114 The law can also serve “at times [as] an expression of popular will,” wake of the Boston Bombings, as well as in Los Angeles and Minneapolis.
executing the punitive measures an enraged populace calls for during times See Shelley Murphy, “Boston to Host Anti-Extremist Pilot Program,” Boston
of crisis. Muneer I. Ahmad, “A Rage Shared by Law: Post-September 11 Globe, Sept. 24, 2014, http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2014/09/23/
Racial Violence as Crimes of Passion,” 92 Calif. L. Rev. 1259, 1318 (2004). boston-site-program-prevent-residents-from-joining-extremistgroups/
YpEpq2cYvITZ6u8AFkbarL/story.html.
115 John Eligon & Michael Cooper, “Blasts at Boston Marathon Kill
3, Injure 100,” New York Times, Apr. 15, 2013, http:// www.nytimes. 117 Shirin Sinnar, “Opinion, Preparing American Muslim Daughters for
com/2013/04/16/us/explosions-reported-atsiteof-boston-marathon.html What Awaits,” Mercury News, Nov. 25, 2015, http://www.mercurynews.
(on file with the Columbia Law Review). com/opinion/ci_29156471/shirinsinnarpreparing-american-muslim-
daughters-what-awaits.
118 Justin Wm. Moyer, “Armed Anti-Muslim Protestors Stage “Strange” Shaheen, The TV Arab (Bowling Green, OH.: Bowling Green State University
Protest Outside Mosque in Clock Kid’s Hometown,” Washington Post, Popular Press, 1984), (providing a foundational account of television
Nov. 23, 2015, http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/ misrepresentations of Arab and Muslim Americans through the early 1980s).
wp/2015/11/23/armed-anti-muslim-protestersstagestrange-protest-outside- 122 For a comprehensive review and analysis of Islamophobia rhetoric
mosque-in-clock-kids-hometown/. and strategy saturating the 2016 presidential race, see Bridge Initiative,
119 Sarah Parvini, Man Sentenced to 6 Years in Prison for Coachella Valley Islamophobia in the 2016 Elections, supra note 12, at 2.
Mosque Arson, L.A. Times (Mar. 1, 2016), http://www.latimes.com/local/ 123 Ahmad, supra note 58, at 1319.
lanow/la-me-ln-coachellamosquefire-sentencing-20160301-story.html
124 “Victims of the Brussels Attack,” BBC News, April 15, 2016, http://www.
[http://perma.cc/9RXX-Q8B7].
bbc.com/news/world-europe-35880119.
120 Three Muslim Students, supra note 18.
125 See Volpp, supra note 32, at 1586 (arguing that these stereotypes
121 See generally Jack G. Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies define other civilizations as “primitive, barbaric, and despotic”).
a People (Northhampton, Mass.: Olive Branch Press, 2001), (providing
126 See Ahmad, supra note 58, at 1323-24 (arguing that “the exercise of
a comprehensive history of cinematic and television misrepresentations
state power” after 9/11 gave legitimacy to individual acts of violence carried
of Arab, Middle East and North African, and Muslim identity); Jack G.
out against Arabs, Muslims, and South Asians).
127 The development of the state’s understanding of Islam, and Muslims, is only because of their turbans, but also because of their long beards, both
in large part a consequence of advancing state interests — namely, pushing of which are Sikh religious symbols.” Vinay Harpalani, “DesiCrit: Theorizing
forward counter-radicalization programming. More specifically, the state’s the Racial Ambiguity of South Asian Americans,” 69 N.Y.U. Ann. Surv. Am. L.
understanding of sectarian division within Islam has evolved, evidenced 77, 162 (2015).
by its linking “radicalization” to Salafi Islamic traditions and strategic 131 Amardeep Singh, “The New Wave of Islamophobia: Being Sikh or
coalition building with Muslims who reject this tradition. Radicalization Muslim in the Age of Donald Trump,” Salon, January 3, 2016, http://www.
is understood by state actors as a “Sunni phenomenon.” However, this salon.com/2016/01/03/the_new_wave_of_islamophobia_being_sikh_or_
narrow development of Islam has not disrupted the core stereotypes of muslim_in_the_age_of_donald_trump/
Islam and Muslims that drive state policy but is again spurred more by state
132 The murder of Balbir Singh Sodi, a gas station owner in Arizona, days
interests. See generally Mitchell D. Silber & Arvin Bhatt, NYPD Intelligence
after the 9/11 terror attacks illustrates the stereotypical conflation of Sikh
Div., “Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat” (2007), http://
men with Muslim terrorists, followed by their victimization after crisis. Tamar
eurabia.parlamentnilisty.cz/UserFiles/ document/NYPD.pdf, (setting forth
Lewin, “Sikh Owner of Gas Station Is Fatally Shot in Rampage,” New York
the radicalization theory framework adopted by DHS, which drives the
Times, Sept. 17, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/17/us/sikh-owner-
execution of counter-radicalization law enforcement strategy in the United
of-gas-station-is-fatally-shot-in-rampage.html (on file with the Columbia
States).
Law Review); see also Tiffani B. Figueroa, ‘‘‘All Muslims Are like That”: How
128 Beydoun, Between Muslim and White, supra note 25, at 47-48. Islamophobia Is Diminishing Americans’ Right to Receive Information,” 41
129 John Tehranian, White Washed: America’s Invisible Middle Eastern Hofstra L. Rev. 467, 483 (2007).
Minority (New York: New York University Press, 2009): 68-72; see also 133 “When my sons and I travel abroad, we are often mistaken for Arabs
John Tehranian, “Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and or Muslims.” Adrien Katherine Wing, “Civil Rights in the Post-9/11 World:
the Construction of Racial Identity in America,” 109 Yale L.J. 817 (2000). Critical Race Praxis, Coalition Building, and the War on Terrorism,” 63 La. L.
This was the first law review article exclusively focused on the pleas of Rev. 717, 722 (2003). Professor Adrien Wing is a black law professor with
immigrants from the Arab world and Middle East asserting that they fit five black sons. Id. at 720.
within the statutory definition of whiteness, which was a prerequisite for
134 See Akbar, supra note 47, at 833-35 (describing a prominent NYPD
naturalization from 1790 through 1952. These pleas in the naturalization
report that identifies various factors thought to be associated with
process also highlight the embedded religious and cultural tropes these
radicalization, including “‘pilgrimage to Mecca,’ ‘[g]rowing a beard,’ and
immigrants faced in civil proceedings.
‘pa [ying] off the mortgage on [one’s] house because Islam forbids paying
130 “In particular, Sikh Americans have been the victim of discrimination interest on loans”’ (alterations in original) (quoting Silber & Bhatt, supra note
and hate crimes after being mistaken for Arab or Muslim. This occurs not 71, at 59)).
135 See id. at 833-44 (seeking to “engage with the limitations” of the NYPD ‘anti-semitism,’ ‘racism,’ and ‘homophobia’ — all of which have linguistic or
radicalization report). conceptual problems—are widely accepted descriptors…prejudice…Both
136 Bridge Initiative, The Right Word, supra note 6. academics and the general public have left behind qualms about these
terms’ linguistic shortcomings, and use them freely to identify prejudice and
137 Singh, The Death of Islamophobia, supra note 5.
discrimination against these groups.”).
138 Id.; see Bridge Initiative, The Right Word, supra note 6 (“[W]ords like
139 Khaled A. Beydoun, “Ted Cruz Has Already Won: His Absurd Plan to salon.com/2016/03/26/ted_cruz_has_already_won_his_absurd_plan_to_
Police Muslims Is Already Happening,” Salon, Mar. 26, 2016, http://www. police_muslims_is_already_happening/.
40
them from “inspiring, radicalizing, financing or FBI released a new website in 2016 geared toward
recruiting individuals or groups in the United teachers, parents, and teenagers that instructed its
States to commit acts of violence.”144 In further- users to report people who exhibit “warning signs”
ance of that goal, the government announced that they may commit violence.149 It provided
its CVE initiative in 2014. The White House examples such as taking pictures of buildings
CVE Summit sought to advance these efforts in or talking about traveling to places that “sound
2015145 and again in 2016, with the Department of suspicious.”150 The government implemented local
Homeland Security’s creation of a CVE Task Force pilot initiatives to achieve these goals in Boston,
to coordinate government efforts and partnerships Los Angeles, and Minneapolis.151 These pilots
to further these goals.146 Through the remainder followed the same practices of monitoring students
of the Obama administration’s implementation as purported growing threats based upon these
of these alleged CVE initiatives, the concerns of innocuous factors. For example, in Minneapolis,
organizations and communities grew regarding
the threat to fundamental rights, division of
communities and damage to relationships with law
enforcement, and casting of suspicion on whole But focusing on these relationships as the solution
communities without basis.
to terrorism or extremism created relationships
These initiatives sought to address terrorism or
“homegrown terrorism” by developing relation- through which Muslim communities were primarily
ships between community and religious leaders viewed through a law enforcement lens, and it soon
and law enforcement, among others. But focusing
on these relationships as the solution to terrorism
became clear that these programs were a gateway for
or extremism created relationships through which unwarranted law enforcement surveillance.
Muslim communities were primarily viewed
through a law enforcement lens, and it soon
became clear that these programs were a gateway school staff were instructed to monitor children in
for unwarranted law enforcement surveillance. For the lunchroom and after school to identify signs of
example, as a part of these efforts, law enforce- extreme beliefs,152 and in Boston, law enforcement
ment agencies required or asked teachers and and mental health and social service agencies were
social and mental health providers to monitor instructed to establish or enhance “formal and
and report on children in their care who might informal lines of communication” around such
be at risk of becoming “extremists”147—a vague threats.153
and overly broad term. According to National In the first year of the Trump administration,
Counterterrorism Center guidelines, students there have been some changes to the govern-
would be rated by teachers and social workers on a ment’s CVE initiatives, though any larger strategy
five-point scale using factors like “perceived sense remains to be articulated. Initial reports indicated
of being treated unjustly,” expressions of hopeless- that the administration may disregard the few
ness, futility,” and “connection to group identity CVE initiatives that focused on non-Muslims,
(race, nationality, religion, ethnicity).”148 The and more explicitly focus on targeting and
147 See Federal Bureau of Investigation, Office of Partner Engagement, 151 Office of Public Affairs, “Pilot Programs are Key to Our Countering
“Preventing Violent Extremism in Schools,” January 2016, https://info. Violent Extremism Efforts,” Dept. of Justice, Feb. 18, 2015, https://www.
publicintelligence.net/FBI-PreventingExtremismSchools.pdf. justice.gov/archives/opa/blog/pilot-programs-are-key-our-countering-
148 See Murtaza Hussain, Cora Currier, and Jana Winter, “Is Your violent-extremism-efforts.
Child a Terrorist? U.S. Government Questionnaire Rates Families At 152 See, e.g., C-Span, “Minneapolis Public Schools CVE Program,” March 9,
Risk for Extremism,” The Intercept, Feb. 9, 2015, https://theintercept. 2015, https://www.c-span.org/video/?c4530677/minneapolis-public-school-
com/2015/02/09/government-develops-questionnaire-see-might-become- cve-program.
terrorist/. 153 United States Attorney’s Office, “A Framework for Prevention and
149 See Federal Bureau of Investigation, “When to Report Violent Intervention Strategies: Incorporating Violent Extremism into Violence
Extremism” https://cve.fbi.gov/where/?state=report. Last accessed March 27, Prevention Efforts,” Dept. of Homeland Security, Feb. 2015, p. 8, https://
2018. www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Boston%20Framework_1.pdf.
150 Id.
154 Julia Edwards Ainsley, Dustin Volz, & Kristina Cooke, “Exclusive: Trump 158 Jennifer Hansler, “DHS Shifts Focus of Funding to Counter Violent
to Focus Counter-Extremism Program Solely on Islam-Sources” Reuters, Feb. Extremism,” CNN, July 4, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2017/07/01/politics/
1. 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-extremists-program- cve-funding-changes/index.html.
exclusiv/exclusive-trump-to-focus-counter-extremism-program-solely-on- 159 See, e.g. Strategic Implementation Plan, supra note 3 at 13.
islam-sources-idUSKBN15G5VO.
160 See, e.g., Decl. of Marc Sageman, Latif. V. Holder, No. 3:10-cv-00750,
155 Office of the Press Secretary, “Statement by Secretary Johnson 2015 WL 1883890 (D. Or. Aug. 7, 2015), https://www.aclu.org/legal-
Announcing First Round of DHS’s Countering Violent Extremism Grants,” document/latif-et-al-v-holder-et-al-declaration-marc-sageman; See Jamie
Dept. of Homeland Security, Jan. 13, 2017, https://www.dhs.gov/ Bartlett, Jonathan Birdwell, and Michael King, “The Edge of Violence: A
news/2017/01/13/statement-secretary-jeh-johnson-announcing-first- Radical Approach to Extremism,” DEMOS (2010) https://www.demos.co.uk/
round-dhss-countering-violent. files/Edge_of_Violence_-_web.pdf.
156 Julia Edwards Ainsley, “White House Budget Slashes ‘Countering Violent 161 National Defense Research Institute, “Social Science for
Extremism’ Grants,” Reuters, May 23, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/ Counterterrorism,” RAND (2009), https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/
us-usa-budget-extremism/white-house-budget-slashes-countering-violent- pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG849.pdf.
extremism-grants-idUSKBN18J2HJ.
162 Faiza Patel, “ReThinking Radicalization,” The Brennan Center for
157 “DHS Countering Violent Extremism Grants,” Dept. of Homeland Justice (2011), http://www.brennancenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/
Security, June 13, 2017, https://www.dhs.gov/cvegrants. RethinkingRadicalization.pdf.
163 See, e.g. Michael German, “Radically Wrong: A Counterproductive 165 Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and
Approach to Counterterrorism,” American Civil Liberties Union, Feb. the Rights of Americans, Final Report of the Select Committee to Study
14, 2013 https://www.aclu.org/blog/national-security/radically-wrong- Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, U.S. Senate,
counterproductive-approach-counterterrorism. 94th Congress, 2d Session, Report No. 94-755 (1976) available at https://
164 See, e.g. David J. Garrow, “The FBI and Martin Luther King,” The Atlantic archive.org/details/finalreportofsel03unit.
(July/Aug. 2001) https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2002/07/ 166 Id. at 5-6.
the-fbi-and-martin-luther-king/302537/.
169 See The Edge of Violence: A Radical Approach to Extremism, supra predictors of violence).
note 20 (explaining that religious beliefs and practices are not good
In many ways, Islamophobia is nothing new. Over “During the war, Quakers were disenfranchised,
the course of American history, almost every and Americans rounded up wealthy Quakers
religious minority has experienced a systematic thought to be dangerous and transported them to
campaign of bigotry and discrimination before safe areas away from the fighting and their homes.
becoming fully enfranchised members of American Only slowly after the war were Quaker voting
society. Catholics went through it. Quakers went rights restored.”170
through it. So did the Jewish community. Jewish Americans were also maligned and
Those religious minorities suffered everything marginalized going back to the founding. “After
from quiet suspicion to legalized discrimination the Revolution, even the most tolerant states
to violent hostility. Different century, different continued to deny citizenship and voting rights to
community, same bigotry. People died. Houses of Jews, although they were allowed to practice their
worship burned down. Courts upheld discrimina- religion, but usually not publicly. Not until the
tory laws. 19th century did states extend full citizenship to
Yet every one of those religious communities Jews.”171 Later, the U.S. infamously turned away
ultimately overcame such opposition. Catholics are Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust.172
now fully accepted and fully participating members Perhaps the best example of how the American
of American society. The same is true for Quakers, hazing process unfolds can be seen in the history
Mormons, and Jews. Indeed, those and other of Catholic Americans. During Colonial times,
historically disenfranchised religious communi- Catholics were — to put it mildly — unwelcome,
ties have reached the highest levels of political, for British immigrants to North America brought a
economic, and social power in the United States. virulent hostility to Catholicism along with them.
For a long time, that positive outcome seemed Anti-Catholic bigotry persisted after the
improbable, if not impossible. Quakers experienced founding of the United States, seeping from public
discrimination as far back as the Revolutionary discourse into public policy. Even future Supreme
War because of their pacifistic religious beliefs. Court Chief Justice John Jay argued that New
170 John Kaminski, “Religion and the Founding Fathers,” The Newsletter 172 Daniel Gross, “The United States Turned Away Thousands of
of the National Historical Publications and Records Commission, Vol. 30.1 Jewish Refugees Fearing They Were Nazi Spies,” Smithsonian Magazine,
(March 2002, https://www.archives.gov/files/nhprc/annotation/2002/2002- 18 November, 2015, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/
mar.pdf us-government-turned-away-thousands-jewish-refugees-fearing-they-were-
171 Ibid. nazi-spies-180957324/
46
York’s state constitution should require citizens to Change did not happen overnight, but anti-
renounce any allegiance to foreign authorities in Catholic laws were eventually repealed or struck
“ecclesiastical” matters, i.e., loyalty to the pope.173 down. Anti-Catholic organizations lost financial
Anti-Catholic sentiment increased dramatically and political power, devolving into irrelevance.
when waves of Irish immigrants came to America’s Catholics and Protestants healed their divisions
shores during the 19th century. Conspiracy when they found themselves on the same side of
theories, pogroms, and economic marginalization political debates about abortion and other issues
haunted those immigrants. “Fears of Catholic important to social conservatives.
conspiracies to take over the government endured As of 2017, 67 percent of Americans “feel
from the 1820s to 1840s, prompting deadly riots in warmly” toward Catholics.178 Although some
cities like Boston and Philadelphia.”174 Americans may still hold anti-Catholic sentiment,
The Know Nothing Party briefly transformed such people no longer pose a serious or constant
anti-Catholic bigotry into a somewhat successful threat to the legal rights or physical safety of the
political movement using language that should Catholic community.
sound familiar to any modern student of Today, there can be no doubt that American
Islamophobia. The party’s 1856 platform called Muslims claim a large corner of the market once
for “more stringent & effective Emigration Laws,” occupied by Catholics and other suspect religious
“Eternal enmity to all those who attempt to carry minorities. In fact, history has repeated itself with
out the principles of a foreign Church or State,” remarkable consistency.
“Our Country, our whole Country, and nothing Today’s anti-Muslim activists, organizations,
but our Country,” and “American Laws, and and politicians rant about the supposed dangers
American legislation; and death to all foreign of Islam with the same level of hysteria that
influences, whether in high places or low!”175 yesterday’s Know-Nothings used to rant against
The Know Nothing Party eventually withered Catholicism. Both Muslims and Catholics were
and died, but its anti-Catholic sentiments lasted accused of being dangerous immigrants, culturally
for decades. Several states passed laws requiring irredeemable, and loyal to foreign powers.
children to attend public schools so as to prevent For Catholics, the supposed foreign puppet
them from attending private Catholic schools. master was the Church. In the case of American
Catholic politicians faced open hostility.176 The Muslims, it could be the Muslim Brotherhood,
KKK “thrived in many urban areas as an agent of Hamas, Al-Qaeda or ISIS, depending on the
resistance to rising Catholic political influence.”177 particular conspiracy theory.
Yet Catholics eventually won their struggle. Because of the similarities between anti-Cath-
They built houses of worship across the country, olic and anti-Muslim bigotry, it is comforting and
as well as private schools. This ensured safe spaces perhaps even reasonable to assume that American
to educate, organize, and advance their communi- Muslims will eventually and inevitably experience
ties. They established organizations dedicated to the same positive outcome as Catholics.
defending their rights in the court of law and their Demographic realities give American Muslims
reputation in the court of public opinion. They some reason to be optimistic. As of 2017, 58
engaged in the very political process that once percent of Americans between the ages of 18
shunned them, becoming a critical voting bloc and 29 reportedly held “warm feelings” toward
before winning elections in their own right, culmi- Muslims, while only 44 percent of Americans
nating with President Kennedy’s victory in 1960. aged 65 and older express similar feelings. 179 If
173 Sewell Chan, “Is Anti-Catholicism Dead?,” The New York Times, July 23, September 23, 2015, https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/09/
2008, https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/07/23/is-anti-catholicism- when-america-hated-catholics-213177
dead/ 177 Ibid.
174 Ibid. 178 “How Americans Feel About Different Religious Groups,” Pew Research
175 “Guide to the Know-Nothing Platform, 1856.” Collection Guides, Duke Center, February 15, 2017, http://www.pewforum.org/2017/02/15/
University, https://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/scriptorium/americavotes/ americans-express-increasingly-warm-feelings-toward-religious-groups/
know-nothing.html 179 Ibid.
176 Josh Zeitz, “When America Hated Catholics,” POLITICO Magazine,
180 James Hutson, “The Founding Fathers and Islam,” Information 183 Amy McCaig, “Islamophobia Represents a Form of Racism Mixed with
Bulletin, Library of Congress, Vol. 61, No. 5 (May 2002), https://www.loc. Cultural Intolerance,” Rice University News, September 14, 2017, http://
gov/loc/lcib/0205/tolerance.html; Kerry Dolan, “Why Morocco Matters news.rice.edu/2017/09/14/islamophobia-represents-a-form-of-racism-
to the U.S.,” Forbes, November 21, 2013, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ mixed-with-cultural-intolerance/
kerryadolan/2013/11/21/why-morocco-matters-to-the-u-s/#5aa1fd124f75 184 “Muslim Americans Exemplify Diversity, Potential,” Gallup, March 2,
181 Roger Ebert, “Reviews: Malcolm X,” RogerEbert.com, November 18, 2009, http://news.gallup.com/poll/116260/muslim-americans-exemplify-
1992, https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/malcolm-x-1992 diversity-potential.aspx
182 Madison Gary, “All Time 100 Non-Fiction Books: The Autobiography 185 “Data: Hate Crimes Spiked Against Muslims After 9/11,” Public Radio
of Malcolm X,” Time Magazine, August 17, 2011, http://entertainment. International, September 12, 2016, https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-09-12/
time.com/2011/08/30/all-time-100-best-nonfiction-books/slide/the- data-hate-crimes-against-muslims-increased-after-911
autobiography-of-malcolm-x-as-told-to-alex-haley/
193 Eric Rosand, “Fixing CVE in the United States requires more than just a 197 “Arab-Americans Protest ‘True Lies,’” The New York Times, July 16,
name change,” Brookings Institution, Feb. 16, 2017, https://www.brookings. 1994, https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/16/movies/arab-americans-
edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2017/02/16/fixing-cve-in-the-united-states- protest-true-lies.html
requires-more-than-just-a-name-change/ 198 Carlyle Murphy, “Nike Pulls Shoes That Irked Muslims,” The
194 Maha Hilal, “Trump’s Year in Islamophobia,” Institute for Policy Studies, Washington Post, June 25, 1997, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/
December 21, 2017, http://www.ips-dc.org/trumps-year-islamophobia/ business/1997/06/25/nike-pulls-shoes-that-irked-muslims/b02211fb-c120-
195 Matt Apuzzo & Adam Goldman, “After Spying on Muslims, NYPD 4780-9ce4-4c01225c8e92/?utm_term=.fd36867156e5
Agrees to Greater Oversight,” The New York Times, March 6, 2017, 199 Carla Hall, & Larry Stammer, “Terror in Oklahoma City: American
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/06/nyregion/nypd-spying-muslims- Muslims Feel Sting of Accusations in Bombing’s Wake,” The Los Angeles
surveillance-lawsuit.html Times, April 22, 1995, http://articles.latimes.com/1995-04-22/news/
196 Zaheer Ali, “What Happened To Malcolm X?” CNN, February 17, 2015, mn-57460_1_oklahoma-city-bombing
https://www.cnn.com/2015/02/17/opinion/ali-malcolm-x-assassination-
anniversary/index.html
200 Zaid Jilani, “At Least 13 States Have Introduced Bills Guarding Against white-supremacist-who-allegedly-phoned-threats-to-georgia-mosque.html
Non-Existent Threat of Shari’a Law,” ThinkProgress, February 8, 2011, https:// 203 Ellen Eldridge, “Missouri Man Indicted Over Threats to Georgia
thinkprogress.org/report-at-least-13-states-have-introduced-bills-guarding- Mosque,” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, December 14, 2017, https://
against-non-existent-threat-of-sharia-law-49c0ab42be1f/ www.ajc.com/news/local/missouri-man-indicted-over-threats-georgia-
201 Ariel Hart, “Georgia: Arson Ruling in Mosque Fire,” The New York mosque/YoIGclnZqPiXc0mb06fu8K/
Times, August 26, 2003, https://mobile.nytimes.com/2003/08/26/us/ 204 Meris Lutz, “Ban Affecting Newton County Mosque Expires,” The
national-briefing-south-georgia-arson-ruling-in-mosque-fire.html Atlanta Journal-Constitution, September 20, 2016, https://www.ajc.com/
202 “CAIR Georgia Welcomes Arrest of White Supremacist Who Allegedly news/local-govt--politics/ban-affecting-newton-county-mosque-expires/
Phoned Threats to Georgia Mosque,” CAIR Georgia, December 14, 2017, z0HhbEq16CnS9ToD806u5H/
http://cairgeorgia.com/press-releases/488-cair-georgia-welcomes-arrest-of-
205 Shibley Telhami, “What Americans Really Think About Muslims and local-mosque/9122297
Islam,” Brookings Institution, December 9, 2015, https://www.brookings. 208 Ali Gharib, “Muslim, American, and Intersectional: The Activism of
edu/blog/markaz/2015/12/09/what-americans-really-think-about-muslims- Linda Sarsour,” American Civil Liberties Union, August 22, 2016, https://
and-islam/ www.aclu.org/blog/immigrants-rights/muslim-american-intersectional-
206 Johnny Kauffman, “Ga. Muslim Group To Expand, Focus on Talks with activism-linda-sarsour
Republicans,” WABE, August 19, 2016, https://www.wabe.org/ga-muslim- 209 “U.S. Islamophobia Network,” The Council on American-Islamic
group-expand-focus-talks-republicans/ Relations, accessed April 6, 2018. http://www.islamophobia.org/
207 Steve King, “Dozens Learn About Islam At Local Mosque,” WJCL 22, islamophobia-network/organizations.html
March 11, 2017, http://www.wjcl.com/article/dozens-learn-about-islam-at-
210 “Muslims Rebutting Extremism,” CAIR Georgia, August 29, 2017, http:// 211 “Global Condemnations of ISIS/ISIL,” Islamic Networks Group, accessed
www.cairgeorgia.com/press-releases/469-muslims-rebutting-extremism- April 6, 2018, https://ing.org/global-condemnations-of-isis-isil/
cair-georgia-hosts-2nd-annual-seminar-on-islamophobes-terrorists.html
212 Eric Rosand, “Fixing CVE in the United States requires more than just evidence
a name change,” Brookings Institution, February 16, 2017, https://www. 215 “Times Square Bomber Faizal Shahzad Pleads Guilty ‘100 Times,’” The
brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2017/02/16/fixing-cve-in-the- Telegraph, June 22, 2010, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/
united-states-requires-more-than-just-a-name-change/ northamerica/usa/7845570/Times-Square-car-bomber-Faisal-Shahzad-
213 “Bin Laden Claims Responsibility for 9/11,” Fox News, October 30, pleads-guilty-100-times.html
2004, http://www.foxnews.com/story/2004/10/30/bin-laden-claims- 216 Glenn Greenwald and Murtaza Hussain, “As the Trial of Omar Mateen’s
responsibility-for-11.html Wife Begins, New Evidence Undermines Beliefs About the Pulse Massacre,
214 “Prosecutors: Boston Bombing Suspect Scrawled Motive of Attack Including Motive,” The Intercept, March 5, 2018, https://theintercept.
Inside Boat,” The Guardian, March 2, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/ com/2018/03/05/as-the-trial-of-omar-mateens-wife-begins-new-evidence-
us-news/2015/mar/02/boston-bombing-pretrial-hearing-suspect-boat- undermines-beliefs-about-the-pulse-massacre-including-motive/
The last 15 years have provided us with enough glamorous anymore) beaches of the Riviera, with
experience (sometimes at our own expense) to the full support of (then) Prime Minister Manuel
discover what works and what doesn’t when trying Valls,217 or when the minister of women’s rights,
to address Islamophobia in France. Laurence Rossignol, claims that Muslim women
Historically, France perceives itself as the wearing headscarves are “political militants”
country of human rights, the place where funda- comparable to “Niggers supporting slavery,”218 it’s
mental freedoms meet rationality and free thinkers difficult to think of any context or justification
find safe haven, enlightened by a long-standing that would minimize the extent and the violence
tradition of passionate and yet very civilized of such destructive and prejudicial statements, at
public debate. This belief is so deeply embedded the highest governmental level, against both black
in our perception of ourselves as a people that it and Muslim communities.
doesn’t allow for a critical examination of what has The Collective Against Islamophobia in France
happened in France over the last generations, as (CCIF) was created in 2003 to provide victims of
far as races (as a social and political construct) and discrimination and hate crimes with the legal and
religions are concerned. psychological support they need. At a time when
Any criticism from within France is treated as the headscarf ban in public schools (later euphe-
an attack on the Republican model, an attempt mized as the “law on conspicuous signs in public
to be divisive and fuel “communautarisme” (the schools”) was debated, the organization formed
supreme insult wielded at black, Arab, Muslim, around the idea that something was inherently
Roma, or Asian individuals who dare speak of their wrong with banning (young) Muslim women from
own agency). education and telling them it’s for their own good.
Any criticism from outside France is discarded Since then, there has been an ongoing attempt
as a cultural misunderstanding, with the stable to generalize and extend this exclusion to other
idea that an international audience cannot grasp fields (universities, workplaces and even homes of
the concept of “laïcité” and the emancipating child caretakers), all in the name of “laïcité.” With
virtues of French universalism, which only seems the help of communities and other NGOs, we were
to apply when defined by a mainly white, male, able to stop most of these attacks on fundamental
powerful crowd. freedoms, but 15 years after CCIF’s work began, it’s
And when Muslim women are asked to very difficult to draw a positive picture of the situa-
remove their clothes by the police on the (not so tion in France when assessing the status of Muslims.
217 “« Burkini » : Manuel Valls désavoue Najat Vallaud-Belkacem En 218 Frantz Durupt, “Laurence Rossignol et les «nègres qui étaient pour
savoir plus sur,” Le Monde, August 25, 2016. http://www.lemonde.fr/ l’esclavage»,” Libération, March 30, 2016. http://www.liberation.fr/
religions/article/2016/08/25/burkini-manuel-valls-desavoue-najat-vallaud- france/2016/03/30/laurence-rossignol-et-les-negres-qui-etaient-pour-l-
belkacem_4987686_1653130.html esclavage_1442820
55
We have dealt with hate crimes, desecration of can help us make progress and demonstrate that
cemeteries, arsons and degradations on mosques, security and human rights concerns are not irrec-
making progress as we gained experience in our oncilable, but rather feed into and reinforce one
litigation and media strategies, as well as in our another.
organizing.
Address the full spectrum
of intolerance, from hate
speech to hate crime.
If we define Islamophobia as the construction of
When looking at contemporary forms of intoler-
the Muslim problem, we can say that after being ance and racism (against Asian, Jewish, Muslim,
constructed as a cultural, religious and identity problem, black, Roma, … minorities), a recurring feature is
the nonrandom nature of these phenomena. They
Muslims were now also looked at as a security problem. are fueled by two types of processes: Systemic
racism and interpersonal racism.
Just when we thought most of the work was Systemic racism, present in structures and
done, as we were capitalizing on painstakingly sometimes initiated (and/or supported) by the
acquired inclusive case law and shifting our state, is enduring, stable and inherently linked to
projects from reaction to prevention, the terrorist structures of power. This part of racism is closest
attacks of the last three years brought an unprec- to being utilitarian. It also serves a political and
edented wave of repression on Muslims in France. sociological purpose. Politically, it serves electoral
The attacks on Charlie Hebdo, on the kosher interests, if a leader or a party identifies a political
supermarket, on the Bataclan concert, in Saint premium associated with the demonization and
Denis, Saint Etienne du Rouvray, and Nice, othering of a minority. When a candidate thinks
with their hundreds of civilian casualties, have he can win political points by depicting Muslims
brought terrorist violence back into France. as a threat to our identity and our security, reality
Retrospectively, as an unavoidable and yet destruc- and academic knowledge are often of no help, as
tive consequence, these attacks have provided the political speeches do not appeal to rationality but
justification for a wide-scale neoconservative shift rather to emotions. Politicians are creatures of
in policy on the grounds of security; the state of rationality and electoral empiricism. Sociologically,
emergency has been the operational framework to it stabilizes elites through discrimination. The
implement this policy shift. denial of access to the media, to academia or, for
If we define Islamophobia as the construction of that matter, to any position of power or influence
the Muslim problem, we can say that after being is a constant feature of racism. It follows naturally
constructed as a cultural, religious and identity that Islamophobia was mainly focused, for the last
problem, Muslims were now also looked at as a 15 years in France, on the constant refusal to see
security problem. This latter security part of the Muslims (and especially women) in any position
spectrum, which covers most of Islamophobia in of visibility or responsibility, where they would
the United States since 9/11 and in the United challenge the status quo. The recent dismissal of
Kingdom since 7/7, is relatively new in France. Rokhaya Diallo (journalist and anti-racist activist)
From this holistic experience and looking at from an advisory body on web technologies is just
similarities and differences with other North one of the latest examples of how biases against
American, European, African, and Central Asian Muslims, blacks and women intersect.219 It took a
countries, we offer recommendations than can few racist tweets and a letter from an alt-right MP
apply to many contexts and which, if implemented to lobby the government and instantly have the
with a rational and yet humanistic approach, talented journalist removed.
219 “France Fails to Face Up to Racism,” Editorial, The New York Times, racism-rokhaya-diallo.html
December 28, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/28/opinion/france-
220 “«Sauvageon», le mot qui fâche,” Libération, January 12, 1999. http:// l’islam: un républicain ancienne école en terrain miné,” Huffington Post
www.liberation.fr/france/1999/01/12/sauvageon-le-mot-qui-fache_263424 France, August 29, 2016. http://www.huffingtonpost.fr/2016/08/29/islam-
221 Geoffroy Clavel, “Jean-Pierre Chevènement enchaîne les bourdes sur discret-monde-musulman-chevenement-bourdes_n_11758094.html
222 “Le Défenseur des Droits Présente son Rapport D’activité,” Défenseur accessed February 21, 2018. http://www.cncdh.fr/fr/publications/rapport-
des Droits, last modified February 28, 2017, https://www.defenseurdesdroits. 2016-sur-la-lutte-contre-le-racisme-lantisemitisme-et-la-xenopobie
fr/fr/actus/actualites/le-defenseur-des-droits-presente-son-rapport- 224 Matthieu Suc, “Un rapport du Sénat enterre le concept de
d%27activite déradicalisation,” Mediapart, July 13, 2017. https://www.mediapart.fr/
223 “Rapport 2016 sur la lutte contre le racisme, l’antisémitisme et la journal/france/130717/un-rapport-du-senat-enterre-le-concept-de-
xénopobie,” Commission Nationale Consultative Des Droits De L’Homme, deradicalisation
Over the last few years, the number of hate crimes dehumanized, becoming mere vessels of an “evil
against Muslims has spiked.225 What explains the ideology.”
rise of anti-Muslim racism fully a decade and a half The FBI defines a hate crime as “a traditional
after the events of 9/11? Why has Islamophobia offense like murder, arson, or vandalism with
become more virulent even though there has been an added element of bias.” For the purposes of
no 9/11-type attack since then? The number of collecting statistics, Congress has defined a hate
Americans killed by jihadists in this country since crime as a “criminal offense against a person or
9/11 is less than 100. This figure pales in compar- property motivated in whole or in part by an
ison to the over 400,000 killed by gun violence offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability,
during the same period.226 sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender
The answer to these questions lies in how we identity.”228
understand Islamophobia: what it is, where it It is important to record such information and
comes from, and whose interests its serves. to hold the perpetrators of hate crimes account-
CNN uses the attacks on mosques as a measure able, to the extent that this is possible in the
of Islamophobia. While a useful empirical measure current legal system. But Islamophobia is about
of anti-Muslim sentiment, it is also quite limited. more than hate crimes committed by individuals
One might expand it to talk about hate crimes who hold a “bias.” Such a definition fails to
which include not just the desecration of mosques explain why individuals hold these views. Why
and Muslim community spaces, but also physical have incidents of hate crimes spiked in the U.S.
attacks on Muslim and Muslim-looking men and after 9/11? To what do we owe this rise in bias? To
women. Groups like CAIR and SPLC count hate answer these questions, we need to look beyond
crimes in these ways. Sikh men who wear turbans the individual and at the structures of U.S. society.
have come under attack because it is assumed In the scholarly community, manifestations of
that they are Muslim.227 Muslim women who wear anti-Muslim racism have been viewed through
a hijab or a veil tend to be attacked more than the lens of daily acts of hostility, i.e., the daily
their male counterparts. The outward symbols verbal attacks, insults, and dismissals experienced
of Islam — mosques, veils and turbans — have by people of color. Coined by Harvard professor
been attacked, and the people in them have been Chester Pierce to discuss the experience of African
225 Katayoun Kishi, “Assaults against Muslims in the U.S. surpass 2001 227 Charles Lam, “Sikh Man Stabbed to Death in Robbery of Central
level,” Pew Research Center, November 15, 2017. http://www.pewresearch. California Convenience Store,” NBCnews.com, Jan. 05, 2016. Available at
org/fact-tank/2017/11/15/assaults-against-muslims-in-u-s-surpass-2001- https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/sikh-man-stabbed-death-
level/ robbery-central-california-convenience-store-n490786
226 Peter Bergen, Albert Ford, Alyssa Sims, and David Sterman, “Terrorism 228 “What We Investigate–Civil Rights,” FBI, accessed February 20, 2018.
in America After 9/11,” New America.org. https://www.newamerica.org/ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/717/05/
in-depth/terrorism-in-america/what-threat-united-states-today/
61
Americans, the term “microaggressions” has since is an ideology that has come to be accepted as
been expanded along the way to include other normal, as “common sense,” in the War on Terror
people of color, as well as women, LGBTQ people, era. In this sense, it is not just an individual bias
the disabled, and others. but a systematic body of ideas which make certain
constructions of Muslims — that they are prone
to violence, that they are misogynistic, that they
are driven by rage and lack rationality — appear
The number of Americans killed by jihadists in this natural.
country since 9/11 is less than 100. This figure pales in But ideas don’t exist in a vacuum. They are
part of a larger structure, in this case empire. The
comparison to the over 400,000 killed by gun violence current shape and structure of U.S. imperialism,
during the same period. while it has long roots, draws most immediately
from the reconfiguration of American society after
World War II. The U.S. was one of two hegemons
No doubt, Muslims and those who look Muslim on the global stage, and policy makers, particu-
endure constant microaggressions, which collec- larly Cold War liberals, would shape and realize
tively cause psychological trauma and have impacts a national security state. In 1947, the National
on their health and overall well-being.229 It is Security Act was passed, which entrenched
draining to be at the receiving end of such treat- “security” as a key element of the postwar order.
ment, as I am constantly reminded by friends on It created the Office of the Secretary of Defense,
Facebook. However, Islamophobia is about more the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the National Security
than microaggressions. Council, and the Central Intelligence Agency.
While racism is carried out and experienced at The top-secret National Security Council
the individual level, to limit our understanding of Paper NSC-68 laid out a vision for U.S. postwar
Islamophobia to hate crimes and microgressions grand strategy. Written in 1950 and declassified
is to miss the institutional structures that shape in 1975, NSC-68 was one of the most influential
racism and discrimination. foreign policy documents of the Cold War. It
Daily acts of hostility, hate crimes and even job called for massive increases in military spending,
discrimination are the outward manifestations of a a civil defense program to ensure loyalty among
system that is steeped in racism. It is this system we the citizenry, a media propaganda campaign to
must name, understand, and organize against if we build and sustain public support, and psychological
are to put an end to anti-Muslim racism. warfare and propaganda programs abroad. Every
aspect of life — social, political, intellectual, and
Islamophobia and Empire economic — was conceived as playing a role in
national defense, and a massive security establish-
In my book, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire,
ment was constructed, paid for by significant tax
I set out to explore how the image of the Muslim
increases and cuts in social welfare programs and
enemy is tied to a set of practices that sustain and
services not related to the military. U.S. objec-
reproduce empire. I draw on the work of the pre-
tives, moreover, could only be met by abandoning
eminent scholar of anti-Muslim racism and empire,
any effort to “distinguish between national and
Edward Said. Said argued that anti-Muslim racism,
global security.” Confronted by the collapse of
or Orientalism, was tied to European colonialism.
the European and Japanese empires and the rise
Indeed, all projects of political domination are
of the Soviet Union and the Chinese Revolution,
sustained by ideologies that mark the colonized
it fell to the U.S. to take on the mantle of
as “inferior” and in need of either civilizing or
world hegemon and to beat back the threat to
discipline.
“civilization.”
Building on this work, I argue that Islamophobia
229 Derald Wing Sue, ed. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestation, Dynamics, and Impact (Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010).
230 “Constructing the Terrorist Threat: Islamophobia, The Media & The 231 Deepa Kumar, “Islamophobia: A Bipartisan Project,” Politics, The
War on Terror,” written by Deepa Kumar, directed by Sut Jhally (2017; San Nation, July 2, 2012, https://www.thenation.com/article/islamophobia-
Francisco, CA: Media Education Foundation, 2017), DVD. bipartisan-project/
232 Center for Human Rights and Global Justice, Targeted and Entrapped: 234 CDC, “Leading Causes of Death,” online at https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/
Manufacturing the “Homegrown Threat” in the United States (New York: fastats/leading-causes-of-death.htm
NYU School of Law, 2011). http://chrgj.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/ 235 Jessica Boody, “The Forces Driving Middle-Aged White People’s
targetedandentrapped.pdf ‘Deaths of Despair,’” NPR, online at https://www.npr.org/sections/health-
233 Trevor Aaronson, “Inside the Terror Factory,” Mother Jones, January 11, shots/2017/03/23/521083335/the-forces-driving-middle-aged-white-
2013. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2013/01/terror-factory-fbi- peoples-deaths-of-despair
trevor-aaronson-book/
“I think Islam hates us,” replied then-presidential covert expressions of racism that mark significant
candidate Donald Trump to a question by parts of our discourse.237
Anderson Cooper about whether “Islam is at war Islamophobia has infected contemporary civil
with the West.” Candidate Trump added, “But society, and key public figures now find electoral
there is a tremendous hatred. And we have to be success in fanning the flames of fear, prejudice,
very vigilant. We have to be very careful, and we xenophobia, sexism, and racism. Islamophobia is
cannot allow people coming into this country who part of a broader strategy deployed by long-discred-
have this hatred of the United States and of people ited, right-wing political elites in the desire to
that are not Muslim.” Trump doubled down on his claim a defense of civil society from the threat of
comments during the Republican debate hosted the feared and demonized Muslim other.238 Right-
by CNN on March 9, 2016, when the debate wing forces at work today represent the continuity
moderator, Jake Tapper, asked Trump if he meant of “white backlash” that the Rev. Martin Luther
“all 1.6 billion Muslims.” Trump emphatically King Jr. spoke about in the 1960s and that has
responded, “I mean a lot of them.” Since his elec- been at work since the passage of the Civil Rights
tion, President Trump has issued executive orders Act. The examination of Islamophobia should
banning the entry of citizens from six Muslim- be undertaken with a clear historical lens that
majority countries while continuing to express links the gains of the civil rights movement in
Islamophobic sentiments. the 1960s and the three evils of society that MLK
Trump is not alone in expressing these anti- spoke about in 1967 — militarism, materialism,
Muslim sentiments, but his statements represent and racism — that continue to undermine civil
their normalization all the way to the highest society.239 Islamophobia is the new signpost for an
office in the land. Indeed, Trump’s primary old and entrenched racism that seeks to reclaim a
sources of information are television news and talk lost and unjust past.
shows,236 which only illustrates the growing satura-
tion of Islamophobia in the airwaves and public Defining the problem
atmosphere. Trump simply parrots the dominant
We should make a fundamental shift in how
narrative, but more crudely than the polite or
236 Maggie Haberman, Glenn Thrush and Peter Baker, “Inside Trump’s Islamophobia Studies Journal vol. 2, no. 2, 2014, pp. 29–42. JSTOR, www.
Hour-by-Hour battle for Self-Preservation.” New York Times, December jstor.org/stable/10.13169/islastudj.2.2.0029
9, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/09/us/politics/donald-trump- 238 “Anti-Muslim Activities in the United States: Violence, Threats, and
president.html?_r=0; Philip Bump, “Here are all the times we’re pretty sure Discrimination at the Local Level,” New America, 2018, https://www.
that Trump was watching Fox News as president,” The Washington Post, newamerica.org/in-depth/anti-muslim-activity/
November 29, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/politics/
239 Hatem Bazian, “Islamophobia and ‘The Three Evils of Society,’”
wp/2017/11/29/here-are-all-the-times-were-pretty-sure-that-trump-was-
Islamophobia Studies Journal, vol. 3, no. 1, 2015, pp. 158–166. JSTOR, www.
watching-fox-news-as-president/?utm_term=.279380d8918b
jstor.org/stable/10.13169/islastudj.3.1.0158.
237 Uzma Jamil, “Reading Power: Muslims in the War on Terror Discourse.”
65
we define Islamophobia and identify the areas challenges facing society in general.
of emphasis for research and work to counter The strategy has been tried and tested many
the pernicious phenomenon. Correctly defined, times in the past with devastating consequences.
Islamophobia is a structural organizing principle Claiming to defend and protect society from a
that is employed to rationalize and extend “strange,” “foreign,” or “different” ethnic, religious,
the dominant global power alignment, while and racial grouping is not new and always ends in
attempting to silence the collective global other. absolute disaster. A brief examination of America’s
Yes, the basic term, “Islamophobia,” can be defined history gives us many examples of such a strategy:
as “fear,” “anxiety” or “phobia” of Muslims, but targeting Native Americans; oppressing African
at the same time it is a far more encompassing Americans during slavery, Jim Crow, and to the
process impacting law, economy, and society. At present; the Chinese Exclusionary Act; demonizing
one level, its civil society ideologues attempt to Catholics; anti-Semitism and targeting Eastern
classify who belongs to the “civilized world,” the Jewish immigrants in the early period of the 20th
criteria for membership, and who is the demonized century; Japanese internment; and the never-
and ostracized global other. At a deeper level, ending anti-Mexican discourse. When we examine
each one of these episodes in America’s history,
we can identify the political forces that used fear,
Reducing the rights and citizenship of Muslims to a bigotry, and demonization to gain power for them-
selves while claiming a defense of the country from
debate about the nature of Islam allows the right wing enemies, which in each case led to undermining
and Islamophobes to externalize and demonize Muslims, the constitutional, ethical, and moral foundation
especially by magnifying cultural differences, a strategy of society itself.
Critically, targeting Muslims serves as a conve-
which then gets packaged into campaigns to save nient foil for right-wing political forces desiring
Western society from a possible takeover. to roll back civil rights legislation, voter and
immigration rights, environmental protection, and
equitable economic policies.240 Islamophobia makes
Islamophobia is a renewed drive to rationalize it possible to reduce and narrow the scope of the
existing domestic and global racial stratification, debates and frame national issues under the rubric
economic power hierarchies, and open-ended of national security and through a manipulative
militarism. Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms appeal to patriotism. Here, the terms of debate
racial structures that are used to regulate resource are set by right-wing forces but also draw in the
distribution domestically and globally. center, left, and segments of the progressives who
At the core, demonization of the Muslim respond to criticisms of religion and Islam, such
subject has less to do with the subject him/herself as impassioned arguments to save Muslim women
and more to do with the cunning forces that view from Muslim men in faraway lands.241 We must be
the targeting of Muslims and Islam as the best reminded that the debates are not about the nature
strategy to rehabilitate their discredited agenda of Islam as a religion, but rather about the rights
and image in society. Peddling and stoking fear is of Muslims as citizens and equals in American
utilized as a substitute for offering sound economic and Western society. Reducing the rights and
and social policies and engaging in legitimate citizenship of Muslims to a debate about the nature
debates on how best to address the multitude of of Islam allows the right wing and Islamophobes
240 Elsadig Elsheikh, Basima Sisemore, and Natalia Ramirez Lee, “Legalizing Mahmood, Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject
Othering The United States of Islamophobia,” Haas Institute for a Fair and (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011); Sana Tayyen. “From
Inclusive Society, UC Berkeley, 2017. Orientalist Sexual Object to Burkini Terrorist Threat: Muslim Women
241 Lila Abu-Lughod, “Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? through Evolving Lens,” Islamophobia Studies Journal vol. 4, no. 1 (2017):
Anthropological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and Its Others,” American 101–114. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/islastudj.4.1.0101; Telhami
Anthropologist, 104, no. 3 (September 2002): 783-790; Fadwa El Guindi. Shibley, “What Americans Really Think about Muslims and Islam,” The
Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance (Oxford: Oxford Press, 2003); Saba Brookings Institution, December 9, 2015.
242 Noam Chomsky, Media Control: The Spectacular Achievements of 90% Of The Media In America,” Business Insider, June 14, 2002, http://www.
Propaganda 2nd Ed. (Seven Stories Press, 2002); Edward Herrmann and businessinsider.com/these-6-corporations-control-90-of-the-media-in-
Robert W. McChesney. Global Media: The New Missionaries of Global america-2012-6
Capitalism (A&C Black, 2001); Ashley Lutz, “These 6 Corporations Control
243 Christopher Nelson, “The Domestic Is Political, and the Political Is Press, 2012); Gargi S. Bhattacharyya, Dangerous Brown Men: Exploiting Sex,
Gendered: An Analysis of Veiled Subjects, Gendered Epistemologies, and Violence and Feminism in the “War on Terror” (London: Zed Books, 2012):
Muslim Bodies,” Islamophobia Studies Journal, vol. 3, no. 1, (2015): 106– Sabri Ciftci, “Islamophobia and Threat Perceptions: Explaining Anti Muslim
114, JSTOR. www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/islastudj.3.1.0106 Sentiment in the West,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 23, no. 3 (2012):
244 Hatem Bazian, “National Entry-Exit Registration System: Arabs, Muslims, 293–309; Brigitte Lebens Nacos and Oscar Torres Reyna, Fueling Our Fears:
and Southeast Asians and Post-9/11 ‘Security Measures,’” Islamophobia Stereotyping, Media Coverage, and Public Opinion of Muslim Americans
Studies Journal, vol. 2, no. 1 (2014): 82–98. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/ (Rowman & Littlefield, 2007); John Sides and Kimberly Gross, “Stereotypes
stable/10.13169/islastudj.2.1.0082. of Muslims and Support for the War on Terror,” The Journal of Politics 75,
245 S. Sayyid, “A Measure of Islamophobia,” Islamophobia Studies no. 3 (2013): pp.583–98; Joseph Suad and Benjamin D’Harlingue, “The Wall
Journal, vol. 2, no. 1 (2014): 10–25. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/ Street Journal’s Muslims: Representing Islam in American Print News Media,”
islastudj.2.1.0010; Evelyn Alsultany, The Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Islamophobia Studies Journal vol. 1, no. 1 (2012): 132–164. JSTOR, www.
Race and Representation after 9/11 (New York, NY: New York University jstor.org/stable/10.13169/islastudj.1.1.0132
246 Alex Kane, “Even Muslim-American Citizens Have Been Caught in Security Policy, 2016, https://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/wpcontent/
the Net of Trump’s Travel Ban,” The Nation March 23, 2017, https:// uploads/2016/12/Mosque_in_America.pdf
www.thenation.com/article/even-muslim-american-citizens-have-been- 248 Southern Poverty Law Center, Intelligence Report: The Year in
caught-in-the-net-of-trumps-travel-ban/; Andy Greenberg, “A Guide to Hate and Extremism, February 15, 2017, https://www.splcenter.org/
Getting Past Customs with Your Digital Privacy Intact,” WIRED, February news/2017/02/15/hate-groups-increase-second-consecutive-year-trump-
12, 2017, https://www.wired.com/2017/02/guide-getting-past-customs- electrifies-radical-right; South Asians Americans Leading Together Report,
digital-privacy-intact/; Faiza Patel and Rachel Levinson-Waldman, “The Communities on Fire: Confronting Hate Violence and Xenophobic Political
Islamophobic Administration,” Brennan Center for Justice, April 9, 2017, Rhetoric, 2018, http://saalt.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Communities-
https://www.brennancenter.org/publication/islamophobic-administration on-Fire.pdf
247 Rebecca Guterman, “This Virginia County Denied a Necessary Permit 249 Christopher Ingraham, “American mosques — and American
to Build a Mosque, and It Doesn’t Pass the Smell Test,” ACLU’s Program Muslims — are being targeted for hate like never before,” The Washington
on Freedom of Religion and Belief, February 14, 2017, https://www.aclu. Post, August 8, 2017, https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/nation-
org/blog/religious-liberty/free-exercise-religion/virginia-county-denied- world/article/American-mosques-and-American-Muslims-are-11742354.
necessary-permit-build-mosque; Emma Kate Fittes, “Muslim leaders get php; also, see 2015 figures in Daniel Burke, “Threats, harassment, vandalism
pushback on plans to build mosque in residential neighborhood,” The at mosques reach record high,” CNN, December 11, 2015, https://www.cnn.
Indianapolis Star, January 15, 2018, https://www.desertsun.com/story/news/ com/2015/12/10/living/mosques-attack-study-2015/index.html
nation-now/2018/01/15/carmel-indiana-mosque-plans/1033737001/;
250 Arjun Singh Sethi, “Calling the Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist group
The Islamophobic Center for Security Policy led by Frank J. Gaffney, Jr.
would hurt all American Muslims,” The Washington Post, February 8, 2017,
put out a whole guide on contesting the building of mosques through
https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2017/02/08/calling-
the permitting process. See Karen Lugo, “Mosques in America: A Guide to
the-muslim-brotherhood-a-terrorist-group-would-hurt-all-american-
Accountable Permit Hearings and Continuing Citizen Oversight,” Center for
73
under the title “Islamophobia: Understanding rather, across Europe and America. It can also
Anti-Muslim Sentiment in the West,” on the apply to Anders Breivik, because his fear was that
other hand, gives a detailed explanation of Norway was polluting itself with immigrants and
Islamophobia, including how and why it affects that there was not enough space in Norway for the
Muslims. It defines Islamophobia as “an exagger- traditional Lutheran faith and Islam to coexist side
ated fear, hatred, and hostility toward Islam and by side.
Muslims that is perpetuated by negative stereotypes A Runnymede Trust Report centered on
resulting in bias, discrimination, and the margin- Islamophobia defined it as an “unfounded hostility
alization and exclusion of Muslims from social, towards Muslims, and, therefore, fear or dislike
political, and civic life.”256 of all or most Muslims.”260 As we examine anti-
This is especially true since terrorist attacks are Muslim research, there is a paradigm that emerges.
covered extensively by national news media, which The definition of Islamophobia is characterized
may give the false impression that they happen all by some level of aversion, fear, or hatred toward
the time. However, terrorism is a rare phenom- Muslims in general because of the extreme acts of a
enon, with a few instigators. few radicalized individuals in society. It stems from
Islamophobia is not confined to the United a lack of understanding of the Muslim faith and
States. Here is an example of Islamophobia from stereotypes that are broadly and indiscriminately
Norway. On July 22, 2011, a Norwegian extremist imposed on an entire population.
set off a fertilizer bomb inside the capital and then
proceeded to shoot teenagers attending a youth The Three Waves of Islamophobia
camp.257 Anders Behring Breivik carried out these in the United States
attacks because he believed that social democrats
Three waves of Islamophobia have prevailed in
were turning his country over to Muslim control.258
the United States, each at a different point in time
This is a prime example of Islamophobia, because
and as a result of a unique set of circumstances.
Breivik not only feared Muslims, but also feared
The first wave of Islamophobia emerged after the
their potential control. In the end, his fear was
1979-1981 Iran hostage crisis. The second wave
great enough to urge him to become the terrorist
of Islamophobia emerged after the September 11,
himself. Initial media reports assumed that radical
2001, attacks, and the third wave of Islamophobia
Muslims were behind the attacks. In this case,
emerged after the recent attacks in Paris, San
Gallup polls would best define these reports as
Bernardino, California, and Orlando, Florida. The
Islamophobic, because the Norwegians’ bias against
third wave of Islamophobia could be said to be
Islam and Muslims did not allow them to see
the most aggressive and most detrimental wave,
another attacker or aggressor until much later.
due to its far-reaching destructive effects and
According to a 2016 Council on American-
negative ramifications, mainly as a result of the
Islamic Relations report titled “Confronting
wide publicity, via both mainstream media and
Fear: Islamophobia and its Impact in the United
social media. Many media outlets spread negative
States,” the Center for Race and Gender defines
images, distorted stereotypes, and hate speech
Islamophobia as a social construct that “rein-
against Muslims, linking them to acts of violence,
troduces and reaffirms a global racial structure
extremism, and terrorism. The wide outreach of
through which resource distribution disparities
these media venues and their immediate, instant
are maintained and extended.”259 This definition
transmission magnified their impact on many
accounts for Islamophobia all over the world,
audiences. This, in turn, resulted in an escalation
because it is not present in just one society, but,
256 “Islamophobia: Understanding Anti-Muslim Sentiment in the West,” 259 “Confronting Fear: Islamophobia and its Impact in the United States,”
Gallup, accessed February 21, 2018. http://news.gallup.com/poll/157082/ Council on American-Islamic Relations, 2016. http://www.islamophobia.org/
islamophobia-understanding-anti-muslim-sentiment-west.aspx images/ConfrontingFear/Final-Report.pdf
257 Sindre Bangstad, Anders Breivik and the Rise of Islamophobia (London: 260 Gordon Conway, “Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All; Report by
Zed Books. 2014). x. the Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia.”
258 Ibid. (London: London Runnymede Trust. 1997).
Recommendations on
the Right Approaches to
Effective strategies and tactics needed to counter
Countering Islamophobia
Islamophobia include combining technological savvy
• Being “proactive” rather than “reactive.” (Being
the fire preventer is always better than being with wit, humor, intelligence, and swift reply, in addition
the firefighter.) In other words, Muslims should to using the right message, through the right medium to
make a sincere effort to spread the correct
information about their faith to others, i.e., to
reach the right audience at the right time.
non-Muslims, at all times, not just as a reaction
to Islamophobic acts or campaigns, or being on
the defensive after an act of terror is committed • Integrating and including Muslims in all forms
by someone having a Muslim name. of community activities in their respective
neighborhoods and communities, and exhibiting
• Being outspoken and frank about the problem their concern about issues related to education,
of extremism and condemning terrorism, openly schooling, the environment, transportation, etc.,
and loudly, without being excessively apologetic in addition to issues of social justice, equity, and
to the extent of being ashamed of one’s identity inclusion. This will help to solidify and highlight
and religious affiliation and/or becoming less their role as active citizens who are visibly
willing to declare it publicly. engaged and effectively integrated in their
• Avoiding violence, aggression and offensive respective societies.
language and actions in reaction to Islamophobic • Finally, encouraging more Muslims to run for
acts or messages. This is especially important office at the local and national levels, which
since such aggressive acts can only add to the would be an excellent way to safeguard the inter-
problem of associating Muslims with terrorism ests of the Muslim community and to counter
and extremism, and, therefore, can prove to be anti-Muslim policies and legislation that could
truly harmful, damaging, and counterproductive. be harmful to their interests, both at the present
Also, it is not possible to defend the Muslim and in the future, in addition to countering anti-
faith by defying its principles, or to defend Muslim sentiments and actions.
the Prophet of Islam by betraying his values
Outlandish slurs and ludicrous conspiracy theories human rights and fundamental freedoms,
about Islam and Muslims are running rampant in including the principle of equality for all people
the United States, with terrible consequences in of all ages and from all walks of life, and to this
terms of bigotry and violence. These fraudulent end, recognizes that broad-based and sustained
claims resonate in huge right-wing echo chambers economic growth in the context of sustainable
filled with Islamophobic scare stories that are development is necessary to sustain social devel-
mobilizing people into action against a threat opment and social justice.265
Attorney Ann Fagan Ginger, founder of
the Meiklejohn Civil Liberties Institute, began
Today the idea of human rights is getting battered from promoting the idea of a human rights framework
the seats of power in our nation’s capital. We watch as in the United States in the 1960s. Black feminist
organizer Loretta Ross returned from the 1995
attacks on Muslims, Jews, people of color, immigrants, Beijing conference on women fired up, and
and those in the LGBTQ communities create horrific re-centered her work as part of a struggle for basic
human rights for all. Sometimes it takes decades
headlines on a daily basis. for ideas to gain traction. And sometimes the
struggle for human rights is pushed backward.
Today the idea of human rights is getting battered
perceived to be real. Sociological theory tells us
from the seats of power in our nation’s capital. We
that situations defined as real are real in their
watch as attacks on Muslims, Jews, people of color,
consequences.264
immigrants, and those in the LGBTQ communities
I write as a person active in the global human
create horrific headlines on a daily basis.
rights movement framed in the “Platform for
Yet there is resistance. I have many allies in
Action” issued at the United Nations Fourth
the struggle for human rights. Penny Rosenwasser
World Conference on Women, held in Beijing,
works with children from the Middle East,
China, in September 1995.
building bridges across religious, ethnic, and racial
===The Platform for Action requires imme- boundaries.266 Ruby Sales is a legendary civil rights
diate and concerted action by all to create activist who recovered from the trauma of seeing
a peaceful, just and humane world based on her friend and ally Jonathan Daniels shot dead in
264 William Isaac Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas, The Child in for Equality, Development and Peace: Platform for Action,” UN.org,
America: Behavior Problems and Programs (New York, N.Y.: A.A. Knopf, September 2015, para. 4, last accessed March 23, 2018, http://www.un.org/
1928), 572. womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/plat1.htm#statement.
265 The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, “Action 266 Penny Rosenwasser. See http://pennyrosenwasser.com/about/.
78
1965 by a shotgun blast meant for her.267 Since Categorizing the Antagonists
then Sales has devoted her life to healing the
Why is it necessary to explore the categories in
wounds of racial, gender, and religious bigotry.268
detail? Especially in the United States with our
Professor Mohammad Jafar Mahallati has proposed
First Amendment protection on free speech, it is
an international day of friendship among the
important to note that in terms of the law it is a
peoples of the world.269 Friendship is based on
big step from advocacy to intimidation, assault,
mutual respect rather than “tolerance,” a word
and violence. These acts are not protected by
which implies some fault that must be overlooked
our Constitution. Primarily, it is the aggressive/
out of courtesy.
genocidal sector noted below that should be
All four of us (and many more allies) see
the concern of law enforcement agencies. Many
ourselves as part of a global human rights move-
right-wing populist movements in the U.S. spread
ment, in which we work as people of faith,
Islamophobia as part of a larger portfolio of white
following the path of the children of Abraham,
ethno-nationalism, yet this alone does not justify
and in accordance with the United Nations’
constant aggressive and intrusive law enforcement
Mandates on Human Rights.270 Interviewed in the
monitoring.
spring of 2017, Ruby Sales continued holding our
Islamophobia is also centered in mainstream
nation accountable for living up to its promises.
narratives and ideologies that frame all Muslims as
“When people say that racism is not an American
an undifferentiated subversive threat to our nation.
value, referring to Donald Trump and his racism,
This challenges all of us as participants in a multi-
I’m able to go back in time and show them that
dimensional society to be critical of Islamophobia
not only is it part of the American value system,
in political movements and social movements that
but it is also part of our history.”271 Sales reminds
exist within the worldview of political party leaders
us that Martin Luther King Jr. gave us hope when
and followers.
he said, “No lie can last forever,” and, “The
If you are struggling to push back Islamophobia
arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends
in the United States, it is useful to know whom
towards justice.”
to push. See accompanying chart for examples.
Right-wing populism
Some Recommendations
for Public Policies
The goals of right-wing populist movements are
not only defensive or reactive. Matthew N. Lyons Randy Borum warns that in “discourse about
and I argue their growth is often fueled by fears of countering terrorism, the term ‘radicalization’
liberal social and economic policies and left-wing is widely used, but remains poorly defined. To
social movements. We also identified Andrew focus narrowly on ideological radicalization risks
Jackson as “the first U.S. president elected with implying that radical beliefs are a proxy — or at
least a necessary precursor — for terrorism, though
we know this not to be true.”275 Be aware that the
term “violent radicalization” can tread on First
Avoid the vague blanket terms “hate groups,” “hate Amendment guarantees. The phrase “Bigoted
crimes,” and “hate speech.” Instead use word pairs that violence” better highlights the actual problem.
link the prejudice to the problematic acts. • Avoid the vague blanket terms “hate groups,”
“hate crimes,” and “hate speech.” Instead use
word pairs that link the prejudice to the prob-
lematic acts. This creates a teaching moment.
the use of populist rhetoric” and claimed the first
Islamophobic bias Misogynist attacks Anti-Mexican
U.S. populist movement we would unequivocally
Anti-Semitic Anti-black discrimination
describe as right wing was the Reconstruction-era
language violence Sexist language
Ku Klux Klan.…”
Homophobic Anti-immigrant Racist jokes
Fascism, Neofascism, and Neonazism stereotypes xenophobia
Roger Griffin argues that fascism “is a revolu-
tionary form of nationalism” seeking to forge “the When we use the word “hate” we teach 80
‘people’ into a dynamic national community” percent of white Americans that they have no
using populist rhetoric and a “purifying, cathartic complicity in systems of oppression and political
national rebirth” to make the nation great again.273 repression. The remaining 20 percent already
Robert Paxton says fascism is marked by obses- know that’s not true.
sive preoccupation with community decline, • Be willing to criticize the mass media and their
humiliation or victimhood” that generates advertisers when they profit from the use of
272 Cas Mudde, “The Problem with Populism,” The Guardian, February 17, 274 Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (New York: Knopf, 1994),
2015, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/feb/17/problem- 218.
populism-syriza-podemos-dark-side-europe. 275 Randy Borum, “Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of
273 Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (New York: St. Martin’s Press, Social Science Theories,” Journal of Strategic Security, Volume 4, Issue 4
1991), xi. (2011): 7-36.
276 Chip Berlet, “Mapping the Political Right: Gender and Race Oppression Incites Scripted Violence” in Matthew Feldman and Paul Jackson (eds),
in Right-Wing Movements,” in Abby Ferber, ed., Home-Grown Hate: Doublespeak: Rhetoric of the Far-Right Since 1945 (Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag,
Gender and Organized Racism (New York: Routledge, 2004): 18-45. Online 2014). Online at https://www.academia.edu/26640115/Heroes_Know_
at https://www.academia.edu/34734671/. Which_Villains_to_Kill_How_Coded_Rhetoric_Incites_Scripted_Violence
277 Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality 279 Frank James, “Martin Luther King Jr. in Chicago,” Chicago Tribune,
of Evil (New York: Viking Press, 1963). An excellent discussion of last accessed March 23, 2018, http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/
Arendt’s thesis is by Judith Butler, “Hannah Arendt’s challenge to Adolf nationworld/politics/chi-chicagodays-martinlutherking-story-story.html.
Eichmann, The Guardian, August 29, 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/ 280 Myrydd Wells, “Georgia Capitol’s Martin Luther King Jr. statue unveiled
commentisfree/2011/aug/29/hannah-arendt-adolf-eichmann-banality-of- on 54th anniversary of “I Have a Dream,” Atlanta Magazine, August 28,
evil. 2017, http://www.atlantamagazine.com/news-culture-articles/georgia-
278 Chip Berlet, “Heroes Know Which Villains to Kill: How Coded Rhetoric capitols-martin-luther-king-jr-statue-unveiled-54th-anniversary-dream/.
281 Isaiah 10: 1-4. New International Version (NIV). Nashville, TN: Harper Collins Christian Publishing.
83
curb extremism through the promotion of ideals of countries address social cohesion and plurality
tolerance, moderation, mutual respect and peaceful by highlighting the role of families in countering
coexistence. The same efforts should also be extremist attitudes and encouraging reconciliation
directed toward strengthening existing mechanisms in communities. It is also important to engage
for interreligious and intrafaith dialogue, to help religious communities in addressing extremism and
avoid misperceptions and promote better under- sectarian divides, and to find common values on
standing and mutual respect within and among all which understanding and cooperation can be built.
religions. Governments and international organizations need
to engage civil society organizations that have
Layer 2: On the Media Front experience in conflict resolution, cooperation, and
Stakeholders must work together with the media political reconciliation.
to promote the understanding of responsible use
of freedom of speech, while governments need to Layer 5: On the International
make xenophobic media accountable for perpetu- and National Fronts
ating hate speech and extremism. Also, a variety Islamophobia is among the major contemporary
of communication channels could be used to global challenges that intertwine and intermingle
expand public debate and engagement, especially with other issues, such as terrorism, extremism,
among youth. radicalization, human rights, conflicts among
religions, intrareligious tensions, religion-based
Layer 3: On the Development genocide, etc. Therefore, in addition to the above-
and Security Fronts mentioned approach, the international community
Governments, particularly in Western countries, should work hand in hand to collectively tackle
need to expand the outreach of development the scourge of Islamophobia, extremism and intol-
programs to deprived Muslim immigrant communi- erance with resolve and strength. At this stage,
ties. There is an urgent need for multilateral and the impact would be significant if stakeholders
bilateral talks to review the issues of discrimina- put into practice the formula and recommenda-
tion in employment, opportunities, and social tions prescribed by U.N. Human Rights Council
integration, in order deter unemployed Muslim Resolution 16/18.
youth from falling prey to extremist ideologies. Resolution 16/18 is a sign of hope for global
This approach is pertinent because to address the action on tackling discrimination, intolerance
issue of Islamophobia, the measures need to move and stigmatization based on religion and belief;
beyond a sole focus on anti-terrorism and military hence it is very important that stakeholders make
solutions; development goals should be incorpo- a commitment to ensure progress on this interna-
rated into deradicalization and counterterrorism tional consensus. There is a follow-up mechanism
efforts. in the form of annual sessions of the Istanbul
Process, but unfortunately, this mechanism thus
Layer 4: On the Education and Society Fronts far has not been given enough visibility and
It is critical to integrate peace education by prominence by many governments. Therefore, at
incorporating human rights and multicultural the national level it is important that governments
values into schools’ curricula. In parallel, there enforce necessary legislation against acts that
is a need to implement programs and to mobilize lead to incitement of hatred, discrimination and
resources to support community engagement for violence against persons based on their religion.
peace. Continued research and policy dialogue are
needed in order to have a better understanding Some Major Obstacles
of the modalities and strategies used to spread
extremism, including the social and value-based Muslims have been targets of negative stereotyping
drivers of extremism. Stakeholders should make and prejudice in all its forms and manifestations for
efforts to ensure that policies and programs in quite some time. Particularly since the attacks on
the World Trade Center in 2001, the phenomenon
Recommendations
Islamophobia is a complex issue, and there are • Create initiatives toward developing a healthy
major obstacles that may impede us from having national/religious identity to increase young
an effective strategy to combat it. Therefore, I Muslims’ contribution to the wider community
offer a series of practical recommendations, in without denying their religion
hopes they might help stakeholders inform their • Engage with civil society and young people
policies or take necessary measures: in implementing government programs and
• Emphasize fundamental human rights and free- actions to address religion and discrimination
doms in combating Islamophobia • Engage in a constructive and meaningful
• Use existing U.N. treaties on religious free- dialogue (interreligious, intercultural, and inter-
doms, freedom of expression, prohibition of civilizational) toward cohesive and harmonious
racial discrimination, etc. as tools to combat societies
Islamophobia • Create more space to facilitate social interac-
• Ensure progress on the existing international tion between Muslims and non-Muslims
consensus in the form of the Action Plan of • Work toward changing the hearts and minds
U.N. Human Rights Council Resolution 16/18, of non-Muslim Westerners to believe that
which establishes a policy framework for states to immigrants are not necessarily a threat to their
address intolerance, discrimination, and violence values and principles
against persons based on religion or belief • In Muslim countries and communities, work
• Encourage governments to revive the United more for displaying to the world what Muslims
Nations Alliance of Civilizations initiative, are, rather than simply denying what the
giving special attention to the Muslim-Western extremists have been saying or doing
divide fueling Islamophobia • Challenge the ongoing myth of “Islamization”
• Adopt integrated rather than geographical of the West as nurtured by xenophobic, popu-
approaches in countering Islamophobia list parties who have been on the rise across
• Establish strong links among groups who Europe and elsewhere
fight religion-based discrimination, including • Encourage legal and civic advocacy to oppose
Islamophobia, anti-Semitism and Christian- normalization of Islamophobia in mainstream
phobia, while creating alliances with other political and media discourses, particularly in
groups that have been marginalized and dehu- Europe and the U.S.
manized on the basis of racism and xenophobia. • Work to counter media reports that propagate
• Create centers for the study of Islam in Western stereotypes and stigmatize Muslim populations
societies—similar to the few that already exist • Insist governments draw a line and take
at Georgetown and Harvard universitie. concrete action to end conditions that
• In Muslim societies and countries, internally stigmatize and alienate Muslims, while devel-
address issues and factors that contribute to oping mechanisms to counter all types of
negative images of Islam and Muslims, and discrimination
emphasize the importance of proper Islamic • Continue condemning all acts of terrorism
education for young children to avoid igno- irrespective of where they take place and who
rance of religion among the new generation commits them
The British state in its efforts to counter terrorism referred to a “Channel program”— a “voluntary,”
and prevent radicalisation has drawn public institu- “multi-agency” initiative, that includes a panel
tions such as schools and universities increasingly “chaired by the local authority, and attended by
into its fold. The Counter Terrorism and Security other partners, such as representatives from educa-
Act (CTSA) of 2015 has strengthened the state’s tion and health services” who “discuss the referral,
security agenda in these institutions under its assess the extent of the vulnerability, and decide
“Prevent” program through imposing a “statutory on a tailored package of support.”285 With the most
dominant threat coming from terrorist groups such
as Daesh (and Al Qaeda in the past), Prevent in
educational institutions has predominantly focused
Instead of helping individuals who are “vulnerable”
on Muslim students.286 In universities, Islamic
to terrorism, the implementation of Prevent in Student Societies (ISocs) in particular have been
universities has increased Muslim student vulnerability singled out.287 Instead of helping individuals who
are “vulnerable” to terrorism, the implementation
toward Islamophobia. of Prevent in universities has increased Muslim
student vulnerability toward Islamophobia. My
work focuses on biographical narratives of Muslim
duty” on educational institutions to report on students, in particular women and members of
any student who is “vulnerable to being drawn ISocs who share their experiences of Islamophobia
into terrorism.”284 “Prevent” is part of the British and the British state’s counterterrorism strategy
government’s four-pronged approach (that includes in universities and in their communities. This
Protect, Pursue, Prepare) under its CONTEST paper explores these narratives to understand in
strategy, a counterterrorism program that was depth the impact of counterterrorism policies
created in 2003 but whose scope has since widened on individuals and communities, and to provide
in the aftermath of terrorist attacks and threats in insights and recommendations on how to work
the UK. The aim of Prevent is to stop individuals against extremism and terrorism without inciting
from becoming terrorists by intervening at an early Islamophobia, especially in institutions such as
stage, at which point the suspected individual is schools and universities.
284 Her Majesty’s Government (HM Government), Counter Terrorism and 286 See T. Saeed and D. Johnson, “Intelligence, Global Terrorism and
Security Act 2015. (UK: Crown). Higher Education: neutralising threats or alienating allies?” British Journal of
285 Home Office, Individuals referred to and supported through the Educational Studies, 64(1), (2016): 37-51.
Prevent Programme, April 2015 to March 2016. Statistical Bulletin 23/17 287 Tufyal Choudhury, “Campaigning on Campus: Student Islamic Societies
(2017). and Counterterrorism,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 40(12), (2017):
1004-1022.
88
Muslim Women and Securitization at young Muslim women in a hijab or niqab who
are either walking alone or in a group with other
In media representations and political rhetoric,
women. Young women who have been called
Muslim women oscillate between a victim in
“lesbian” as an insult believe it stems from the idea
need of being rescued from a primitive religion
of Muslim gender segregation, and the assumption
and a dangerous terrorist hidden in broad
that Muslim women are sexually repressed in line
daylight behind a veil, ideologically and physi-
with a heteronormative ideal of sexuality and
cally disrupting the progressive “Western” way of
normality.290
life. While Muslim men are simply stereotyped
Muslim women have also been subject to
as dangerous, presenting a direct physical threat,
physical attacks, and are more vulnerable to
Muslim women oxymoronically are stereotyped
Islamophobic behaviour in the aftermath of a
as the “vulnerable fanatic.”288 Reports of British
terrorist attack or threat, but also most recently in
Muslim women joining Daesh further reinforce
the aftermath of Brexit, the UK’s decision to leave
this fear.
the European Union after the 2016 referendum.
These stereotypes have actual consequences for
According to the organization Tell MAMA
Muslim women in their day-to-day lives, resulting
in experiences of Islamophobia in neighbour-
hoods, as well as schools and universities. The
extent of this experience varies, dependent on
their “degrees of religiosity” determined by their Muslim women have also been subject to physical
physical appearance: women wearing the full attacks, and are more vulnerable to Islamophobic
face veil (niqab) are the most vulnerable to such
attacks, followed by those who wear the headscarf behaviour in the aftermath of a terrorist attack or threat,
(hijab); women wearing cultural dresses that are but also most recently in the aftermath of Brexit, the
linked to a Muslim country can also be subject to
UK’s decision to leave the European Union after the
Islamophobic abuse; but women who are practicing
Muslims without any physical religious signifiers 2016 referendum.
face another type of Islamophobia: They have to
prove their Muslimness to both non-Muslim and
overtly practicing Muslim groups, constantly ques-
(Measuring Anti Muslim Attacks), 1,223 reports
tioned about their religiosity.289
of Islamophobia were made in 2016, with 64
The level of abuse ranges from Islamophobic
percent taking place “offline,” in which 56 percent
slurs such as niqabi women called “ninja” in a
of the victims were women.291 Their research also
derogatory manner, or Muslim women called
highlights “surges” in these reports after Brexit
“Osama bin Laden’s wife,” the more common being
and terrorist attacks in the UK. While Muslim
labeled “terrorist” but also being called a lesbian
women often become scapegoats for the actions of
as an insult. While the link between media and
terrorists who are as much a threat to the Muslim
political rhetoric on terrorism and Muslims can
community as they are to the rest of the British
explain these insults, the term “lesbian” reveals a
population, the normalization of Islamophobia
different form of Islamophobic prejudice that over-
is evident through the implementation of the
laps with homophobia. “Lesbian” is often shouted
Prevent duty in universities in Britain.
288 K. Brown, “The promise and perils of women’s participation in UK Voice (UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), pp. 59-63.
Mosques: The impact of securitisation agendas on identity, gender and 289 T. Saeed, Islamophobia and Securitization. Religion, Ethnicity and the
community,” The British Journal of Politics & International Relations, 10 (3), Female Voice (UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
(2008): 472–491; E.M. Saltman and M. Smith, “‘Till Martyrdom Do Us Part’
290 T. Saeed, Islamophobia and Securitization. Religion, Ethnicity and the
Gender and the ISIS Phenomenon,” Institute for Strategic Dialogue (2015);
Female Voice (UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
P. Werbner, “Honor, shame and the politics of sexual embodiment among
South Asian Muslims in Britain and beyond: An analysis of debates in the 291 Tell MAMA, A Constructed Threat: Identity, Intolerance and the Impact
public sphere,” International Social Science Review, 6 (1), (2005): 25–47; T. of Anti-Muslim Hatred , Tell MAMA Annual Report 2016 (UK: Faith Matters,
Saeed, Islamophobia and Securitization. Religion, Ethnicity and the Female 2017).
292 “Suicide bombers’ ‘ordinary’ lives,” BBC News, July 16, 2005, http:// education/2015/feb/02/counter-terrorism-security-bill-threat-freedom-of-
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4678837.stm. speech-universities.
293 “Profile: Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab,” BBC News, October 12, 2011, 295 A. O’Donnell, “Securitisation, Counterterrorism and the Silencing
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-11545509; V. Dodd, “Profile: of Dissent: The Educational Implications of Prevent,” British Journal of
Roshonara Choudhry,” The Guardian, November 2, 2010, https://www. Educational Studies, 64(1), (2016): 53-76.
theguardian.com/uk/2010/nov/02/profile-roshonara-choudhry-stephen- 296 Open Society Justice Initiative, Eroding Trust. The UK’s PREVENT
timms; L. Dearden, “Isis’ British brides: What we know about the girls and Counter-extremism Strategy in Health and Education (US: Open Society
women still in Syria after the death of Kadiza Sultana,” The Independent, Foundations, 2016).
August 12, 2016, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/isis-
297 R. Jackson, “The epistemological crisis of counterterrorism,” Critical
british-brides-kadiza-sultana-girls-women-syria-married-death-killed-aqsa-
Studies on Terrorism, 8(1), (2015): 33-54.
mahmood-islamic-state-a7187751.html.
298 T. Saeed and D. Johnson, “Intelligence, Global Terrorism and Higher
294 “Counter-terrorism and security bill is a threat to freedom of speech at
Education: neutralising threats or alienating allies?,” British Journal of
universities,” The Guardian, February 2, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/
Educational Studies, 64(1), (2016): 37-51.
304 A. Topping and S. Marsh, “Divisive NUS president Malia Bouattia 305 NUS Black Students, Preventing Prevent. A Student Handbook on
defeated in election,” The Guardian, April 26, 2017, https://www. Countering the PREVENT Agenda on Campus (London: NUS, 2015), http://
theguardian.com/education/2017/apr/26/malia-bouattia-shakira-martin- www.nusconnect.org.uk/resources/preventing-prevent-handbook.
nus-national-union-of-students-president-election.
306 A. O’Donnell, “Securitisation, Counterterrorism and the Silencing Educational Studies, 64(1), (2016): 71.
of Dissent: The Educational Implications of Prevent, British Journal of 307 #NotInMyName http://isisnotinmyname.com.
308 See the annually published European Islamophobia Report for more 312 Legifrance, “Loi du 15 mars 2004-228 encadrant, en application
detailed nationally based examples E. Bayrakli and F. Hafez, European du principe de laïcité, le porte de signes ou de tenues manifestant une
Islamophobia Report Istanbul, SETA (2017), E. Bayrakli and F. Hafez (eds.), appartenance religieuse dans les écoles, collèges et lycées publics (France)”
The State of Islamophobia in Europe, Istanbul SETA (2017). (Paris: Legifrance, 2004).
309 Annual Report 2015, CCIF, C. C. L. I., (Paris: Collectif Contre 313 Case c-157/15 Samira Achbita and Centrum voor Gelijkheid van
l’Islamophobie en France, 2016). Kansen en voor Racismebesirjding v. G4S Secure Solutions. European Court
310 Rapport d’Activités 2016. CCIB, (Brussels, Belgium: CCIB, 2017). of Justice, 2017; Case C-188/15 Asma Bougnaoui. Association de Défence
des Droits de l’Homme (ADDH) v. Micropole Univers. European Court of
311 “Holding our Media to Account: The Media Monitoring Toolkit,” in:
Justice, 2017.
MEND (ed.) (London, UK: MEND, 2014).
94
recent unanimously supported bill set to outlaw will be of global significance.
ritual slaughter (both halal and kosher) in Belgium’s The Counter-Islamophobia Kit project began
Flemish and francophone regions.314 in January 2017 and is divided into four principal
As detailed further in this paper, there is a range work streams, each lasting six months. The first
of academic research and civil society initiatives dealt with establishing dominant Islamophobic
dedicated to recording, reporting and theorising narratives in each of the cases studied. Work
Islamophobia and its diverse manifestations, much stream 2 sought to establish an overview of the
of which reaches the conclusion that more should most effective practices in countering Islamophobia
be done to effectively and systematically counter in each country studied. The remaining two
Islamophobia. In this regard, we observe that components of the project will involve the devel-
although the aforementioned endeavours consti- opment of the counter-Islamophobia toolkit and its
tute an essential and indispensable aspect, there dissemination to policy makers, experts and prac-
remains limited research and outputs in the field titioners at the local, national and international
of countering Islamophobia. This contribution level via conferences, workshops, and academic
outlines work being led by the University of Leeds, and policy-related outputs.
United Kingdom, toward the development of a
counter-Islamophobia toolkit and also highlights
some of the initial project recommendations.
Prevailing Islamophobic narratives construct Muslims
Background as being culturally or morally incompatible and
The Counter-Islamophobia Kit is a two-year therefore incomplete citizens unable to assimilate with
European Commission action grant-funded project
(JUST/2015/RRAC/AG/BEST/8910), which
Western society.
seeks to create a transferable toolkit to effectively
counter Islamophobia. The project draws on best
practices as seen across the European Union.315 It Toward a Counter-
is based on the detailed examination of eight case Islamophobia Toolkit
studies: the United Kingdom, France, Belgium,
Germany, Greece, Portugal, Hungary, and the In spite of the geographical, historical and norma-
Czech Republic. This selection of cases offers tive differences across the eight cases studied
an exciting range of examples, varying from the within the remit of this project, convergences in
study of those with large Muslim communities the nature of Islamophobic narratives emerged.
arising from post-colonial migration (UK, France, These include the fixed construction of Muslims as
Germany, Belgium), to countries with a distinctly posing a demographic threat, as having a desire to
newer and comparatively smaller Muslim presence “Islamise” the West, and as posing risk of violent
(Hungary and Czech Republic), and finally those threat. The dominant Islamophobic narratives
with comparatively small Muslim communities identified also construct Muslims as having non-
but also some degree of historical relationship and normative values surrounding gender and sexuality:
national imagination with Muslims (Greece and Muslims are seen as being promoters of gender
Portugal). Nonetheless, while these cases form inequality and quashing women’s rights along with
the basis of this project, it is envisaged that the the rights of sexual minorities, and also are seen
findings which emerge from the work will not be as being sexually perverse. Ultimately, prevailing
limited to these countries, or indeed even just the Islamophobic narratives construct Muslims as
European Union. Rather the messages that emerge being culturally or morally incompatible and
314 A. Easat-Daas, “Islamophobia in Belgium: National Report 2017,” in: E. 315 See the Counter-Islamophobia Kit for regular updates on the project,
Bayrakli and F. Hafez (eds.) European Islamophobia Report (Istanbul: SETA, including downloadable working papers — www.cik.leeds.ac.uk
2018)
316 See E. Mescoli, Work stream 1: Dominant Islamophobic Narratives - 319 See www.islamophobiaeurope.com for all previous edition of the
Comparative Report. Leeds, UK: University of Leeds, 2017, for an overview European Islamophobia Report as edited by Bayrakli, E., and Hafez, F.
and analysis of the dominant Islamophobic narratives identified in the first 320 “Rapport d’Activitiés 2016,” CCIB (Brussels, Belgium: CCIB, 2017);
stage of this project. “Annual Report 2015,” CCIF, C.C.L.I. (Paris: Collectif Contre L’Islamophobie,
317 See I. Law, A. Easat-Daas, and S. Sayyid, Dominant Counter- 2014).
Islamophobia Narratives - Comparative Report. Leeds, UK: University of 321 S. Sayyid, “A Measure of Islamophobia,” Islamophobia Studies Journal,
Leeds, 2018. 2 (2014): 10-25.
318 “Annual Report 2015,” CCIF, C.C.L.I. (Paris: Collectif Contre 322 “Belgian Muslims, Jews Challenge Slaughter Ban,” About Islam, January
L’Islamophobie, 2014). 18, 2018.
323 “Collectif Contre L’Islamophobie en France,” CCIF, accessed December March 2018.
27, 2017, www.Islamophobie.net 327 A. Easat-Daas (ed.), Islamophobia in Belgium: National Report 2016
324 Originating from within Muslim societies/the “Muslim world,” rather (Istanbul: SETA, 2016).
than being externally imposed. 328 Personal communication with C. Ibrahiem (August 2017).
325 See Edward Said, Orientalism, London Routledge, 1978. 329 See I. Trispiotis, Islamophibia in European Human Rights Law (Leeds,
326 The organisation is set to change its name to the Cann’elles as of UK: University of Leeds, 2017).
Create projects that stress an inclusive approach, • Creation of Muslim spaces — including those
which promote and respect Islamicate feminism
whereby Muslims are constructed as an integral part of and also creative expression of Muslim voices.
both the local/national current and future projections. These recommendations are not exhaustive.
Rather, there should be emphasis on continued
growth and development of concrete and action-
• Create projects that stress an inclusive approach, able strategies. Furthermore, in this regard
whereby Muslims are constructed as an integral support from the European Commission and The
part of both the local/national current and future Carter Center initiative must be welcomed and
projections. commended going ahead.
Islamophobia: From
Challenge To Opportunity
Debbie Almontaser
Bridging Cultures Group Inc.
Islamophobia is not a phobia that developed in In the aftermath of 9/11the backlash and
the aftermath of 9/11, but existed long before 9/11. discrimination against Arabs, Muslims, and South
Arabs and Muslims in the U.S. have long faced Asians was enacted in law. Legislation, such as the
negative stereotypical portrayals in the media Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing
and popular culture; Shaheen documented the Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and
demonization of Arabs and Muslims, dating back Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT) Act, led
to black-and-white silent movies.330 to the detention and deportation of thousands of
The 9/11 attacks, however, gave Islamophobia Muslims under the guise of the “War on Terror.”
greater societal weight and consequently allowed The negative coverage of Islam and Muslims in the
Islamophobic expressions to have more societal years after 9/11, including the number of terrorist
acceptability. Allen noted that, just a few days attacks committed by individuals who identify as
before the 9/11 attacks, the United Nations Muslim, and government legislation and investiga-
formally recognized Islamophobia as anti-Muslim tions completed under the war on terror, abroad
and anti-Islamic prejudice, discrimination, and and at home, has been continuous.
hatred.331 Allen stated that the United Nations’ In the last 17 years, right-wing bloggers,
recognition of Islamophobia confirms that anti- neoconservative academics, Tea Party members,
Muslim sentiment was a growing global concern. and conservative politicians have engaged in media
Allen argued, however, that the attacks have smear campaigns against Arabs and Muslims who
heightened tensions and increased the dissemina- are seeking to expand their leadership positions.
tion of fear of Muslims. The media frames of Just to name a few climaxes: The most prominent
reference within which Muslims and Islam are smear campaigns in the last 10 years occurred
portrayed are overtly negative, and sadly have in 2007, when the Khalil Gibran International
become very problematic. The negative portrayal Academy, the first Arabic dual language public
of Muslims has been normalized to the extent that school in the U.S., and its principal made front-
it has become common sense, truth, and reality page headlines as a so-called publicly funded
for many. Allen stated, “And, it is this normaliza- madrassa that sought to train homegrown terror-
tion in the wider understanding that makes the ists.333 In 2008, Sen. Barack Obama was painted
continuation and suggestion of such anti-Muslim a secret Muslim who was seeking to convert
ideas and expressions acceptable.”332 America to Islam.334 In 2010, the announcement
330 Jack Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (New 332 Ibid., 22.
York, NY: Olive Branch Press, 2001). 333 Lorraine Ali, “Speech Impediment,” Newsweek, October 1, 2007, 14.
331 Christopher Allen, “Justifying Islamophobia: a post-9/11 consideration 334 Jim Rutenberg, “The Man Behind the Whispers About Obama,” The
of the European Union and British contexts,” American Journal of Islamic New York Times, October 12, 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/13/
Social Sciences 21, no. 3 (2004): 1-25. us/politics/13martin.html
99
of a proposed Islamic cultural center in Lower when an issue impacting a community within these
Manhattan drew controversy that coined it the coalitions arose. The driving factor was ensuring
Ground Zero mosque. Bloggers and politicians racially and economically just communities that
fueled the flames of bigotry by dividing the nation upheld the civil rights of all citizens. We saw this
into two groups: a group who believed in religious work evolve over the years with opportunities
freedom anywhere, and a group who believed of genuine collaboration among these diverse
the building of a mosque near ground zero would communities.
desecrate the memory of those lost in 9/11.335
In 2011, Congressman Peter King, chair of the What were these opportunities
House Committee on Homeland Security, called that allowed intersectional and
for a hearing titled “The Extent of Radicalization intercommunity organizing to emerge?
in the American Muslim Community and That • War on terror detentions, deportations and
Community’s Response.” King was quoted in a NSEERs (National Security Entry-Exit
Slate article as saying the hearings were to address Registration System actions) of Arabs, Muslims
“the radicalization of the American Muslim and South Asians resulted in mass demonstra-
community and homegrown terrorism.”336 tions and rallies across the city in the name of
the U.S. Constitution.
• State standardized testing on Muslim holidays
Muslims in New York City in particular faced a great resulted in the Campaign for Muslim Holidays,
where over 40 organizations of every ethnic,
deal of backlash and discrimination in the aftermath of racial and religious group coalesced to incorpo-
9/11. While faced with great challenges, Muslims were rate Muslim holidays into the school calendar.
at the same time able to make newfound friends that • The NYPD Muslim Surveillance Program
resulted in intersectional organizing among allies
then became allies. to end the NYPD “stop and frisk” of black and
Latino young men, as well as lawsuits initiated
by the Muslim community against the NYPD.
Muslims in New York City in particular faced
a great deal of backlash and discrimination in the • The protests against the “Ground Zero Mosque”
aftermath of 9/11. While faced with great chal- mobilized New Yorkers to stand up for religious
lenges, Muslims were at the same time able to freedom, resulting in the formation New York
make newfound friends that then became allies. Neighbors for American Values, a coalition
Muslim New Yorkers and their allies turned these of more than 130 organizations and thousands
challenges into opportunities of solidarity, which of individuals from a broad swath of the city’s
in turn created authentic coalitions that have diverse population, including good government,
made a difference in their lives and the lives of religious, service, advocacy, neighborhood, labor,
their neighbors. There is no better quote to speak and professional organizations.
to this than that from Franklin D. Roosevelt: “If • The opposition to CVE and Strong Cities
civilization is to survive, we must cultivate the Network being introduced by city government
science of human relationships — the ability of resulted in engagement with officials on terms
all peoples, of all kinds, to live together and work set by the American Muslim community and
together, in the same world, at peace.” their allies.
Over the course of the years, these coalitions
• A case where the NYPD had become lawless
spurred intersectional and intercommunity work
by not confirming or denying the existence of
335 Laurie Goodstein, “American Muslims Ask, Will We Ever Belong?” The 336 William Saletan, “Muslim-Bait and Switch,” Frame Game, Slate,
New York Times, September 5, 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/ March 11, 2011. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/frame_
us/06muslims.html game/2011/03/muslimbait_and_switch.html
It is crucial to understand the symbiotic relation- All Are Welcome: 5 Years of Relentless
ship between violent Islamist extremism and Optimism in Response to Hate Crime337
Islamophobia. The objective of the so-called Groton, Massachusetts, and Oak Creek,
“Islamic State,” Al Qaeda, Al Shabaab, et al. is Wisconsin, have a lot in common.
to sow strife between all 1.8 billion Muslims on Both are quintessential American towns,
Earth and everyone else. Terror attacks against embodying middle-class values and work ethic.
civil society are designed to bring about social The kind of places where anyone would be happy
conditions where all Muslims are viewed as capable to raise a family. Decent jobs and great schools
of committing similar attacks. The narrative are the norm, as are nice grocery stores and
of Islamist ideology requires a stark separatism quaint shops.
between Muslims and non-Muslims to function, as
does the narrative of Islamophobia. When Muslims
and non-Muslims see each other as good neighbors
and co-citizens, neither narrative has purchase. The narrative of Islamist ideology requires a stark
Thus, the most effective means of countering both separatism between Muslims and non-Muslims to
Islamophobia and the Islamism it depends on is to
cultivate a civil society that values and includes function, as does the narrative of Islamophobia. When
Muslims. Muslims and non-Muslims see each other as good
As charity/service is one of the Five Pillars of neighbors and co-citizens, neither narrative has purchase.
Islam, service projects are a practical and effective
means of both demonstrating what Islam is all
about and including Muslims in society. The citizens are good, hardworking people and
The following article examines the fear that good neighbors, happy to lend each other a hand.
drives all forms of hate, and presets the story of The sort of folks who love to get together for
how a hate crime was transformed into an ongoing weekend barbecue or a football game.
process of kinship and togetherness that inoculates For generations, diversity meant going to a
communities against Islamophobia and provides an different denomination Christian church or having
antidote to those already stricken with it. ancestors from a different part of Europe. The few
Italian and Greek families were cherished for their
exoticness, and their cuisine, and Moose Lodges
were surpassed only by the VFW.
Over the past few decades, new waves of
103
immigrants came to Oak Creek and Groton, Singh, an elderly holy man who remains in a coma
departing from Northern and Southern India, to this day. Lt. Brian Murphy of the Oak Creek
respectively. One would imagine that these new Police Department was the first to respond. He got
neighbors would fit in just fine, being as good and into a firefight with Page and was shot 15 times
as hardworking as anyone. Like all European immi- before Officer Sam Lenda arrived and wounded the
grants to the United States, these immigrants from shooter, who then took his own life.
India left beloved homelands and ancient cultures The man who committed this atrocity was a
to forge better lives via the American Dream. member of the white power skinhead gang I had
But despite such shared values and experiences, helped to start back in 1988. He was the person I
everyone didn’t welcome the immigrants. used to be.
In Groton, as Hindus proposed to build I was busy waging war against humanity for
Mandirs, their houses of worship, some citizens seven years back then. Looking back, I can see it
voiced concerns. Some saw the new arrivals was me who I really hated. My inability to love
as a threat to the way of life they had become myself manifested as volatile hostility that did
accustomed to. What if they take our jobs? What immense harm to the world. I was incredibly lucky
if some of them are terrorists? Will our schools to encounter targets of my hatred who refused to
suffer because some of those new kids don’t speak be subject to my fear and ignorance. They demon-
English? There was a laundry list of rationaliza- strated the way human beings should treat each
tions, but they all broke down to fear. Fear of other for me. While I never followed those leads
change. on the spot, I couldn’t escape the basic goodness of
our human experience indicating how wrong I was.
Growing knowledge of that wrongness added to a
growing exhaustion that ultimately led me to leave
We discovered that we had so much more in common “the movement” after becoming a single parent
and losing a second comrade to street violence
than otherwise, despite being from opposite ends of the
in 1994.
globe and seemingly disparate cultures. It struck us that I’ve been sharing My Life After Hate since
such common humanity was the prerequisite to solve all 2010, hoping that others could avoid making the
same mistakes. Kindness, gratitude, and forgiveness
of the problems we face as a human race. have led me from a loveless living hell to a place
where I’m overjoyed to be alive and to be able to
help my fellow humans heal.
Oak Creek, being a bit larger in population and The last person murdered on August 5, 2012,
a bit closer to the city, seemed to be better suited was a man named Satwant Singh Kaleka. He
for the many Punjabi families that moved there. A fought the gunman with a butter knife, buying
Gurdwara, or Sikh temple, was built, and that holy time for the police to arrive and saving the lives
place became a beacon to guide more Indians to of the many children and elders who hid in the
Wisconsin. The zeal for work that is a hallmark of Gurdwara during the shooting. Satwant’s eldest
the Sikhs earned them acceptance among many, son Pardeep reached out to me in October of 2012,
but the Sikhs’ tendency to keep to themselves also wanting to understand how someone could do such
served as fodder for suspicion. a thing as murder people in their house of faith.
On August 5, 2012, Wade Michael Page, a self- My well-educated guess was that Wade Page
proclaimed white power skinhead, shattered the had driven himself so miserable by practicing hate
beautiful summer Sunday morning by executing and violence for over a decade that nothing but
two brothers with a 9mm pistol as they walked homicide followed by suicide seemed to make
out of the Gurdwara. He then marched inside and sense. We become familiar with whatever we prac-
kept shooting, murdering four more people and tice. This can result in a great golf game, or a hell
wounding others, one of whom was Baba Punjab of a guitar player, or a stinging aversion to love,
Many surveys over the years have shown that is more prevalent with individuals who have not
Islamophobia, or the irrational fear and hate of been in contact with Muslims.339 This was the
Islam and Muslims, is on the rise. This is very exact reason why a group of Atlanta Muslims
true and personal for me and my family. My three started the Islamic Speakers Bureau of Atlanta
children have encountered Islamophobia firsthand. (ISB) on August 18, 2001. You read this right — it
My oldest son, an eye surgeon, was once accused was exactly three weeks before 9/11 happened.
by a nurse of using code words for ISIS when he When 9/11 happened, the organizers thought it
used a German word in the operating room. My might be a good idea to wait it out, but thankfully
younger son has the misfortune of having the name people had learned about the organization and
Osama. While working as a pharmacy technician we started receiving requests for speakers as our
during his high school years, a customer called the fellow Americans wanted to know about Islam
store when she read his name on her prescription. and Muslims.
She demanded that he be fired or she would no The ISB started off as an educational organiza-
longer be coming to this pharmacy. My daughter tion that trained and certified speakers on how
while in high school was taking a business course. to present about Islam and Muslims such that
Her teacher was speaking with the class about content can be presented in any setting to any
the up-and-coming languages for business around audience and still comply with the spirit of the
the world, and he mentioned that Arabic is one First Amendment of the Constitution, even when
of them. A fellow student replied, “That is not in public schools or government agencies. This
the language for business but the language for means that the speakers teach rather than preach.
terrorism.” They are a source of living information about how
There are many more stories that I hear day an American Muslim lives his or her life. One
in and day out. This is not only happening to point that we stress in our training is that the
Muslims, but also to people who are perceived information is readily available all around but what
to be Muslims. One of the first victims following is most important is to connect with our audiences.
the horrific 9/11 attacks was an Egyptian Coptic As Maya Angelou once said, “People will forget
Christian. In recent years, members of the Sikh what you said, people will forget what you did, but
community have fallen victim to attacks as they people will never forget how you made them feel.”
are incorrectly perceived as Muslim. This is continuously emphasized with our speakers.
One of the findings of the surveys such as the The ISB faced many challenges as we began;
Gallup Poll is that this fear of Islam and Muslims some were internal while others were external.
339 “In U.S., Religious Prejudice Stronger Against Muslims,” Gallup, January against-muslims.aspx
21, 2010, http://news.gallup.com/poll/125312/religious-prejudice-stronger-
108
Some of the challenges are listed here: and 5. Supporting the Muslim community. I will
1. The ISB is a virtual organization and not the give a brief description of these initiatives along
usual brick-and-mortar organization that the with some background, challenges and opportuni-
Muslim community was used to. This made it ties that we have faced.
hard to raise the necessary operating funds.
2. In 2001, there were not many women-led Providing Alternative
organizations within the Atlanta Muslim Narratives About Muslims
community. 100 Influential Georgia Muslims is an initiative
3. The Muslim community readily invests in for the Georgia Muslim community to tell its own
mosques and disaster relief, but it is harder to get narrative. The community has excellent unheard
members to donate to different kinds of organi- success stories from people in the sciences, medi-
zations like the ISB. cine, engineering, IT, philanthropy, arts, media
4. We all had the best of intentions for this and much more. The ISB wanted to showcase
organizations but had no idea where we were these individuals and their narratives. The tag line
going — no idea where this organization will be for this initiative was “Continuing the Legacy and
and what it will mean in 10 or 15 years. Changing the Narrative.”
At a time when Islam is receiving negative press has on the rise of Islamophobia. It is even accept-
and anything to do with the religion is considered able to deny this type of racism by claiming
suspect, I am convinced that Muslims are citizens the right to blaspheme and criticize religions.
who owe it to themselves to stay proactive and Nevertheless, I am convinced that if those who
to act as agents of change in the environment in control the media do not quickly come to realize
which they live. If Muslims do not act and speak the potential damage of their coverage on the
for themselves, others will, for various reasons, population, we risk facing rather catastrophic situ-
speak for them. ations in the near future. In fact, in Belgium and
France, we have witnessed several cases of attacks
on Muslim youths346, adults,347 and women,348 and
vandalism of places of worship.349
If Muslims do not act and speak for themselves, others Considering the violence of statements made
will, for various reasons, speak for them. in the press following the attacks in Paris and
Brussels, I am personally astonished and pleasantly
surprised by the reactions of a large number of
In this essay, I will set out my vision on the citizens, including Muslims, who came together
issue of “Muslims speaking out” at a time when to counter the xenophobic demonstrations that
social media has established itself as the place took place the day after the tragic attacks in both
where everything happens. I am not speaking as a capitals. In Belgium, more than 15,000 people
media specialist, but as a human rights activist on came together to reject xenophobia, calling their
one hand and as a community actor who is active initiative “the march against terror and hate.”350
in various organizations in Belgium and Europe on Secondly, I would like to take stock of the
the other. messages that have been conveyed since the 1920s.
The first observation is that the vast majority Since that time, Islam and Muslims have been the
of intellectuals in France and Belgium avoid target of extremely denigrating campaigns. Muslims
addressing the question of the impact the media have continually been presented in various media
114
as misogynist and violent. The study conducted by conducted in Belgium have shown that discrimina-
Dr. Jack Shaheen of the University of Southern tion toward men of Arab origin is the strongest
Illinois speaks for itself. After watching a thou- and it strikes in various areas.
sand films,351 Dr. Shaheen noted that “Arabs are This has translated into decades of flagrant
depicted as bloodthirsty brutes, terrorists who want discrimination in terms of education, hiring
to attack the good westerners.”352 discrimination, housing discrimination, and inter-
These types of messages have undoubtedly had actions with the justice system.
an extremely negative effect on the image that With regard to unemployment statistics, it has
Americans, and Westerners in general, have had of been shown that the unemployment rate for youths
Arabs for decades. Those Muslims who were teen- living in the municipality of Molenbeek (Brussels)
agers in the 1980s remember the shame they felt is between 30 percent and 50 percent, while the
after seeing these films. This feeling of frustration national average is 10 percent. Belgian authorities
hindered the integration process for some of them. do not deny this fact. The labor office website
Conflicts in the world have been a way for the states: “A study conducted at the request of the
media to deal with the question of Muslims, and ILO shows that native Belgian candidates and
that has certainly fed resentment toward Muslims. candidates of Moroccan origin are treated differ-
Thomas Deltombe described the situation very ently during the hiring process.”354 Several studies
well, and he reminds us in his book “L’Islam imagi- conducted by the King Baudoin Foundation in
naire” [Imaginary Islam]353 how the French media partnership with the Interfederal Centre for Equal
have used conflicts around the world to present Opportunities (Unia)355 and by universities such
Muslims in an extremely negative light. He notes as the Free University of Brussels (ULB) and its
that the Iranian Revolution of 1978, Khomeini’s Dutch-speaking partner, the VUB, have confirmed
takeover in 1979, the Rushdie affair in 1989, the this situation on several occasions.356
civil war in Algeria which lasted from 1992 to As for the issue of the justice system, according
1997 and caused thousands of deaths, as well as the Andrea Réa, professor of sociology at the Free
debate over the veil in schools and the tremendous University of Brussels and director of the Study
blow that was September 11, 2001, have been the Group on Ethnicity, Racism, Migrations and
essential elements that informed all the subjects Exclusion, the way the justice system handles
covered by the media. He also describes how, since cases connected with this population provides a
that period, the media have used imagination to good illustration of the way Muslims and Arabs
turn the French population against those who are perceived more broadly. Several studies have
are called Muslims. Before, no one talked about shown that young people of Moroccan origin are
Muslims, but rather about immigrants. Today, treated differently and are more likely to be put in
no one is shocked anymore to hear on a public pretrial detention, and receive heavier sentences,
channel at prime time that Muslims are dangerous than their native-born peers who commit the same
individuals and that Arabs are bloodthirsty, type of offense. In addition, judges grant remissions
misogynist and/or violent. and apply alternative sentences less often in cases
As I mentioned above, the real-life conse- involving citizens of Arab origin.
quences have had an impact on Muslim citizens’ So, what is my assessment?
physical safety, but not only that. Different studies The media are responsible for this situation. To
351 Jack Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (New Media Construct of Islamophobia in France 1975-2005], La découverte, 2005.
York: Olive 354 Discrimination en raison de l’origine ethnique, “SPF Belgium,” accessed
Branch Press, 2001). January 30, 2018, http://www.emploi.belgique.be/defaultTab.aspx?id=24200
352 Jhally, Sut, Jeremy Earp, Andrew Killoy, Mary Patierno, Simon Shaheen, 355 “For equality, against discrimination,” UNIA, accessed February 2, 2018,
and Jack G. Shaheen. Reel bad Arabs: how Hollywood vilifies a people https://www.unia.be/en
(2006; Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation), mp4, http://www. 356 Discriminations des étrangers et des personnes d’origine étrangère
documentarytube.com/videos/reel-bad-arabs-how-hollywood-vilifies-a- sur le marché du travail de la Région de Bruxelles-Capitale : Recherche
people dans le cadre du Pacte social pour l’emploi des Bruxellois, Université
353 Thomas Deltombe, L’islam imaginaire [Imaginary Islam] « La Libre de Bruxelles, January 2005, https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/
construction médiatique de l’islamophobie en France 1975-2005 » [The bitstream/2013/17021/1/dp-0133.pdf
357 Ismael Saidi, “Pourquoi les musulmans ne descendent pas dans la rue 359 “Hicham agit, avec des roses: “J’ai un garçon de 6 ans et j’aimerais
pour condemner ? Parce que… “ Le Soir, March 23, 2017, http://plus.lesoir. qu’il puisse grandir dans un milieu encadré et rassurant”,” January 23, 2016,
be/32156/article/2016-03-23/ismael-saidi-pourquoi-les-musulmans-ne- https://www.rtl.be/info/vous/temoignages/hicham-agit-avec-des-roses-j-
descendent-pas-dans-la-rue-pour-condamner ai-un-garcon-de-6-ans-et-j-aimerais-qu-il-puisse-grandir-dans-un-milieu-
358 “Fleurs de 1400 ans,” Success Media, January 19, 2015, https://www. encadre-et-rassurant--694072.aspx
youtube.com/watch?v=pQOKEE-KwPE
118
generally does not match that of local or prefec- imams do not take the mosque path for the simple
tural authorities. reason that imams have a low social status and
The local space is relatively independent from receive little financial compensation.
the national space, and it is not automatically the Despite these unfavorable conditions, we have
sounding board for national debates and controver- been able to establish an imam council for the
sies. Because of this autonomy, local space allows country that meets two to three times per year to
for dispassionate and non-ideological debates debate, discuss, consult one another, and share
and actions, and it allows local Muslim actors to experiences.
build upstream actions and solidarity that can be Several programs are in place or will be in place
ramparts against the rise of Islamophobia. to make our imams’ speech audible, effective and
Thus, reflections on the training of imams, the legitimate.
mosque’s civic action, its relationship with the 1. For imams who need it, access to university
local authorities, and its commitment to interfaith diploma programs in French as a second
dialogue are all ways to further the promotion of language.
living and working together and thereby create
the conditions that will make it possible to face a 2. Encourage imams and religious leaders to study
sometimes ordinary, day-to-day Islamophobia. for a university diploma in civics and civil law at
the Sorbonne or the Political Studies Institute
The Training of Imams and of Paris.
Religious Leaders 3. Create a digital documentation resource that is
accessible to all imams.
As mentioned above, most mosques in the territory
I am in are independent entities. They grew out of 4. Provide training in communication and public
the needs of Muslims living in surrounding cities speaking, as well as use of social media and web
to provide themselves worthy places of worship publication.
and to be able to pray in respectable conditions. 5. Develop a discourse focused primarily on values
The reasons for building these places of worship and ethics. Advocate first the principles of
are practically the same, and the emergence of an peace, dignity, justice, unity, and common
elite representing these places of worship is not the action.
result of prior training or of a hierarchical appoint- 6. Break down literalist discourse based exclusively
ment process undertaken by a national body. They on “halal and haram” by moving away from
learn the job of a religious leader on the fly, in sterile polemics.
addition to public speaking, how to negotiate with
public officials, and administrative and financial
management of a place of worship, etc. Civic Action of the Mosque
What goes for the leader of a place of worship The mosque is the most emblematic manifestation
also goes for the officiating imam. There are, of of the presence of Islam in the public space. It is
course, imams sent by their countries of origin, also one of the few institutions that can mobilize
mainly Morocco, Algeria, and Turkey, but, on one Muslims in France. As shown above, the “Muslim
hand, their number is small (at 10 percent to 15 community” does not exist in France; there are
percent of all imams in France) and, on the other instead “Muslim communities.” This plurality
hand, their knowledge of the French language, is due to the ethnic origins of Muslims, their
context and institutions is rudimentary and insuf- belonging to different branches of Islam in France,
ficient, even non-existent and ineffective. Two or simply related to the many different individual
training institutes for religious leaders exist today trajectories of key players in Islam in France.
in France, but they are far from meeting the needs Thus, a mosque in a well-defined local area
of mosques in terms of trained and competent reli- becomes a community unto itself. It can get its
gious leaders, and a good number of these trained message out and make its voice heard by hundreds,
361 Jacques Lagroye, “Les processus de la politisation,” Política & Sociedade 16.37 (December 2017): 18-35.
362 Françoise Duthu, Le maire et la mosquée (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2008). 60.4 (2010) : 745-767.
363 Franck Frégosi, “New Muslims: between overexposure and invisibility,” 365 Cardinal André Vingt-Trois, “Homélie du cardinal André Vingt-Trois—
Esprit 5 (May 2014): 65-77. Messe pour les victimes de Saint-Étienne du Rouvray,” The Catholic Church
364 Martina Avanza, “Qui Représent Les Élus De La “Diversité”? Croyances in Paris, July 27, 2016, https://www.paris.catholique.fr/homelie-du-cardinal-
partisanes et points de vue de ‘divers’,” Revue française de science politique, andre-vingt-40311.html
What makes the work of The Carter Center unrelated. Today, we are asked to connect seem-
unique is its ability to resist following the herd, ingly disparate dots — phenomena, events or
to view both sides of the coin, and to hold both influences that appear unrelated, but may be
causes and effects in perspective. Thus it is with profoundly related, or traced to a single source or
their work on Islamophobia. The herd looks at origin. The veracity of this has never been more
violent extremism only by rushing at the symp- apparent than in this current time we live in. We
toms, the effects. These are also of interest, but are forced to deal with apparently competing ideol-
extremism in the name of Islam and Muslims ogies, seemingly separate policy choices, ostensibly
is significantly contributed to by the severity of divergent causes in the mobility of people, or the
Islamophobia globally — given the ease with which presumably discrete applications of bigotry. They
occupation, dictatorship and wars are foisted on may well be a single integrated set of challenges.
Muslim majority lands — as well as discrimination We live in a world characterized by competing
personally and socially against Muslims in coun- extremisms, one informal and dangerous, acting in
tries where they are a minority. the name of Islam and Muslims, while the other
But it would be wrong for those Muslims is mainstreamed and dangerous, elected to office
leading the fight against Islamophobia to repeat and dispensing laws and commanding militaries.
the error of perspective committed by the herd We live in a world where the Muslim surge for
by viewing Islamophobia as a stand-alone issue, rights, freedom and democracy has been blunted
devoid of its antecedents — a world of growing and, therefore, dictators and authoritarian regimes
bigotry against all who are different — and in have a new lease on life. Mainstreamed extremism
denial of consequences — that extremists do provides dictators with a license for impunity in
terrible and fear-inducing things in the name of the name of fighting the informal extremism.
fighting Islamophobia. It would be arrogant to see We live in a world in which the greed of elites,
Islamophobia as the most important discrimination the policy choices of decision-makers and the
or the top priority in a menu of bigotries in the effects of climate change conspire to impoverish
world. Islamophobia is a member of a family of greater numbers of people and condemn them to
pathologies, all of which must be combated. unemployment, hunger, and disease. The resultant
growth of inequality happens both within countries
The World We Live In: Domination and between countries and hemispheres.
and ‘Otherization’ And all of these, in turn, create patterns of
migration within and between countries. Rural
The impact of globalization is that it integrates
dwellers move to cities while residents of the
through technology and communication what
developing world move to the developed world.
historically may have been separated and
Refugees of war and conflict join refugees of
123
poverty and oppression in a march toward beacons have no such available formulae and therefore
of opportunity. And this march is now increasingly fall into the intractable category. And whereas
met with hostility in the form of travel bans for before, good management required that we harmo-
those on their way and “otherization” for those nize competing aspects and interests within the
already in the West. problem and crisis, today we are required to exer-
Indeed, these phenomena are interrelated and cise painful leadership to effect painful trade-offs
mutually reinforcing. when confronting our challenges.
128
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