JAN L. WOMER - Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity, 1987
JAN L. WOMER - Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity, 1987
JAN L. WOMER - Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity, 1987
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^Morality and Ethics in
Early Christianity
Sources of Early Christian Thought
A series of new English translations of patristic
texts essential to an understanding of Christian
theology
William G. Rusch, Editor
Theological Anthropology
J. Patout Burns, S.J., translator/editor
FORTRESS PRESS
PHILADELPHIA
Copyright © 1987 by Fortress Press
I. Introduction 1
V. Tertullian 51
On Idolatry 51
Apology 62
Bibliography 134
vi
Series Foreword
vii
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
this is the case, both those individuals who bring a faith commit-
ment to Christianity and those interested in it as a major religious
and historical phenomenon must have a special regard for what
happened to the Christian faith in these pivotal centuries.
The purpose of this series is to allow an English-reading pub-
lic to gain firsthand insights into these significant times for Chris-
tianity by making available in a modern, readable English the
fundamental sources which chronicle how Christianity and its
theology attained their normative character. Whenever possible,
entire patristic writings or selections are presented. The varying
points of view within the early church are given their opportu-
nity to be heard. An introduction by the translator and editor of
each volume describes the context of the documents for the
reader.
It is hoped that these several volumes will enable their readers
to gain not only a better understanding of the early church but
also an appreciation of how Christianity of the twentieth century
still reflects the events, thoughts, and social conditions of this
earlier history.
It has been pointed out repeatedly that the problem of doctri-
nal development within the church is basic to ecumenical discus-
sion today. If this view is accepted, along with its corollary that
William G. Rusch
Vlll
L
Introduction
were a sign of loyalty but also would bring eternal salvation, for
they were the fulfilling of the Lord's command. The theology
behind such actions then developed further. They came to be
seen as the way one could eradicate the stain of minor sins. Hence
the action leads into the wider theology of sin, grace, and forgive-
ness, the division of sins into major and minor, and the develop-
ment of penitential discipline within the church.
As the Christian community grew, it also had to develop an
organizational and administrative system. Here we see the emer-
gence of a professional ministry that came to include deacons,
presbyters, and bishops. In turn, there were councils that
attempted to bring consensus and unity among the clergy and
congregations in various geographic areas. In the Council of
Elvira we see a series of canons that attempted to define the Chris-
tian life and morality for Christians in Spain about ad. 306. Not
only must the morality of the laity be regulated but there is also
the need to instruct the clergy regarding their personal lives.
Bishop Ambrose of Milan was quite willing to face this challenge
in his work, The Duties. The growth of the monastic movement
during the fourth century also presented theological and ethical
Introduction
translated literally.
was the belief that God had sent Jesus into the world as a gift of
divine love and righteousness. It was to this loving and righteous
Lord that the individual responded both with intellectual assent
and with a moral life. There was little differentiation between
faith and life or between belief and morals. Often the ethical
understanding of the Christian was not much different from that
of Judaism. The themes of love and justice were found in both
traditions, and the admonitions of the Mosaic law relating to the
widow, the orphan, and the indigent were likewise accepted by
Christians as being of great importance. In addition, the place of
almsgiving in the life of the faithful was stressed in both Judaism
and Christianity. The Christian, however, had a distinctive view
of God and of God's love for the whole world, manifested in the
sending of the Son (John 3:16). The follower of Christ responded
to this divine love with a variety of feelings. There was the desire
to be obedient to the commands of the Lord; there was the prom-
ise of reward and eternal life to those who remain faithful; there
was the response based upon love, human love returned to him
who died on a cross and who now lives. The law of the Old Testa-
ment was not abolished but was used selectively and expanded in
the Christian interpretation to focus upon love of God, love of
neighbor, and the leading of a life built upon love (1 Corinthians
13). The Christian lived in a new age: the kingdom of God. Those
who were part of this kingdom would receive eternal life, and
those who did not enter it would be condemned. The individual
was called into the kingdom by the good news and needed only to
answer the invitation to "repent and believe." By accepting bap-
tism one was then united with Christ in the new life.
Can you understand that when we were baptized into Jesus
Christ we also shared in his death? We were buried with him in
death in order that we might rise to a new life just as he was raised
from the grave by the glory of the Father (Rom. 6:3-4). Belief
in the presence and the power of the Holy Spirit in the believer's
life became a vital aspect of New Testament ethics. Anyone who
to the individual but was also considered a gift to the whole com-
munity. The God-given gifts and talents that certain individuals
possessed were to be used for the building up of the whole
church. For the early Jewish Christians it was only natural that
such an emphasis on community should remain an integral part
of their religious life. "You are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a
holy people, and a people whom God has chosen" (1 Peter 2:9).
As we shall see, this understanding of community remained an
important part of Christian theology and ethical teaching, espe-
cially during those centuries when Christianity struggled against
persecution and government antagonism.
The ethical understanding of the New Testament writers does
not present a well-developed or consistent pattern. We can detect
a variety of approaches to Christian behavior and morality. Some
were inclined to turn the teachings of Jesus into a new legalism;
others saw the gospel as a way of being freed from the law and an
opportunity to exercise individualism. Another theme continu-
ing throughout the Christian tradition was the imitation of
Christ. Saint Paul appealed to the Corinthians, "Follow my exam-
ple, as I imitate Christ's example" (1 Cor. 1 1 1). Jesus' love, humil-
:
Christian life.
and work within society, but they stood apart from it, "chosen
out of it" and often suspicious and hostile toward it (John
15: 18-19). The Christians' basic concerns were salvation, eternal
life, faithfulness to God and their Lord, self-discipline, and the
Jesus said, "Be merciful, so that you may obtain mercy; forgive,
so that you may be forgiven. Whatever you do, others will also
do to you. As you give, so shall you receive; as you judge, so shall
you be judged; as you show kindness, so shall kindness be
shown to you. ..." From these commandments let us take
strength to walk humbly in obedience to His words. . (Clem-
. .
those who wait for him? The Creator and Father of all ages . . .
was raised from the dead for our sake. Do not wish me to
. . .
The individual was united not only with Christ in his or her life
but also with the whole body of Christ. In this dual allegiance the
Christian had ethical beliefs growing out of personal faith and
commitment, but also the morality expected by the church. »T
individual was to follow the leadership of the bishop and to work
for unity in all matters. Ignatius looked upon this as another
means of imitating Christ:
8
Introduction
The tower you see being built is the church. . Listen to why
. .
We must repent while we are alive. We are like clay in the pot-
ter's hand. If the clay misshapes or breaks in his hands, he can
reshape it. If, however, it has already been placed in the kiln and
then breaks, he cannot mend it again. Therefore, while we are
alive, let us repent with our whole heart of the evil we have done
in this life, so that we may be saved by our Lord while time
remains for us to repent. After death we cannot confess or
repent! (Clement of Rome Second Epistle to the Corinthians 8)
11
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
The Didache
The Didache gives us one of our earliest glimpses of Christian
morality and church practice in the post-New Testament period.
Scholars do not agree on a date for this work, and proposals range
from ad. 60 to 150. General agreement tends toward a date
between ad. 100 and 150.
There is the probability, however, that this work reflects prac-
tices that had already been commonplace for several decades
prior to its composition. The writing is a manual of church
instruction that opens with six chapters devoted to the ^two.
12
Introduction
ways" open to a Christian: the way of life and the way of death. In
this section of the work we have one of the earliest Christian trea-
tises on follows a pattern to be copied in later
morality. It
—
centuries the juxtaposition of virtues against a list of sins. This
technique appears to have come from a common practice in Hel-
lenistic synagogues for the instruction of proselytes.
One senses the author's pastoral concern for the recent con-
verts and the catechumens. Such new Christians needed to
understand that their life was now different from that of the non-
believer (1. 2-3). They were expected to pay attention to their role
in the whole Christian community (IV. 1-5); and they were to
exercise a common-sense approach in applying various admoni-
tions to their own lives, doing "what you are able" (VI. 2-3).
The life of the individual, as well as the common life of the
whole community, was lived with expectation that one must "be
ready, for you do not know the hour when the Lord shall return"
(XVI. 1).
The Apologists
When the Christian movement spread from Palestine into the
Greco-Roman world, issues arose that demanded a new ethical
understanding and practical solutions for everyday moral ques-
tions.
We see the first of these problems in the questions concerning
Jewish law and the reception of gentile converts into the church
(Acts 15). Jewish Christians, accustomed to a tradition that
avoided associating with pagans and cultic practices, found sepa-
ration increasingly difficult as Christianity spread into cultures
permeated with religious groups, practices, and ethics. Time and
again Christians were warned not to be "led away from the path
of life by those who do not know God" {Didache VI. 1). When
Christians could no longer live in isolation from their neighbors,
13
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
14
Introduction
15
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
These gullible people believe that they are immortal and will go
on living. Therefore, they do not fear dying, and many of them
are willing to give themselves up to the authorities. In addition,
their first leader persuaded them that they become brothers and
sisters when they give up their Greek gods and worship him
They have no concern for possessions and treat them as com-
mon property. . .Any imposter could easily join them and
.
Aristides ofAthens
The Apology of Aristides is the earliest known apology in the
series of such writings ascribed to the Apologists. Aristides was a
philosopher in Athens who composed his Apology to present to
the emperor. Scholars disagree as to whether this was Hadrian or
Antoninus Pius, since both names appear in the manuscripts. The
date of the work appears to be between ad. 125 and Antoninus's
death in ad. 161.
Aristides begins his Apology with an account of his meditation
upon the works of nature. From this rather Stoic approach he
moves to an account of the divine guiding force behind all of cre-
ation. He then divides humanity into "races" and attempts to
prove that Christians have surpassed the barbarians, Greeks,
Egyptians, and Jews in their understanding of God and the rela-
tion of the Divine to creation (chap. 2). The barbarians are dis-
missed because they worship the things created rather than their
creator (chaps. 3-7). The Greeks are seen as even worse than the
barbarians because their gods are fictional and are often depicted
in stories reflecting their weaknesses and immoral behavior
(chaps. 8-11, 13). The Egyptians are described as the "most stu-
pid people on earth," since their gods take animal form, and of
course, everyone knows that animals do not possess a soul (chap.
12)! Aristides is somewhat more objective in his treatment of
Judaism than are the other Apologists. He admits that Jews come
closest to the truth in their acceptance of one God and in their
imitation of God through works of charity and compassion. But
their lives are bound up in observances of the law. As a result,
they are led to the worship of angels and not to the true wor-
ship of God (chap. 14). Here we have a theme found in the other
Apologists as well. Angels are seen as God's agents who care for
16
Introduction
human beings and for the affairs of creation and life. The concern
of the Torah with such matters as society and the regulation of
everyday affairs is, therefore, an emphasis on the realm of the
angels rather than on those things with which God is directly in-
volved (Justin Martyr Apology 2.5). Aristides then makes his
point: "The Christians, O King, in their travels and searching,
have found the truth ."
.(chap. 15).
.
17
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
equated with evil; the spiritual world was seen to epitomize per-
fection and goodness. In theistic terms there was one god related
to creation and the world, the demiurge, and a superior, remote
divine being who ruled the spiritual realm.
During a period when Christianity was beginning to come to
grips with an ethical understanding of how to live in the world
and face the pressures that the world presented to the Christian
faith and life, the gnostic teachings were a regression to inward
looking, exclusivist attitudes that encouraged withdrawal from
the world. The world was evil and was to be rejected as one
attempted to move to the higher spiritual realm of knowledge. In
contrast to the Apologists, the Gnostics rejected any idea that the
Supreme Being could be seen within human history or knowl-
edge. Some gnostic groups, such as the followers of Saturninus,
rejected childbearing, marriage, and the eating of meat, since
such actions were related to the inferior world. Others, like Mar-
cion, rejected the Mosaic law and its moral teachings.
From the late first century to the middle years of the second
century a variety of gnostic groups developed within the Chris-
tian community. Some gnostic leaders, like Marcion and Valen-
tinus, were very capable, and their influence was a major threat to
the teachings and practice of orthodox Christianity.
Marcion looked upon the God of the Old Testament as one
superseded by the God of love and mercy revealed in Jesus. The
Old Testament God was a harsh judge who often reflected incon-
sistency and a lack of omniscience. It was this God who sent evil
into the world through Adam and Eve and who was the author of
pain and all sexual activity. Marcion and his followers led ascetic
lives, rejecting marriage and sexual relations. In addition, based
upon his disdain for the God of the Old Testament, Marcion
devised his own list of canonical Scriptures and rejected the Old
Testament and parts of the New, mainly those passages that
attempted to show a relationship between Jesus' teachings and
the Old Testament. He also rejected allegorical interpretation that
attempted to give a Christian meaning to Old Testament passages.
He believed that the early Jewish Christians had misinterpreted
Jesus' relationship to the Old Testament as they attempted to
prove that he had fulfilled prophecy and was the promised Mes-
siah of the Jewish people.
Another of the very influential gnostic leaders was Valentinus,
18
Introduction
who lived in Rome from about ad. 135 to 165. He presented his
teachings as being secret knowledge handed down directly from
Jesus himself to a few disciples and passed on to a selected few in
each generation. Valentinus did not share Marcion's antipathy
toward the Old Testament, but rather, reflecting his Platonic back-
ground, was willing to interpret it allegorically. He developed his
own standards that allowed him to accept some passages as true
while he regarded others as mere fabrications, with no value for
the Christian.
In his elaborate system Valentinus believed that the God of the
Old Testament was the demiurge, the offspring of Sophia (Wis-
dom), one of thirty aeons which constituted the spiritual world.
Another of these aeons, Christ, became joined with a human
being named Jesus who offers saving knowledge to "spiritual
people," or pneumatics. These are, of course, his followers who
will be able to enter the spiritual realm, the pleroma. Ordinary
Christians, who maintain their faith and lead moral lives along
with performing good works, will progress only to a minor realm
that is under the dominion of the demiurge and not the Supreme
Being. They remain as children when compared to the higher
individuals who have gained true knowledge. Non-Christians,
who possess no knowledge, will come to eternal damnation.
The teachings of Valentinus were very influential within the
Christian community at Alexandria by the end of the second cen-
tury. One writer who attempted to offer pastoral guidance to
orthodox Christians in the light of these gnostic influences was
Clement.
Clement ofAlexandria
Clement (ca. ad. 150-215) was probably born in Athens of
pagan parents, and little is known of his life before he arrived in
Alexandria and became a student of Pantaenus, the first head of
the catechetical school there, whom he succeeded about the year
A.D. 200. Clement's scholarship and broad background brought
new depth to the writings of the period. He was well acquainted
with Old and New Testament, the postapostolic writings, and the
intellectual discipline of philosophy, mythology, and literature.
In a period when Christians held much suspicion against secular
learning,Clement was able to relate such knowledge to the study
of theology and ethics. He argued that the "seeds scattered by the
19
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
20
Introduction
uries, such as the use of silver and gold furnishings and reliance
on servants.
In the Miscellanies, Clement treats an array of subjects ran-
domly. He attempts to show that the Christian, following the
Logos Instructor, rises above the false knowledge taught by the
Gnostics. The Christian will arrive at the highest knowledge that
comes through the love of God. Christian ethics spring from this
love; there is striving for the good precisely because it is good and
not out of motives based on fear of punishment or the expecta-
tion of rewards to those who advance in knowledge.
Clement's Who Is the Rich Man Who Is Saved? is an expanded
sermon based upon the story of the rich man in Mark 10: 17-31.
Here he attempts to correct what he considers a narrow and rigor-
ist interpretation of the text by orthodox Christians. It is also a
reflect God's love will use their possessions for the good of others
while living disciplined and simple lives themselves. They will
divorce themselves from desire for and attachments to wealth
and possessions. Instead they will concentrate on being more
Christlike.
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
22
Introduction
Cyprian of Carthage
Thascius Caecilianus Cyprianus (d. ad. 258) was converted to
Christianity about ad. 246 and was elected bishop of Carthage
just two years later. He was born into a wealthy family and had
been trained in rhetoric. Upon becoming a Christian he gave
much of his wealth to the poor.
Cyprian was the opposite „qf Tertullian, who had been the pre-
eminent leader of the North African church a generation earlier.
Although Cyprian looked upon Tertullian with great respect and
read his writings, his personality reflected a moderation and pas-
toral sensitivity that Tertullian lacked.
The great Decian persecution broke out in the year following
Cyprian's election as bishop. This period led to conflict between
the church in Carthage and the church in Rome, and between
their respective bishops. There was criticism of Cyprian himself
formoving from the city during the persecution, and eventually
there was an intense theological debate over the method by
which Christians who had lapsed during the conflict should be
reconciled to the church. The argument concerning the lapsed
led to further questions about baptisms performed by heretics
and produced the Novatian heresy and its condemnation of all
who had compromised their faith. A new persecution under the
emperor Valerian stopped the conflict within the Christian com-
munity when Cyprian was beheaded on September 14, 258.
Cyprian's pastoral concern is reflected in his various writings.
23
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
24
Introduction
both clergy and laity in their area. A time of persecution had just
passed, so they wanted to offer guidance to those who had fallen
into apostasy and who wished to reenter the Christian commu-
nity. The problem of idols and idol worship continued and were
dealt with in several canons. The Roman civil religion and its sys-
tem of traditional "flamens," state priests who presided at every-
thing from sacrifices to gladiatorial combat and civil ceremonies,
required a series of canons to define the flamens' role for the state
on one hand, and their relationship to the church on the other.
Although the rules tended to be strict and required long periods
of penance, the canons also reflected a practicality and desire to
offer encouragement and hope to those who wished to be recon-
ciled to the Christian community after falling away or engaging in
a serious breach of Christian morality.
25
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
of John the Baptist, and of Jesus as he spent forty days in the wil-
derness.
The movement began as a lay response to the faith, but as the
solitary form gave way to community life and structures, the
clergy also became a part of the monastic communities. Deacons,
priests, and bishops often were chosen from monastic communi-
ties, and they in turn reflected this piety in their teaching of the
faith and Christian morality.
26
Introduction
Ambrose ofMilan
Ambrose (ad. 339-97), a contemporary of Saint Basil, was the
Roman governor of Aemilia-Liguria when, in ad. 373, he was
chosen to become the bishop of Milan. He had not yet been bap-
tized, and he underwent a rigorous eight days during which he
was baptized and ordained to the various clerical offices; his con-
secration as bishop was on December 7, 373. He continued his
theological studies under his former teacher, Simplicianus, and
became noted as a preacher, teacher, and defender of orthodoxy.
Ambrose spent much of his time combating the teachings of
Arianism which were infiltrating into the church. He also
attempted to teach Catholic doctrine to the barbarians who were
continually moving into the area around Milan. His interest in the
growing Eastern monasticism was enhanced by his knowledge of
Greek, and he was instrumerit^ into
the Western church. He was concerned that monasticism remain
under the guidance of local bishops and that they continue to
offer instruction regarding ascetic theology and practice.
About ad. 391 he wrote The Duties of the Clergy, in which he
attempted to offer guidance to those he had already ordained. He
used as his model the work of Cicero De Officiis and developed
his thought under two heads: that of what is honorable and
beyond the normal call of duty; and that of what is ordinary and
expected of everyone. We see in this work an attempt not only to
offer practical moral instruction to the clergy but to show the
relationship between Christian ethics and earlier philosophy. It
marks a step beyond the usual lists of moral dos and don'ts and
illustrates reflection on the philosophical and logical structure
that underlies ethical understanding and teaching.
27
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
merits and influences within both society and the church came to
fruition. Christianity had found relative peace in its relationship
to the state and, because of its new legal status and respectability,
had increased in numbers and in influence within secular society.
The monastic movement had secured its place in both East and
West, and had established a theological and ethical outlook that
constantly influenced, and sometimes challenged, the whole
church. The heretical movements of earlier centuries either had
passed away or were no longer a major threat to the body of
orthodox belief. The challenge of such groups as the Pelagians
and Arians was now met with theological arguments reflecting a
solid Catholic theological tradition and church structure. Pagan
writers, Greek philosophers, and classical literature were all
viewed with some objectivity by Christians. Some were rejected
or ridiculed; some were adopted and used; others were quoted
freely. It is within such a milieu that Augustine was able to
develop his own theology and understanding of the Christian
faith.
In his Letters to Boniface 189 and 220 we see his thoughts pres-
ented in a very personal and pastoral way. Combining his concern
for a friend, his beliefs about the Christian life, and his regard for
asceticism, Augustine attempts to offer guidance to Boniface and
to answer the question, Can a Christian remain in the military?
Theodoret ofCyrrhus
Theodoret (ca. ad. 393-466) was born in Antioch and edu-
cated in monastic schools. He entered a monastery at Nicerte
about ad. 4 16 and was chosen Bishop ofCyrrhus in ad. 423. He
was respected for his pastoral work and his involvement in com-
munity activities and development. He was a defender of Antio-
chene Christology, siding with Nestorius in his conflict with
Cyril of Alexandria.
Theodoret is regarded as the last of the great theologians of
Antioch, but only a few of his many writings survive. He studied
classical literature and knew many of the works of Greek philoso-
phy. His Cure of the Pagan Diseases is the last of the apologies
from the early centuries, and it is one of the finest; its subtitle is
The Truth of the Gospels Provedfrom Greek Philosophy Quoting .
28
Introduction
29
IL
T\\e Didache
30 Q \ OKrC
. &-^X WrsV)
The Didache
II.
III.
31
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
gance. Do not associate yourself with those who are snobs, but
walk with those who are just and humble.
Accept willingly the circumstances of your life, and see them as
useful, sinceGod is present in them.
IV.
My child, day and night remember those who speak the Word
of God to you, and honor them as you do the Lord, for when they
speak of the Lord's sovereignty, the Lord is present.
You should study the saints each day so that you may find com-
fort in their words.
Do not create division, but bring peace among those who are
divided. Make your judgments with justice, and do not show
favor to certain individuals when you render a decision.
Do not be indecisive in making such a judgment.
Do not be the kind of person who reaches out the hand to
receive but who withdraws it when it comes to giving.
From your possessions you should give to others as a ransom
for your sins.
Do not be hesitant or complain when you give, but remember
who the Paymaster is who gives the reward.
Do not turn away those in need, but be willing to share what-
ever you have. Do not look upon your possessions as your own,
for if you share with others in those things that are eternal, how
much more should you share what is temporal.
Do not fail to help your son or daughter, and teach your chil-
dren to revere God even in their childhood.
Do not give orders to your servants in anger, for they trust in
the same God as you and they may lose respect for the God of you
both; for God comes to us not according to our status but accord-
ing to the Spirit who prepares us.
Servants, do the work your master requires, and remain modest
and respectful, for the master is an image of God himself.
Hate all that is pretentious and everything that does not please
the Lord.
Do not forget to obey the commandments of the Lord, but keep
what has been passed on to you without adding to or subtracting
from it.
V.
The path of death is completely evil and
with destruc-
filled
tion:murders, physical desires, sexual drives, stealing, idolatries,
witchcrafts, sorceries, confiscation of property, false testimo-
nies, pretensions, deceitfulness, treachery, arrogance, malice,
egotism, greed, obscene speech, jealousy, immodesty, pride,
bragging, and lack of reverence for God.
Opposers of the good; opponents of the truth; lovers of lies;
those who do not know the meaning of justice, not holding to
that which is good nor executing honest judgment, searching not
for the good but, rather, for that which is evil, far away from gen-
tleness and patience; lovers of an empty life, seeking rewards, not
showing mercy to the poor, not working on behalf of the
oppressed, not acknowledging their Creator; murderers of chil-
dren; destroyers of God's creation, turning away those in need,
oppressing the powerless, allied with the rich; biased judges
against the poor, completely sinful— may you be spared from
these, my children.
VI.
Watch out that you are not led away from the path of life by
those who do not know God. —
If you are able to carry the whole yoke of the Lord, your life will
33
IIL
oAristides of Athens
APOLOGY
The defense of the philosopher Aristides presented to Hadrian
the King regarding God the Almighty. To Caesar Titus Hadrianus
Antoninus Augustus, venerable and merciful, from Marcianus
Aristides, philosopher of Athens.
King, by God's grace I was born into this world. I have con-
templated the heavens and the earth and the seas, I have watched
the sun and the precision of all creation, and I have admired this
orderliness.
1 am led to believe that the world and all in it is guided by
another power and that guiding force is God, who is hidden and
kept concealed from us. Everyone knows that the power that
guides is greater than the thing that is guided. It is impossible for
me to search and discover the nature of this guide behind crea-
tion, for such knowledge would be incomprehensible to me. To
question the ways in which this guiding force governs creation or
to attempt to understand this relationship would still not lead one
to perfect comprehension.
I am convinced, however, that this guiding force in the world is
the God of all, who has created all people. It is evident to me that
this is expedient: we should fear God and we should not oppress
other people.
I say that God is not born nor created. God's nature is constant,
;
34
Aristides of Athens
II.
35
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
III.
We will begin
with the barbarians and then each of the other
groups in order to see which of them believe the truth about God
and which are in error. . .
XV.
The Christians, O King, in their travels and searching have
found the truth and, as we see in their writings, are nearer to the
truth and perfect knowledge than the other people. They know
and believe in God as the creator of heaven and earth in whom
and from whom all things exist. There is no other god compara-
ble to their God. They have learned God's commandments, and
they live by them in the hope of the world to come.
For this reason they do not commit adultery or engage in sexual
immorality or give false testimony or withhold someone's
deposit or envy another person's possessions. They honor their
father and mother, they are helpful to those around them, and as
judges they make decisions with justice.
Christians do not worship idols or images of human beings.
Anything they do not want others to do to them, they do not do to
others. They do not eat foods offered to idols as sacrifices, for
they believe such food to be impure. They console the afflicted
and become their friend.
O King, Christian wives are as pure as virgins and their daugh-
ters are modest. Christian men do not enter into illegal marriages
or other promiscuity, because they await the rewards of the life to
come. Out of love for their servants and children, if they have any,
they encourage them to become Christians, and if they do so,
they are called brothers and sisters without distinction.
They do not worship other gods; they are humble and gentle
36
Aristides of Athens
and do not lie. They love one another, and they do not disregard
their widows; orphans are protected from those who would hurt
them. They willingly share what they have with those in need.
They bring strangers into their homes and welcome them as true
brothers and sisters. Brothers and sisters need not share biologi-
cal parents but, rather, the same Spirit and God.
Christians, as they are able, provide for the burial of their poor
when they die; they provide help to those among them who are
imprisoned or oppressed because of their faith in Christ, and they
try to secure freedom for them if that is possible.
When there is a person in poverty or need among them and
Christians do not have resources at hand to help, they will fast for
two or three days in order to provide the food needed.
They are diligent in obeying the teachings of their Messiah,
and they follow the Lord their God by living honorably and
modestly.
Every morning and at all hours they give praise and thanks to
God for the gifts they have received; for food and drink they also
give thanks to God.
When a faithful person among them dies, they rejoice and give
thanks to God as they accompany the body [to the grave], as
though the person were merely moving from one place to
another. When a child is born to any of their number, they praise
God and, if it should die in childhood, they praise God even more
because the child has passed through the world without sin.
If they have one of their number die in guilt or in sin, they weep
and cry out for one who goes to face punishment.
This, O King, is the content of the Christians' law and the way
in which they live.
XVI.
Because they know God, Christians pray for those things that
are suitable for the Lord to give and for them to receive. They
continue this throughout their lives. Since they recognize the
goodness of God to them, they are able to see the beauty that is in
the world.
Truly these are the people who came to know the truth through
their travels and searching, and we believe that they alone are
close to an understanding of the truth.
The good works they do are not made public to impress others
37
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
but, rather, are done unnoticed so that they may hide their deeds
as one who finds a treasure and hides it [Matt. 13:44]. They make
a great effort to be just as they prepare to see their Messiah and
receive with great glory the promises he made to them.
It is from their writings, O King, that you may learn of their
teachings and rules, the beauty of their worship, and their desire
for rewards in eternal life according to their works.
It is sufficient that we have presented this brief survey to Your
Majesty regarding the life style and truth of the Christians. Truly
of the Christians. The other people are in error and cause error,
floundering before the forces of nature, because they cannot
comprehend anything beyond these natural occurrences. They
grope in the dark because they will not recognize the truth, and
like drunken men, they stagger, crash into one another, and fall
down.
XVIL
Up to this point, O King, it is I who have spoken. For the
remainder of what needs to be said, as I already stated, we must
look at their other writings, which are too difficult to sum up in
brief and which must be understood in relation to actions and not
as mere words.
The Greeks, O King, follow shameful practices in having sexual
activities with males, a mother, a sister, or a daughter. They
attempt to turn the ridicule of their filthiness back against the
Christians, but the Christians are just and honest as they perse-
vere for the truth.
Even though the Christians recognize the error [of the Greeks],
and are persecuted by them, they bear it with tolerance and even
38
Aristides of Athens
39
IV.
Clement of Alexandria
40
Clement of Alexandi
41
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
heard before from the gospel. Do not let them depress you as they
did when you listened with the uncritical and mistaken logic of
immature understanding.
As he went on his way, a man came and knelt before him, asking,
"Good teacher, what must I do to inherit eternal life?" Jesus
said, "Why do you call me good? No one is good except God.
You know the commandments: do not commit adultery; do not
kill; do not steal; do not give false testimony; honor your father
and mother." The man answered, "I have done all of these
things since I was young." Jesus looked at him with love and
replied, "You lack one thing. If you want to be perfect, sell all
that you possess and give it to the poor, and you will have valu-
able possessions in heaven. Then come and follow me." His
countenance fell immediately, and he went away dejected, for
he had great possessions. Jesus looked around and then said to
his disciples, "How difficult it will be for those who have wealth
to enter the kingdom of God!" The disciples were startled at his
words. Jesus said to them, "Children, how difficult it is for those
who put their trust in riches to enter the kingdom of God! It
would be easier for a camel to move through the eye of a needle
than for a rich person to enter the kingdom of God." The disci-
ples were greatly dismayed and asked, "Who then can be
saved?" He said to them, "With men it is impossible, but not
with God." Peter said to him, "We have left everything we had to
follow you." Jesus answered, "In truth I say to you, whoever
leaves home and parents, brothers and possessions for my sake
and the cause of the gospel will receive a hundredfold; in this
life, houses and lands, possessions, brothers, sisters, and perse-
cutions; in the time to come, eternal life. The first will be last,
and the last first." [Mark 10: 17-31]
Jesus does not accuse the man of having failed to fulfill the law.
Instead, he loves him and warmly commends him for his faithful-
ness. However, this is not sufficient for gaining eternal life, since
obedience to law alone, without living a fruitful life, cannot bring
one to perfection. Who would deny that works of the law are
good? The "commandment is holy" [Rom. 7:12] inasmuch as it
provides training and initial instruction that is regulated by fear.
This will lead to the culmination of legalism and the emergence
of the grace ofJesus [Gal. 3:24]. Christ is the fulfillment of the law
and in htajuTwhoJbelieve are justified [Rom. 10:4]. Those who
do the Father's work are not turned into slaves but are made his
sons and daughters and heirs. . .
but he provides for those who seek, and he gives to those who ask
and to those who knock. If this is your desire, if it is your honest
wish and not a bit of self-deception, you may take what is offered.
"You lack one thing," the thing that Christ offers, the good that is
above the law and that the law cannot give because it does not
possess it. This good is only for those who live in Christ. The man
who had lived by the law from his youth and was proud of this
accomplishment could not accomplish the one task the Savior
gave him in order to reach the eternal life that he desired. He went
away dejected, realizing he could not fulfill the requirement that
separated him from the life he had requested. His interest was not
in eternal life, as he had said, but in the desire to gain respect by
43
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
attitudes toward wealth that permeate his whole life, his desires,
interjests, and anxiety. These things become the thorns choking
the seed of a true life. It is not a great thing or desirable to be
without any wealth, unless it is because we are seeking eternal
life. If it were, those who possess nothing —
the destitute, the beg-
gars seeking food, and the poor living in the streets would —
become the blessed and loved of God, even though they did not
know God or God's righteousness. They would be granted eter-
nal life on the basis of their extreme poverty and their lack of even
the basic necessities of life! The renunciation of wealth and the
distribution of possessions to the poor are nothing new. Even
before the Savior's coming this was practiced by such men as
Anaxagoras, Democritus, and Crates, who wanted leisure time,
or time for acquiring knowledge and study of dead wisdom, or
fame and notoriety.
Why is Jesus' command new or divine and life-giving,
then
whereas the actions of people long ago brought no such benefit?
If the new creature, the Son of God, offers something new, what
is it? His command focuses not on 4he visible act, as earlier teach-
ings had done, but on something greater, more divine, and per-
fect. Tfi^l^ and
preoccupations are rooted out and discarded. This is a concept
unique to the Christian and comes from the Savior himself. In
former times some people viewed possessions with contempt
45
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
not only ourselves but our neighbors as well. They are posses-
sions because they are possessed, and they are goods because
they are good and provided by God to help all people. They are
under our control, and we are to use them just as others use mate-
rials and instruments of their trade. An instrument, used with
skill, produces a work of art, but it is not the instrument's fault if
20. The_rjjch man, who had lived according to the law, did not
understand the Lord's teaching figuratively. He could not com-
prehend how one can be both poor and rich, have wealth and not
have wealth, use the world and not use the world. He walked
away confused and sad. He gave up his desire for a better life
because he felt it was beyond his ability to achieve. He saw a diffi-
cult task as an impossible one. It is difficult to keep ourselves
from becoming enticed by and dependent upon the life style that
affluence offers, but it is not impossible. Even when surrounded
by affluence we may distance ourselves from its effects and
accept salvation.We center our minds on those things taught by
God and strive for eternal life by using pur possessions properly
and with a sense of indifference toward them.
Even the disciples were at first filled with fear and amazement.
Why? Because they possessed wealth? They had already given up
their only possessions, their nets, hooks, and fishing boats! Why,
in fear, do they ask, "Who can be saved?" They had listened well
and as good disciples perceived that the Lord had intended a
deeper meaning behind the obscure parables. They realized that
they had already fulfilled the command to give up one's posses-
sions, but as newly recruited disciples of the Savior, they sensed
46 ^rw'.WVU, &c
or- wrorvLu,
wr©^. \
Clement of Alexandria
that they had yet to control and abolish their desires and pas-
sions. Because of this, they were extremely concerned for them-
selves, just as the rich man was for his need of possessions rather
than his desire for eternal life. It was right that the disciples' fear
should be expressed at this moment when both those having
many outward possessions and those having many internal
desires were categorized as being rich and denied entry into
heaven. Salvation is reserved for those who are pure and without
such passions and desires.
21. But the LorcTresponded, "With men it is impossible, but
not with God." Here we see great wisdom, for it is impossible for
us to rid ourselves of all desires and passions. If we make this our
goal and earnestly desire and pursue it, the power of God will be
added to our efforts. God lends support to willing souls but, if we
lose our eagerness, the spirit of God is withdrawn. To save indi-
viduals against their will would be an act of force, but to rescue
those who desire it is grace. The kingdom of heaven does not
come to those who are lazy or asleep, but "men of violence take it
by force" [Matt. 11:12]. This is the only good kind of force there
is, to force God and to take life from God by force. God knows
26. "The first will be last and the last first." This saying, benefi-
cial for its deeper meaning and interpretation, need not concern
us at this point, for it applies to all people who have accepted the
faith and not merely to the wealthy. We will reserve it until later. I
believe that it has been demonstrated conclusively that the Savior
does not exclude the rich on account of their wealth and posses-
sions. He has not set up obstacles to keep them from salvation,
47
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
row way more quickly than the rich man, has another loftier
meaning, which is a mystery taught by the Savior and which I
discussed in my Exposition of First Principles and Theology.
27. I would now like to explain the initial, obvious meaning of
the illustration and suggest why it was used. It teaches the afflu-
ent that they must not neglect their salvation with the mistaken
belief that they are already condemned; it also teaches them that
they need not divest themselves of their wealth or treat it as a
bitterenemy of life but, rather, must learn how to use it in order to
gain life. People do not perish because of wealth, nor do people
gain salvation merely because they think they should receive it.
The Savior, however, offers hope for the wealthy and explains
how the unexpected may happen and the hoped-for may become
a reality. The Teacher, when asked which was the greatest com-
mandment, replied, "You shall love the Lord your God with all
your soul and with all your strength" [Mark 12:30-31], and he
pointed out that no commandment is greater than this. That is
quite understandable, for the commandment deals with the first
and the greatest: God our Father, through whom all things have
been created and to whom all things that are saved shall return.
48
Clement of Alexandria
We were loved first by him and have our existence from him. It
would be blasphemous to consider any other thing greater or
more excellent than him. We give him this small tribute out of
gratitude for his great blessings because there is nothing else we
can offer to a God who is perfect and who needs nothing from us.
The very act of loving the.Father to the limit of our strength and
power brings us immortality. In proportion to our love of God we
are drawn more closely into God.
28. The second commandment, in no way less important than
the first, is this: "You shall love your neighbor as yourself" [Luke
10:27]. You must love God more than yourself. When it was
asked, "Who is my neighbor?" he did not follow Jewish custom
and list such people as relatives, other Jews, proselytes, the cir-
cumcised, or the followers of the same law but, rather, told the
story of a man going from Jerusalem to Jericho who was stabbed,
robbed, and left nearly dead on the road. A priest passed by, as did
a Levite. But a scorned and outcast Samaritan had pity on the man
and, unlike the others, stopped to help. He provided all that the
man needed: oil, bandages, a donkey to transport him, and pay-
ment to the innkeeper for his care. "Which of these," Jesus asked,
"was a neighbor to the injured man?" When the answer was,
"The one who showed pity," the Lord answered, "You must go
and do the same" [Luke 10:28-37]. Love should burst forth in
good works!
29. In both commandments our Lord speaks of love, but he
gives an order to our expression of that love: first we are to love
God, and after that we are to love our neighbor. Who else can that
mean than the Savior himself? Who, more than he, has shown us
pity? We who nearly died because of those earthly powers of fear,
lust, hatred, desires, dishonesty, and pleasures. Jesus is the only
one who can heal these wounds by completely cutting out those
passions down to the root. He does not deal with the outward
results, the bad fruit of the plant, as the law did, but his ax cuts to
the xoots- of our wickedness. He has poured wine over our
wounded souls, his blood which is from David's vine (the Eucha-
rist). He brought to us the oil of pity from the Father and he pours
are blessed by my Father, and enter the kingdom that was made
ready for you before the world was made. I was hungry and you
gave me food and I was thirsty .
." [Matt.
. 25:34].
50
V.
Tertullian
ON IDOLATRY
The principal sin of the human race, the greatest guilt in the
world, the basic reason for the world's judgment, is idolatry.
Although each sin has its own distinctive character and will be
judged individually, it also falls under one general category,
which is idolatry. Do not worry about names of specific actions at
this moment, but consider every idolater to be a murderer also.
But you ask, Who has±>een slain? To clarify and add further to the
indictment, I would answer, Not a stranger or an enemy, but your-
self. How? By error. With what weapon? Offense against God.
How many blows? As many as are the idolatries. One who denies
that an idolater perishes will also deny that an idolater commits
murder. An idolater is also guilty of adultery and sexual immoral-
ity, for such a person serves false gods and thereby adulterates the
51
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
II.
Now we must not pursue the various sins that fall into the cate-
gory of idolatry. Let us look at idolatry itself, a sin so offensive to
God, a basis for so much crime, and a virtual mass of tentacles
that reach out in all directions to tempt and take hold of the ser-
vants of God. We must beware and shun all of the enticements of
idolatry, for they often are undetected or disguised. Too often we
think of idolatry only in its most evident forms: burning incense
to idols, offering sacrifices, observing pagan feasts, or becoming
involved in pagan rites or organizations. This is the same as equat-
ing adultery with kisses, embraces, or touching of flesh, or limit-
ing murder to causing loss of blood or the actual taking of a life.
We know that the Lord includes much more in the definition of
such sins. Adultery includes the way in which we look at some-
one and the thoughts and sexual desires that fill us; murder
includes the harsh and hurting words and the angry actions we
direct at someone else. We have lost the love we should have for
others and, as John says, 'Anyone who hates his brother is a mur-
derer" [John 3:15]. If God did not expand the meaning of these
sins, we would be no better than the heathen who, under the
guidance of the devil and his wisdom and ingenuity, are willing to
punish such crimes. How can our "righteousness exceed that of
the scribes and Pharisees" [Matt. 5:20], as our Lord has com-
manded, unless we have understood the vast meaning of what is
52
Tertullian
VI.
If there had been no law from God prohibiting our making of
idols and if no voice from the Holy Spirit had denounced both the
makers and the worshipers of idols, we would still conclude from
our understanding of the Sacrament of Baptism that such activi-
ties were contrary to our faith. How can we renounce the devil
and his angels if we make them? How can we separate ourselves
from those upon whom we are dependent in our lives? What kind
of tensions have we caused between ourselves and those who
provide our employment? Can you deny in words what you have
done through your actions? Do you destroy with your words the
good works of your hands? Do you preach one God and then
make many idols? Do you preach the true God and then make
false gods? One may say, "Oh, I make them, but I do not worship
them." As if the reason for not worshiping idols were different
from the reason for not making them! In either case the sin is
against God! Indeed, if you provide idols for others, you are wor-
shiping them yourself. You worship them not with the offering of
a worthless perfume but with your own soul, and not with the life
of an animal but with your own life. To these false gods you offer
up your talents, your libation of sweat, and your wisdom. You
have become to them even more than their priest, for you are
their creator and your diligence has given them their divinity. Do
you still deny that you worship what you created? You may, but
these idols do not, for they have received from you a fat, precious,
—
and perfect offering your salvation.
VII.
Oh, that our zealous faith would force us into mourning when
a Christian has an idol-making workshop to come to the
left
church! That person leaves the workshop of the enemy to enter
the house of God! Hands that are the mother of idols are raised in
praise to God, and hands that are praised by idol worshipers are
used to pray to God. Those hands that fashion bodies for demons
reach out to receive the body of the Lord. As if this were not
53
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
VIII.
There are also many other crafts that are related to idols in that
they furnish the items incidental to idol worship. Such activities
are as sinful as the making of the idol. Some workers build and
equip the temple; others decorate it and provide the altar and fur-
nishings. Some prepare the gold leaf, or the ornaments, or the
stand upon which the idol is placed. This is the more important
work, for it creates dignity rather than merely providing standard
equipment for a temple.
If artisans plead that they do such work only because they need
a livelihood, they should look for other employment that does
not involve idols and idol worship. Such work takes them outside
the limits of Christian morality. A plasterer can work repairing
roofs, coating walls and cisterns, making relief moldings,
wreaths, and other decorations. The painter, marble mason,
bronze worker, and every kind of carver know of other ways to
use their arts. It is much easier to polish a shelf than it is to form a
statue! If one can carve a Mars from a lime tree, why not take less
time and build a chest instead? There is no art that is not related to
another form of art. One form of craftsmanship is not independ-
ent of other crafts. There are as many arts as there are desires in a
human being. You will probably ask about wages and the cost of
labor. There is a difference in the amount of labor involved in the
various crafts. The lower pay can be compensated for by produc-
ing more. How great is the market for walls with a niche for
statues or temples and shrines for idols? Yet look at the opportu-
nity to build houses, courtyards, baths, and expensive residences.
The gilding of shoes and slippers is in demand every day but not
the gilding of Mercury and Serapis. Crafts will flourish as they
54
Tertullian
IX.
We observe that there are other vocations that also may be cate-
gorized as idolatrous. I should need to go no further than merely
Italy have expelled them, just as heaven rejects their angels. The
followers and the masters are both excluded. But you say, Magi
and astrologers came from the East. We know that the science of
the Magi is related to astrology. The interpreters of the stars were
the first to announce Christ's birth and the first to bring him gifts.
Does this mean that they made Christ obligated to them? Where
does this lead? Can we go so far as to believe that their science is
really the science of Christ, which
studies his stars and not the
stars of Satan, Mars, and others who died long ago? The science of
the Magi was permitted up to the time of Christ's birth in order
that from then on no person's birth would be related to heavenly
manifestations. The Magi offered to the infant Lord their frankin-
cense, gold, and myrrh as the last sacrifices of the world's glory,
55
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
for from that time Christ fulfilled such need for all people. There
is no doubt that the Magi were warned in a dream not to return by
— —
cery is punished and astrology is one form of it surely the par-
ticular type is condemned along with the broad category. After
the coming of the gospel there are no Sophists, Chaldeans, sha-
mans, witchdoctors, or sorcerers who are not openly punished.
"Where is the wise person? Where is the scribe? Where is the
skilled debater of this day? Has God not made foolish the wisdom
of the world?" [1 Cor. 1 :20]. Astrologer! you know nothing if you
do not know that you should become a Christian. If you know
that, you should know that you must reject your astrology. Since
those beliefs attempt to foretell the crises facing others, they
should also foresee their own fate. You have no part nor lot in
your system [Acts 8:21]. You cannot hope for the kingdom of
heaven if you use your finger or magician's wand to misuse the
heavens.
X.
We must also have a look at schoolteachers and professors of
learning (litterarum), for their work has a close relationship to
idolatry— first, because they must teach about the gods of the
nations by discussing their names, genealogies, traditions, and
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Tertullian
57
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
XL
Let us look at other sins and the way in which they began and
developed. The first is covetousness, the "root of all evils" [1
Tim. 6:10], which overpowers some and shipwrecks their faith.
The apostle teaches that covetousness is idolatry [Col. 3:5]. Next
is lying, which is the servant of covetousness (I will not deal with
false oaths, since it is not lawful to take oaths at all). May the ser-
vant of God be involved in making profits? What is the reason for
acquiring possessions other than covetousness? When the motive
for seeking profit and possessions is taken away, there will be no
reason for commerce or trade. There may be some necessary rea-
sons for trade that are free from anxiety over covetousness and
lying. But that commerce which revolves around the very soul
and spirit of idols and the worship of every demon is idolatry; in
fact, is it not the chief of all idolatries? Some items such as frank-
incense and other foreign materials used in idol worship are also
used in medicine and even by Christians in the burial of the dead.
Such trade will continue. When you supply materials for the pro-
cessions, priests, and sacrifices of idols, are your dangers, losses,
inconveniences, anxieties, running around, and business itself
anything other than the service of idols? Let no one argue that
this requires the abolition of all trade! Sins which are the most
serious must receive attention commensurate with the danger
they pose. Some require that we not only avoid committing them
but that we also avoid those things through which they may be
committed. Even though something is done by others, it makes
no difference, if I made it possible. I should not give support to
someone who is doing something I myself should not do. If I am
forbidden to do it, I should take care that it is not done through
me.
Finally, in another example, which is equally dangerous, I offer
the same advice. Since I am forbidden to indulge in sexual immo-
rality, I should not encourage or support others who do. I am
58
Tertullian
him to remain in the church? I assume you would not, unless you
are also willing to overlook those who sell frankincense. The one
provides the blood, and the other the incense. Before idols were
constructed, idolatry was epitomized in the selling of incense,
and even now it is the burning of incense, rather than the pres-
ence of a statue, that perpetuates idolatry. Therefore, does not the
seller of incense serve demons, since it is his product that does
more to continue idol worship than the provision of idols them-
selves? We appeal to the conscience of every Christian! How will
the believer who sells incense react when he enters a temple? Will
he spit and blow at the altar that smokes because of the incense he
provided? How will he exorcise his own foster children [i.e., the
demons], whom he stores in his own house? If he thinks he
throws out a demon, he should not congratulate himself, for he
has not destroyed an enemy. Since he provided the food of
incense to that demon everyday, it should have obeyed his
request! No craft, profession, or trade that supplies materials for
the making of idols or their worship can be free from being con-
demned as idolatrous, unless we attempt to define idolatry as
something other than the serving and worship of idols. ..
XVIIL
Now we must speak about the clothing and insignia related to
idolatry.Each person has appropriate clothing for use in daily
affairsand for special offices and occasions. The Egyptians and
Babylonians wore purple, gold, and ornaments around their
necks as signs of their status; and so our own provincial priests
wear garments with borders or stripes, and palm-embroidered
robes, and golden crowns. But there is a difference. The former
were presented by kings as symbols of honor (and so we speak of
59
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
the purple given by kings, or the "candidates" who wear our own
toga Candida) and were not considered the apparel of priests or
of others who served idols. If they had been, those who were
holy and faithful would have refused the polluted garments, and
it would have been seen much more quickly than it was at first
that Daniel did not serve idols or worship Bel and the dragon.
The use of purple garments among the barbarians was a sign not
of high office but of noble birth. Joseph, who had been a slave,
and Daniel, who during his captivity came to be quite important,
both came to be free men in Egypt and Babylon and wore the
dress of the barbarian nobility. Therefore, if need be, believers
may allow boys and girls to wear traditional robes as symbols of
birth and not of power, of family and not of status, of position and
not of superstition. But the purple and other symbols long associ-
ated with the power and honor of idols are profaned. Robes with
borders, stripes, and broad bars are even used to dress up the
idols, and symbolic banners or staffs are carried before them.
This is fitting, for the demons are the rulers of this world and the
purple robes and symbols are a part of their equipage. What do
you gain if you wear the garments but deny that you perform the
tasks associated with them? You cannot appear to be clean when
you are covered with the unclean. You may put on a garment that
is dirty within itself and not because of you, but it will leave its
V dirton you.
Those of you who use Joseph and Daniel as examples to refute
vf v me must remember that things old and new, rough and polished,
just begun and already completed, for slave and for the free, are
not always capable of being compared. Those men of old were
forced to be slaves, but you are servants of no one, for you are
Christ's alone and he has freed you from the captivity of the
world. For this reason you live by his commandments. The Lord
walked in humility and without worldly honor or even a place to
call his home, for "the Son of man has nowhere to lay his head"
[Matt. 8:20]. His clothing was simple, for he said, "Behold, those
who wear soft clothing live in king's houses" [Matt. 11:8]. As
Isaiah had "He was without a pleasant appearance or
said,
beauty" [Isa. 53:2]. He did not claim any right to exercise power
over his people but became their servant; he knew he was a king
but refused to be proclaimed a king; he showed his people how to
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Tertullian
reject pride and power and the pretense of attire and honor. Who
would have had more right to use such honors than the Son of
God? What symbolic items, and how many of them, should
escort him, what kind of purple should radiate from his shoul-
ders, what gold should glisten on his head if he had permitted and
not rejected such glory for himself and for his people! That glory
which he did not want for himself, he has rejected; that which he
rejected, he condemned; and what he condemned he equated
with the pomp of the devil. He only condemned whatwas not his
own, for what does not belong to God belongs to the devil. If you
renounced the pomp of the devil (at baptism) remember that any
part of that pomp which you touch is idolatry. Let this realization
remind you that all the powers and honors of this world are not
only alien to God but enemies of God. They are used to punish
God's servants, and because of them the wicked shall face
unknown punishments. Your birth and your possessions become
a problem for you as you resist idolatry. There are many remedies
to help you in this struggle, and should they seem weak, there is a
greater one. It is the promise of a greater dignity that is given to
you not on earth but in heaven.
XIX.
In the previous section we have raised an issue that concerns
military service, since it involves both dignity and power. We
therefore need to pursue this point more fully. Is it possible for a
believer to become a soldier or for a soldier to become a Chris-
tian? Is it possible for a low-ranking soldier, who is not obligated
to offer sacrifices to idols or carry out capital punishment, to
become a Christian? There is no between the Chris-
relationship
tian's oath and the soldier's oath, the sign of Christ and the sign of
the devil, the camp of light and the camp of darkness. One soul
cannot be divided between two masters— God and Caesar. If we
wish to debate the subject, you may point out that Moses carried a
rod, Aaron wore a buckle, John wore a leather belt, and Joshua,
the son of Nun, led an army. But how could a Christian soldier go
to war or keep the peace without the sword that has been taken
away by the Lord? Even though soldiers came to John [the Baptist]
and received instructions for their conduct and even though a
centurion became a believer, our Lord, when he took away Peter's
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
XX.
Since our conduct is judged not merely by our deeds but also by
our words (for it is written, "Behold the man and his deeds," and,
"Out of your mouth you shall be justified"), we must remember
that even in our words, habit or fear may allow idolatry to enter
in. The law forbids the naming of pagan gods. This does not mean
that we cannot even say the name, for this would be very difficult
in everyday talking. We say, "You will find him in the Temple of
Aesculapius," or, "I live in Iris Street," or, "He has been made a
priest of Jupiter." Such names are a part of our everyday vocabu-
lary, and people are even given such names themselves. I do not
honor Saturnus if I call a man by that name. That same is true of
Marcus. What the law says is, "Take heed to all that I have said to
you; and make no mention of the names of other gods, nor let
such be heard out of your mouth" [Exod. 23: 13]. This means that
we do not call them gods. In the first part of the law it says, "You
shall not use the name of the Lord your God in vain [Exod. 20:7],
that is, as the name of an idol. Whoever honors an idol with the
name of God has become an idolater. If I must use the names of
idols, I must make it clear that I am not recognizing them as gods.
Even the Scriptures name various gods but add "their" or "of the
nations," as David does when he says, "But the gods of the
nations are idols" [Ps. 96:5]. I have pointed this out as a prelimi-
nary to remarks I shall make later on.
It is an evil habit to say such things as, "By Hercules," or, "By
Jupiter," for some people do not realize that they are offering an
oath to Hercules. What will such an oath be, when taken in the
name of gods you have rejected, than a mixture of your faith with
idolatry? You are in fact showing honor to those whose names
you use in making an oath!
APOLOGY
XXXVI.
If some who are called Romans are found to be enemies of
Rome, why _arej^^deniedji<^n^ne Roman pnjthe pretext of
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XXXVIL
If we, as Christians, are commanded to love our enemies, as I
have already stated, who is left that we could hate? If we are for-
bidden to retaliate against someone who injures us, for fear of
sinking to their level, whom can we injure? Think about your
own experiences. How often do you react cruelly and violently
against Christians partly because of your own emotional
response and partly in response to the laws? How often does the
hostile mob disregard your advice and go ahead, taking the law
into its own hands and inflicting injury against Christians with
stones and fires? With the riotous behavior of the Bacchanals,
they do not even allow the Christians who are dead to rest in the
tomb but remove their decomposing bodies and cut them into
pieces and scatter them.
Yet, can you point to any instance when we have retaliated for
the injuries we have received even though we remain a united and
resolute community who could in a single night return evil for
evil by setting fires out of vengeance? As a divinely gathered
group we do not even consider resorting to human revenge or
avoiding the suffering that tests our faith. If we desired to become
open enemies, do you think we would have problems finding
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
—
we have filled what you considered to be yours your cities,
islands, fortresses, towns, marketplaces, camps, tribes, profes-
sions, palaces, senate, and forum. The only thing we have left to
you is your temple. What war is there that could defeat us who are
eager and ready to do battle even against the odds? Wejirewilling
to die for pur faith since we are convinced it is better to be slain
thati to kill someone else. We do not need to arm ourselves and
resort to insurrection, for we can merely disagree with you and
resist peacefully, and the battle will continue with the tension
that is created. If our multitude had broken away from you and
moved en masse to a far-off corner of the world, the loss of so
many citizens, no matter what sort they were, would have
brought shame to the Empire, nay, even inflicted punishment on
the Empire by virtue of the mass desertion.
You would be panic-stricken when you realized the silence that
fell upon your society and economy and the feeling that your
world had died. You would have to find other subjects to rule,
and you would have more enemies than citizens. Right now you
have few enemies, because a vast number of the inhabitants you
have scattered in your cities are Christians. Yet you choose to call
them enemies of the human race rather than enemies of human
error. Who else could help deliver you from those secret enemies
which seek to destroy your minds and ruin your health? By this I
mean, who would save you from those spirits of evil which we
drive away without seeking payment or reward? Ifjwe truly
wanted vengeance we would merely allow the unclean spirits to
overrun you. Yet you do not consider rewarding us for the protec-
tion we offer, nor do you recognize that we are an asset to your
society. We pose no threat to you. Instead you look upon us as
enemies, failing to realize that we are enemies of human error and
not of the human race.
XXXVIIL
Therefore^ should not Christianity be treated more gently and
be recognized as one of the legal religions, recognizing that Chris-
64
Tertulh
XXXIX.
Now thathave refuted the charge that Christians are evil, I
I
would continue and show the positive good that they do.
like to
We are a community united by our religious faith, our unity of
discipline, and our common hope. We gather together in our con-
gregations to come as a multitude to burst into God's presence
with our prayers. God is pleased with such a mob! We pray for the
emperors, their ministers, and for all in authority, as well as for
the welfare of the whole world, for peace on earth, and for the
delay of the end of the world. We meet together to read our
Sacred Scriptures and to apply their message to our lives as a
reminder of how we should live or a warning as to what the future
might bring. In either case our faith is nourished by the words of
Scripture, we are given new hope and confidence, and our way of
life finds support in the precepts given by God. When we gather,
Vo us
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
there are not only admonitions but also warnings and God-given
condemnations. The judging of wrongdoing is very important to
us, as it must be to all who believe that God knows their thoughts
al^£ctiqns; and we go even further at times and banish some
sinners from sharing in our prayer, our assembly, and all holy fel-
lowship. Such extreme action is but a foretaste of the future judg-
ment.
Our leaders are elders of proven character who reach that office
not by buying support but in recognition of their integrity, for
nothing of God's can be bought with money. Even though we
have a community treasury, it is not made up of money paid as
entrance fees or dues. Each member may bring a monthly dona-
tion, if he or she so desires, as a voluntary offering. You might say
that these gifts are concrete manifestations of a person's devo-
tion. The funds are never used for banquets or drinking parties or
for operating an eating house but, rather, are used to feed the poor
and bury them, to help boys and girls who have no parents or
property; the funds are used for servants who have grown old and
mariners who were shipwrecked. In addition, the fund assists
those in mines, on islands, or in prison for the sake of God's love,
as a pension coming from their faith. It is because of these works
of love that some put a brand upon us. "See," they say, "how they
love one another." They are amazed because their lives are filled
with hatred. They also say of us, "See how they are ready to die
for one another." This they cannot understand, for they are ready
to kill one another. They even deride us because we call each
other brothers, probably because they use such names to refer to a
blood relationship, the only way they can recognize any degree
of affection. But we are your brothers as well, since we are all
human beings, even though you, because of your evil, are hardly
worthy to be considered human. On the opposite side are those
brothers who acknowledge one Father of all, one God who unites
them in one spirit of holiness and who has brought them out of a
common womb of ignorance into a common experience of the
awesome light of truth. Perhaps we are considered to be less than
true brothers since we cannot shout about a tragedy that molded
us as brothers or because we become united in what we possess as
a family, whereas you are usually divided from one another
because of dissension over deciding the family inheritance. Wfe
who are united in heart and soul havejio hesitation in sharing
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never going to die." One sees so much more easily the speck in
another's eye than the log in one's own. The air around us stinks
from the belching of so many tribes and social groups. The Salii
will eat themselves into debt; you need accountants to figure out
the tithes and offerings for Hercules; the Apaturia, Dionysia, and
Attic assemblies need a gourmet cook; the smoke from the Sera-
pis banquets will call out the firemen. And yet it is the modest
dining room of the Christians that attracts your attention! Our
meal is explained in the Greek word that we use for it: love. No
matter what it costs, it is of benefit to religion since it provides
nourishment to those in need, not as it is with you who act like
parasites as you glory in selling your freedom so that you can stuff
yourselves at a banquet where you have to endure the bad man-
ners of those around you. In our meals a special respect is paid to
the lowly, just as it is with God. If the intent of our feast is worth-
while, you need to consider also the other rules that we follow. It
is a religious act, and therefore nothing rich or disorderly can be
Lord was present. After the water is brought in for washing the
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
hands and the candles are lit, each person is invited to sing a
hymn to God as best he or she can, using either one from Holy
Scripture or one of his or her own composing. This proves that
we have not been drinking heavily! Just as we began, we also end
with prayer. We leave not as a riotous mob ready to assault the
innocent, or to roam the streets and create destruction, but with
orderliness and modesty, as a people fed on virtue rather than a
party of food and drink.
These meetings of Christians deserve to be ruled illegal if they
follow the same pattern as the destructive and illegal actions of
other groups. But can you point to people who have been harmed
by our gatherings? We act the same when we come together as we
do in our scattered lives; we are as a congregation just what we are
as individuals: we do not harm others nor do we harass them.
When the upright, the virtuous, the pious, and the pure gather
together, you should not call them a divisive faction in society but
should, rather, consider them an assembly of the highest order.
68
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Cyprian of Carthage
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
shows us that, just as the supply of saving water quenches the fire
of Gehenna, so also the flame of sin is smothered by almsgiving
and works of justice. Because in baptism the remission of sins is
granted once and for all, so in works oXcharityjhat flow from the
baptized person, the mercy of God continues to be manifested.
The Lord teaches this in the gospel when he responds to a criti-
cism that the disciples eat before washing their hands: "He who
made the outside also made the inside; give alms and everything
is clean for you" [Luke 11:41]. This has taught us that not the
hands but the heart should be washed so that the dirt within is
removed, and not mereTylRat which is on the outside. Those
:
who are clean on the inside will be clean on the outside as well. If
we cleanse our mind, the cleansing of our skin and body will also
begin.
Furthermore, he admonishes us and points out the way in
which we may become clean and purified: by the giving of alms.
He who teaches and warns us in mercy asks us to show mercy,
and he who seeks salvation for those whom he already redeemed
at a great price, teaches that they may be washed a second time if
they have soiled themselves after receiving the grace of baptism.
3. Let us acknowledge, dear friends, this saving gift of divine
mercy. Since none of us can be free of some wounds to our con-
science, let us receive the healing that washes away our sins.
None of us should flatter ourselves with the belief that we have a
pure and spotless heart or that we are innocent and without need
of healing for our wounds. It is written, "Who can say that they
have a pure heart or that they are free from sin?" [Prov. 20:9]. John
says, "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the
truth is not in us" [1 John 1 :8]. If no one can be without sin, even
those who are proud or foolish and do not admit it, we can see
how necessary and compassionate the divine mercy is toward us.
God knows that those who were healed in baptism will suffer
more wounds in life, and he has provided additional remedies to
save them.
4. Beloved friends, the divine instruction of both the Old and
New Testaments has never compromised or failed in admonish-
ing God's people to works of mercy. The Holy Spirit calls and
exhorts each of us to hope for eternal life and to give alms. God
commanded Isaiah, "Cry aloud, do not give up. Lift up your
voice like a trumpet and declare to my people their transgres-
70
Cyprian of Carthage
sions, and to the house of Jacob their sins" [Isa. 58: 1]. God com-
manded that their sins be condemned and the divine wrath be
made known. Pleading, prayers, and fasting were not sufficient
ways to make amends; sackcloth and ashes were not accepted as a
way to soften God's anger. The only way to appease God is
through almsgiving and works of mercy. "Share your bread with
the hungry and bring the poor and the homeless into your house.
When you see the naked, give them clothing and do not reject
your own children. Then your light will break forth as the dawn;
you will quickly gain good health; your righteousness will be
seen by all and the glory of God will surround you. Then when
you cry out, God will answer you, and while you are still asking,
he will reply, 'Here I am' " [Isa. 58:7-9].
5. The ways in which we may please God are described for us
by God himself: the Scriptures have taught what sinners should
do. God is satisfied when we do works of justice, and sins are
forgiven through acts of mercy. In Solomon we read, "Store up
your alms in the hearts of the poor and they will intercede for you
against any evil" [Sir. 29:12], and, "Whoever refuses to hear the
cry of the poor will cry to God and not be heard" [Prov. 21:13].
Those who have not shown mercy will not be given mercy by the
Lord; those who have not responded to the prayer of the poor
will not receive a divine response to their own prayer. In the
Psalms the Holy Spirit declares and affirms, "Blessed are those
who consider the poor, for the Lord will deliver them when they
face trouble" [Ps. 4 1 1]. Daniel remembered this when King Neb-
:
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
requests to God are granted more fully when they are accompa-
nied by works of mercy and justice. The angel reveals and assures
us that our prayersbecome more efficacious through our alms-
giving and that such acts of mercy protect us from dangers and
rescue our souls from death. . . .
ent who refuse to give alms? How can we defend the affluent
whose minds are barren and confused? How can we excuse them
when we are even lower than the devil's servants and are not will-
ing to repay Christ, even in small ways, for the price of his passion
and death? He has given us commands and taught us what we
should do. He has promised rewards to those who give and share
freely, and he has threatened the unfruitful with punishment. He
has made it clear how he will judge humanity and what his final
sentence will be. What excuse is left for the lazy? What defense
for those whose lives bear no good fruit? If the servant does not
do what he is told, he will receive the punishment that was threat-
ened. "When the Son of man comes in glory, and all the angels
with him, then he will sit on the throne in glory and the nations
will be gathered before him. He will separate them as a shepherd
divides the sheep from the goats, and he will place the sheep on
his right side and the goats on his left. Then the King will say to
those on his right, 'Come. O blessed of my Father, inherit the
kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world, for I
was hungry and you gave me food; I was thirsty and you gave me
water; I was a stranger and you accepted me into your home;
naked and you gave me clothing; sick and you visited me; in
prison and you came to me.' Then the righteous will ask him,
'Lord, when did we see you hungry, thirsty, or naked? When did
we see you sick or in prison and come to you?' The King will
answer, 'Truly, I say to you, when vou did it for one of the least of
my children, you did it to me.' [The text from Matt. 25:31-46
continues, concluding: Those failing to do these things] will go
away to eternal punishment, but the righteous will enter eternal
life."
What greater things could Christ say to us? What better way
could he encourage us to works of justice and mercy than to say
that such acts are done to himself and that he is offended when
we fail to reach out to the poor and needy? Those in the church
who are not moved to helpia brother or sister maxbe encouraged
72
Cyprian of Carthage
when they see how Christ is involved, and those who do not help
the suffering may remember that our Lord is in that person who
needs our help.
24. Therefore, dear friends, you live with deep reverence for
God, and you have rejected the things of the world in order to set
your thoughts on things heavenly and divine. Let us offer our
complete faith, our devout minds, our obedience, and our con-
tinual labors to the Lord that he may be pleased with us. Let us
we receive heavenly robes;
give earthly garments to Christ so that
let us share food and drink in this world so thatwe may join
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob at the heavenly banquet. So that we do
not receive a minimal harvest, let us plant in great quantity. While
there is time, let us seek safety and eternal salvation. The apostle
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orality and Ethics in Early Christianity
74
VIL
c
tt\e Council of Elvira
CANONS
1 A baptized adultjwhammmits the capital crime of sacrific-
ing to the idols is not to receive communion even when death
approaches.
2. Flamens who have been baptized but who then offer sacri-
fices will double their guilt by adding murder (if they organize
public games) or even triple it with sexual immorality, and they
cannot receive communion even when death approaches.
3. Flamens who have not offered sacrifices but who have pre-
sided at public games have kept themselves from complete
destruction and may receive communion when death
approaches if they have done the required penance. If they com-
mit sexual offenses after completing the penance, they shall be
denied any further communion since receiving would make a
mockery of the Sunday communion.
4. Flamens who have been catechumens for three years and
who have abstained from sacrifices may be baptized.
5 If a woman beats her servant and causes death within three
days, she shall undergo seven years' penance if the injury was
inflicted on purpose and five years' if it was accidental. She shall
not receive communion during this penance unless she becomes
ill. If so, she may receive communion.
6. If someone another by sorcery or magic, that person
kills
shall not receive communion, even at the time of death, for this >
75
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
eligible men there are, for such marriages lead to adultery of the
soul.
1 6. Heretics shall not be joined in marriage with Catholic girls
unless they accept the Catholic faith. Catholic girls may not
marry Jews or heretics, because they cannot find a unity when
the faithful and the unfaithful are joined. Parents who allow this
to happen shall not commune for five years.
17. If parents allow their daughter to marry a pagan priest,
they shall not receive communion even at the time of death.
18. Bishops, presbyters, and deacons, once they have taken
76
The Council of Elvira
77
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
78
The Council of Elvira
46. If a Christian gives up the faith and stays away from the
church for a long time, provided he or she has not become an
idolater, he or she may be received back and commune after ten
years of penance.
41. If a baptized married man commits adultery repeatedly, he
is to be asked as he nears death whether or not he will reform
79
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
80
The Council of Elvira
63 If a woman conceives in adultery and then has an abortion,
.
may not commune. If she breaks the relationship, she must com-
plete ten years' penance before communing.
65- If a cleric knows of his wife's adultery and continues to live
with her, he shall not receive communion even before death in
order not to let it appear that one who is to exemplify a good life
has condoned sin.
66. A man who marries his stepdaughter is guilty of incest and
may not commune even before death.
67. A woman who is baptized or is a catechumen must not
associate with hairdressers or men with long hair. If she does this,
she is to be denied communion.
68. A catechumen who conceives in adultery and then suffo-
cates the child may be baptized only when death approaches.
69. A married person who commits adultery once may be rec-
onciled after five years' penance unless illness necessitates an ear-
lier reconciliation.
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
explain the reasons for their testimony, they shall be excluded for
two is not accepted by the assembled
years. If their explanation
clergy, they areexcluded for five years.
75. If someone falsely accuses a bishop, presbyter, or deacon
of a crime and cannot offer evidence, he or she is excluded from
communion even at the time of death.
76. If a deacon confesses that he had committed a mortal
crime before ordination, he is excluded from communion and
must complete three years' penance. If, however, the sin is dis-
closed by someone else, he must complete five years' penance
before being accepted as a layman to receive communion.
77 If a deacon serving a community without a bishop or pres-
byter baptizes, the bishop shall then give his blessing to those
baptized. If someone dies before receiving the blessing, that per-
son is to be regarded as justified by his or her faith.
78. If a Christian confesses adultery with a Jewish or pagan
woman, he is denied communion for some time. If his sin is
82
VIIL
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
the things you want or because you are tired of your work, for
each case is to be judged by those who decide such things.
There should not be screaming or gestures or acts of temper
[Eph. 4:3 1] or other distractions of the mind that hinder us from
knowing God's presence [Heb. 4:13].
Moderate your voice according to the occasion.
Do not respond to others with insolence or contempt [Titus
3:2], but in all circumstances show consideration [Phil. 4:5] and
respect to everyone [Rom. 12:10].
Do not give signals with your eye movement or adopt other
bodily gestures or motions that annoy your brother or indicate
contempt [Rom. 14:10].
You should not seek fashionable clothing and shoes, for this is
vanity [Matt. 6:29].
You should seek simple clothing that is needed for the body.
You should not consume things that are unnecessary or extrava-
gant, for this is abuse.
You should not look for honor or claim the place of honor
[Mark 9:35]. Instead, you should hold each person as above your-
self [Phil. 2:3].
^W ^ ^
ca
84
^ W
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GA«VV,
C^A^C C^hre\
*o ~~"*-
Basil the Great
Each one should, with the approval of his superiors and with
comprehension and assurance, do all things, even eating and
drinking, for the glory of God.
You should not switch from one task to another without the
approval of those overseeing the work, unless a sudden situation
ariseswhen someone needs help.
You should stay in the place where you have been assigned
work and not move around unless those in charge decide some-
one needs assistance.
You should not be discovered going from one work area to
another.
You should not build your life on jealousy and rivalry with oth-
ers.
3. Do not be envious of someone else's good reputation or
delight in that person's shortcomings [1 Cor. 13:6].
In Christ's love you should be concerned and saddened by the
failuresof your brother and rejoice in his successes [1 Cor. 12:26].
Do not be indifferent to those who are in error or sanction them
with your silence [1 Tim. 5:20].
When you admonish someone, do it with compassion [2 Tim.
4:2], motivated by your fear of God and the desire to help the
person who is in error.
If you are the one who receives the reprimand or rebuke, will-
ingly take it to heart and consider that it is offered for your benefit
and correction.
At the moment when you are accused and are facing both the
accuser and others, do not contradict the accuser. If the accusa-
you should meet alone with the accuser
tion appears to be unjust,
and discuss the arguments pro and con.
Everyone should, as much as he is able, offer support to those
who have accusations against them.
You should not bear hard feelings against those who have
repented of their mistakes but offer them pardon from the depths
of your heart [2 Cor. 2:7]. One who claims to have repented of sin
should not only be filled with deep sorrow for the mistake com-
mitted but should also strive to produce fruits worthy of one who
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
86
IX.
oAmbrose of Milan
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
in the temple, it was written, "And when his time of duty was
88
Ambrose of Milan
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
want to be perfect, go and sell all that you have and give to the
poor and you will have treasure in heaven. Come and follow me!"
[Matt. 19:20-21]. It is also written that the Lord has commanded
us to love our enemies, to pray for those who plot against us, who
persecute us, or who spread false scandal about us [Luke 6:27].
We do these things if we want
be perfect as our Father in
to
heaven is perfect. He gives the warmth of the sun to the evil and to
the good and makes the whole earth fertile with rain and dew,
which are given without distinction. This is what perfect duty is,
which the Greeks call Karopd^ixa, for it makes whole all that has
been incomplete.
Compassion is an excellent trait because it helps us to be perfect
as we imitate the Father's perfection. Nothing commends the
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Christian —
more than compassion primarily when it is extended
to the poor in order to share with them the gifts of nature and the
fruits of the earth. Use what you possess to support the poor as
partners and sisters and brothers. When you give a silver coin,
they receive life; when you offer money, it appears to be a fortune
to them. Your coin is all that they possess.
The poor, however, give you even more in return, for they give
you your salvation. If you clothe the naked, you are clothed with
justice; if you welcome the stranger into your home or help those
in need, you are welcomed into the saints' fellowship for eternity.
There is no greater gift than that! You sow earthly seeds and reap
spiritual rewards. Do you wonder about God's judgment upon
holy Job? Look at Job's goodness instead, for he is able to say, "I
was an eye for the blind and a foot for the lame. I was a father to
the weak and kept them warm with the skins from my lambs. The
stranger did not sit outside my house, for my door was open to all
who came" [Job 29:15-16]. Those who have never sent a poor
person away without help are truly blessed. No one is more
blessed than those who understand the needs of the poor and the
suffering of the weak and helpless. In the day of judgment such
people will receive salvation from the Lord, who will repay them
for their compassion. . .
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nothing for itself, but willingly restricts itself and becomes valu-
able in the sight of God, something nothing else is able to do.
Modesty is precious, for it is a part of God. Paul instructs us to
pray with modesty and care 1 Tim. 2:9]. This should come first as
[
preparation for our prayers, for the sinner's prayer is not boastful
but subdued with shame. The remembrance of our offense leads
us to modesty and then to grace.
We must be careful of our modesty in the way we move, ges-
ture, and walk [Cicero De Officiis 1.35]. What is in our mind is
reflected through our body. The inner man hidden in our heart,
may be seen to be immature, boastful, or unruly. Or the contrary,
we may be respected as one who is stable, dependable, pure, and
mature. We must realize that the body is a voice for the soul.
You may remember, my children, that one of our friends who
performed his tasks well was nevertheless denied ordination by
me because of his exaggerated and unsuitable gestures. I also
requested one of our clergy not to walk in front of me, because
the sight of his affected stride offended my eyes. I said this to him
when he returned to his duties after committing an offense. I
would not tolerate such actions, and my judgment has proved
correct, for both have left the church. What their mannerisms
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artificial. Let our movements be natural, and if there are any faults
in our nature, correct them diligently. Do not stop correcting
your mannerisms.
If we are to pay attention to such outward things, how much
more should we be careful of the words that come from our
mouths, for they may disgrace us completely. It is not food that
contaminates us but the derision of others and obscene words
[Cicero De Officiis 1.37], for such things are openly disgraceful.
Those in our office must not let words come out that are indecent
and destructive to modesty. And not only should we avoid using
shameful language but we should avoid even listening to it.
Joseph ran away without his garment in order to avoid hearing
that which was detrimental to his modesty [Gen. 39: 12].
To have firsthand knowledge of what is indecent is despicable.
To watch such a thing, even if unintentionally, is horrible! Can
that which we dislike in others be acceptable in ourselves? Do we
not learn from nature when we look at the perfection of every
part of our body and the way in which everything is functional
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
and adds to its grace and beauty? Those parts that are beautiful to
look at are in open view; the head, set above all with its pleasing
lines, and the prominent features of the face. And yet each part is
also useful! Those parts that relate to natural functions are not
prominent but are hidden away in the body itself so that they do
not need to be seen. Nature has also taught and persuaded us to
cover them. [Cicero De Officiis 1.35].
Is not nature itself a teacher of modesty? Following nature's
parts of the body that seem to be weaker are necessary, and those
parts of the body that we think are less honorable are the ones to
which we show greater honor, and our unseemly parts receive
greater modesty" [1 Cor. 12:22-23]. By following nature's exam-
ple the body's pleasantness has been complemented. In my work
On Noah and the Ark [chap. 8], I treated this subject more fully
and said that we not only hide some parts of the body but also
regard it as poor taste to mention their name or describe their
function.
If these parts are inadvertently exposed, modesty is violated;
but if it is on purpose, it is seen as blatant insolence. Ham, Noah's
son, disgraced himself when he saw his father naked and
laughed, but those who covered their father received a blessing
[Gen. 9:22]. In ancient Rome as well as other countries, it was the
custom that grown-up sons not enter the baths with their parents,
or sons-in-law with their fathers-in-law, so as not to weaken the
respect one has for parents. Many try to cover themselves as much
as possible when in the baths and, when they are nude, attempt to
cover what is necessary.
We read in Exodus that the priests, under their old law, wore
breeches in obedience to the Lord's word to Moses "You shall :
make linen breeches to cover their private parts: from the loins to
the thighs they shall reach. Aaron and his sons shall wear them
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Ambrose of Milan
when they enter the tent of meeting and when they approach the
altar in the holy place to offer sacrifice. If they do not, they will
bring guilt on themselves and die" [Exod. 28:42-43]. It is said that
some of us still observe this, but most interpret it spiritually and
look upon it as a way of protecting modesty and insuring chastity.
19. I have enjoyed being able to spend so much time on the
various aspects of modesty, and I speak to you who recognize the
value of it for yourselves and not to those condemned by its loss.
It applies to all periods of history, all people at any time and in any
place, and is especially fitting for the years of childhood and ado-
lescence.
Whatever our age, we must be careful that what we do is fitting
and proper and becoming to our whole life. Cicero believes that
decorum follows a prescribed order: beauty, order, and the
appropriate accouterments for the work to be done. This, he
says, is difficult to express in words and yet it can be sufficiently
understood [Cicero De Officiis 1.35].
I do not understand why Cicero included beauty, though he
does praise the virtues of the human body. We do not look upon
physical beauty as a virtue, but we do not exclude the purity of a
blush of modesty. Just as a workman does better with the proper
materials, so modesty benefits from the beauty of the body. We
do not add such beauty to the body, but it comes naturally and is
simple, inherent, and not contrived, not accentuated by expen-
sive, dazzling garments but accompanied with ordinary clothing.
We may seek what is basic and necessary, but we add nothing
merely for good looks.
The voice should not be dull, weak, or effeminate, a habit many
seem to fall into, thinking that it is dignified. The voice should
reflect a special quality, rhythm, and virility. All persons should
do what is most natural for themselves and their sex and reach
their own personal fulfillment. This arrangement enables every-
one to be prepared for his or her own work. But I cannot approve
of an insipid, weak voice or effeminate gestures, nor can I tolerate
those who are ill-mannered or uncouth. Imitate nature; then we
will have a rule to guide our actions and a guide for integrity.
20. Modesty involves many rocky places — not inherent in the
virtue itself but in the obstacles faced when we encounter those
who are dissolute and who use the pretext of enjoyment to poi-
son the good. Those who continue to revel at banquets and games
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Ambrose of Mu
27. Duty springs for^initially^ from good judgment [Cicero
De Officiis 1.6]. What is greater duty than to direct our attention
and reverence to the Creator? From
source other virtues
this
emerge; justice requires good judgment in order to decide what is
just or wijust. A mistake either way is very serious. As Solomon
says, "One who condemns the righteous or justifies the unright-
eous is an abomination to God" [Prov. 17:15]. On the other hand
you cannot have good judgment without justice; devotion to God
is the beginning of knowledge. We see that this understanding is
something the world has borrowed from those who seek such
devotion, believing it to be fundamental to all virtues.
Thosje jvho Jovel justice must_fimjdirect it to^od^sejcond, to
their country; third, to parents^ andlast, to all peo ple. This is the
way in which nature reflects it. As we begin life and understand-
ing is first revealed to us, we love life as a gift of God; we love our
country and our parents; last, we love our peers, who are our
companions. From thisilove devejop^thatj^hkl^helps us tojiot
loo k to ourselves but to others Thi s is the p rincip le be hind jus-
.
tice.
By nature every creature will seek, first of all, to find safety and
avoid harm and work for its own advantage [Cicero De Officiis
1.4]. It seeks food and shelter in order to be protected from dan-
gers, storms, and the sun. This is a sign of good judgment. Next
we see that creatures are naturally inclined to group together, first
with their own kind and then with others. We see cattle and
horses in herds, and deer with other deer and, sometimes, with
human beings. What can I say about their drive to procreate off-
spring, or even their mating habits, which reflect a form of jus-
tice?
It is apparent that these and the other virtues are all interre-
claimed, "Let us make humans in our image and likeness, and let
them rule over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, the cattle,
and everything that crawls on the earth" [Gen. 1:26]. David said,
"God has given dominion over all things: sheep and oxen, wild
beasts, the birds in the air, and the fish in the sea" [Ps. 8:6-8].
These philosophers have learned from our writings that all cre-
ated things are subject to human control and were created to ben-
efit humanity.
In the books of Moses we see the idea that some people are
created to be a benefit to others. The Lord says, "It is not good
that a man should be alone, so let us make a partner for him"
[Gen. 2:18]. Thus woman was created to be a mate for the man
and to bear children as a way of helping him. Before the woman
was created we are told that "there was no partner found" to be
with Adam [Gen. 2:20]. The only mate for a human had to be
another human. Among all the creatures there was nothing suit-
able for him or, more precisely, to be his partner. Therefore a
woman was created to be his spouse.
According to God's will and the dictates of nature, we should be
of help to one another, even trying to outdo one another in per-
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forming good works. Our actions, whether they are the fulfilling
of duties, the sharing of money, or the performance of good
works, bring blessings to all humanity. We should not be afraid of
fulfilling our duties to society whether these bring personal suc-
cess or failure [Cicero De Officiis 1.9]. Moses was not afraid to go
to war for his people, even against the most powerful kings or the
most savage barbarians. He disregarded his own safety for the
cause of freeing his people.
The splendor of justice is great. Justice exists for the good of all
and helps to create unity and society among us. It is so high that
all else must fall beneath its authority, and from it comes help for
—
acknowledged in dealing with enemies for example, by not
moving onto the battlefield or beginning to fight before the time
that has already been agreed upon by both sides [Cicero De Offi-
ciis 1. 1 1]. It is understood that some will lose battles because of
their weakness or their opponents' skill, or even because of luck.
A greater revenge is shown against those who have been barbaric,
dishonest, or cruel, such as the Midianities [Numbers 31]. They
used their women to cause the people of Israel to sin, and the
Lord's anger was upon the people of our fathers. When Moses
won the battle, he did not allow the women to live. The Gibeon-
ites, however, who deceived the people of our fathers rather than
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oecome servants [Joshua 9]. Elisha did not permit the king of
Israel to kill Syrians but instead commanded that their soldiers,
who were attacking the city, be struck with momentary blindness
so that they could not see their way; they were then led into the
city. Elisha then said, "You shall not slay them since you have not
taken them captive with your sword and spear. Give them bread
and water and let them eat and drink and return to their own
master" [2 Kings 6:22]. They showed to others the same kindness
which they had received. "And the Syrians did not come again to
raid the land of Israel" [2 Kings 6:23].
binding in a time of war, should it not be even more
If justice is
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Ambrose of Milan
Christ is the foundation of the church. The faith of all is centered
in Christ, and the church„is the living manifestation of justice,
whichis shared with all. The church prays for all, works for all,
and shares the struggle of all who face temptation. Those who
deny themselves are just and worthy of Christ. Because of this,
Paul looks to Christ as the foundation upon whom we base works
of justice that arise from faith. Injustice comes from our works if
they are evil, but justice comes from woxks that are good. . .
tle even into old age, when, in war with the Philistines, he
entered battle seeking further honor and neglected his own safety
[1 Sam. 21:15].
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got their ideas. Before they were alive, Job had said, "I delivered
the poor out of the hand of the strong and the fatherless who had
no one to fight for them. May the blessing of those who were
about to perish come upon me" [Job 29:12-13]. Was not Job
extremely brave when he withstood the power of the devil and
defeated it with the strength of his own will? We should not
doubt the courage of those to whom the Lord said, "Take hold of
yourself and be a man; be resolute and strong. All who cause
injury are humbled" [Job 40:2]. The apostle says, "You have
strong encouragement" [Heb. 6: 18]. Those who find consolation
in grief are brave.
It is quite fitting to call persons courageous when they conquer
X
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Ambrose of Milan
suitable. When our lives focus on such things, the sudden loss of
property, the lack of worldly recognition, and the rebuff of unbe-
lievers will not affect us or be of concern. Even the dangers we
face for the cause of justice will not hinder us.
This is the true courage that Christ's athlete has when compet-
ing for the crown according to the rules [2 Tim. 2 :
Do you think
5].
the example of courage is weak when we read, "Sufferings bring
endurance; and endurance, experience; and experience pro-
duces hope" [Rom. 5:3-4]. There are many contests but only one
trophy! That victory comes only to those who were strengthened
by Christ Jesus and who pushed themselves without resting. '
4:8].
Let your holiness lead you to justice, continence, and gentle-
ness, and flee from childish actions so that, grounded and rooted
in grace, you may achieve the good faith. "Do not become entan-
gled in secular affairs, for you are fighting for God" [2 Tim. 2:4]. A
soldier of the emperor is forbidden, according to human law,
from engaging in legal matters, selling merchandise, or taking
part in the business of the marketplace. Is it not more important
for those who are soldiers of the faith to keep away from all man-
ner of worldly business and to be content with their own small *
farm, if they have one? If you do not have one, be content with the
pay you receive for your work. It is well said in the words, "I have
been young and now am old, yet I have not seen those who are
Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
Book II
1 . In the first book we discussed the duty that is required for
an honorable life, understood to be blessed, for as Scripture
a life
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Book III
2. We have already spoken about the two questions, What is
honorable? and, What is useful? Now we must ask if the two may
be compared and which one we should follow. We have already
discussed what is honest and what is evil, and we have seen what
is useful and useless. Now we must decide what is honorable or
merely utilitarian.
I need to do this so that they are not seen as two opposites,
since I have argued that they are one and the same. Nothing can
be honorable if it is not useful, and nothing is truly useful unless it
is also honest. We do not use the logic of the world, which says
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
future life. God, however, remains just and wise and perfect in all
things.
There is a difference among people, as we see when it was said
of Daniel, "Who can be wiser than Daniel?" [Ezek. 28:3]. He was
wiser than others, just as Solomon possessed wisdom greater
than all the wisdom of old or of the wise men of Egypt 1 Kings [
things are lawful, but not all things help to build up. Let no one
seek his own good, but that of his neighbor" [1 Cor. 10:23-24].
This means that we work not for our own benefit or honor but for
that of our neighbor. It is also said, "Look upon others as superior
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Ambrose of Milan
to yourself, and look not only to your own interests but to the
needs of all" [Phil. 2:3-4].
Do not seek honor or praise for yourself but seek it for others.
We commended in Proverbs when the Holy Spirit says
see this
through Solomon, "My son, if you are wise, use your wisdom for
yourself and for those around you; if you are evil, you alone must
bear the evil" [Prov. 9: 12]. The wise share their wisdom with oth-
ers as just people who reflect both virtues.
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oAugustine ofJ-fippo
came up against the devil and gave their lives, and because it did
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Augustine of Hippo
of God and we do not yet know what we shall be, but we do know
that when he appears, we shall be like him, for we will see him as
he is" [1 John 3:2].
4 You do not need to fear that someone in military service will
.
10: 1-8]. The angel then sent him to the apostle Peter for advice as
to what he should do, but Cornelius sent a devout soldier in his
place. There also were soldiers who came seeking baptism from
John, the holy forerunner of our Lord and the friend of the bride-
groom who said of him, "No one has been born of women who is
greater than John the Baptist" [Matt. 11:11]. When the soldiers
asked John what they should do, he said, "Do violence to no one,
do not accuse others falsely, and be content with your wages"
[Luke 3:12-14]. You see, he did not order them to give up their
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Augustine of Hippo
the glory and keep the humility for yourself. It is written, "Every
good gift and every perfect gift is from above and comes from the
Father of lights" [James 1 17]. No matter how much you advance
:
quently, as long as you are in this body, you need to pray as our
Lord taught us: "Forgive us our sins, as we forgive those who sin
against us" [Matt. 6:12]; you must forgive quickly those who have
sinned against you and who have asked your forgiveness, so that
you may then pray this prayer in honesty and thereby receive for-
giveness for your own sins.
I have written this letter to you in haste, dear friend, in order to
could get to you more easily with my letters, than the servant and
minister of Christ, the deacon Paul, a friend very dear to both of
us. Because the Lord has brought him to me at this time, I have an
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opportunity to send you a letter, not about the power and honor
you have in this evil world, nor about the state of your corruptible
—
and mortal body because it will someday pass away and we do
not know when that will happen— but about the salvation that
Christ has promised us. It was for this salvation that he was
—
despised and crucified in order to show us that we should
despise rather than desire the good things of this world. Instead,
we should desire and hope for that life which he revealed in his
resurrection, for he rose again from the dead and will die no
more, for "death shallhave no power over him" [Rom. 6:9].
2. I know that you have many friends who are devoted to you
in this life and who seek to give you advice that is sometimes
useful and sometimes the opposite. They are only human, and
therefore they can only see what is known today, for the future is
unknown to them. It is not easy for someone to give advice con-
—
cerning God, or to save your soul from damnation not because
you do not have friends to do this but because it is difficult for
them to find an opportunity to discuss such matters with you. I
have always wished I could do so, but have never found the time
or the place where I could share with the man I love deeply in
Christ. You know how bad it was when you honored me with
your visit to Hippo! I was so tired and exhausted that I could
barely carry on a conversation. Now, my son, listen to me while I
speak to you in this letter, a message I was afraid to send you in
your time of danger for fear that the messenger would be in dan-
ger or that it would fall into the hands of the wrong persons. I ask
that you forgive me if you think I have been overly cautious.
However that may be, I must admit that it was true.
3. Listen to me, or rather, listen to the Lord our God who
speaks through me, his feeble servant. Remember the kind of per-
son you were when your first wife, of hallowed memory, was still
living. Just after her death you reacted against the vanity of this
world and thought about entering the service of God [as a monk].
I remember well what you said to us at Tubunae about your feel-
ings and hopes when you talked with brother Alypius and me. I
am certain that the pressure of present-day worldly activities has
not removed the memory of that conversation from you. At that
time you wanted to give up all of your public business and to
withdraw into a sacred retreat to live as a servant of God in the
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Augustine of Hippo
monastic life. Why did you not go ahead and do it? Perhaps it was
our emphasis upon the benefit your work at that time would
bring to the churches of Christ as you concentrated on defending
them from the barbarian armies in order that they could "lead a
quiet and peaceable life in all piety and chastity" [1 Tim. 2:2]. We
also stressed that you should not seek more from this world than
that which is necessary to support yourself and your household
and that you should practice perfect self-restraint in chastity and
put on over your military uniform the stronger armor of the
Spirit.
4. While we rejoiced over your decision, you went off on a
voyage and married a second wife. Your voyage was in obedience
to what the apostle calls the higher powers [Rom. 13:1], but you
would not have remarried if you had not been overcome by desire
and given up your desire for continence. I was overcome with
amazement when I first heard this news, but I received some con-
solation in the fact that you refused marriage until she became a
Catholic. Regardless of that demand, you have allowed the heresy
of those who deny the true Son of God [Arianism] to enter your
home, and your daughter has been baptized by them. Rumors
have reached us— and I hope they are false!— that even some
maidens who were dedicated to God have been rebaptized by
these heretics. With floods of tears we weep over this great disas-
ter! People are even saying that your wife cannot satisfy your sex-
ual desires and that you defile yourself by having intercourse with
concubines. This may be pure slander on their part.
5. What can I say about such great and numerous evils that are
common knowledge and that seem to stem from your remar-
riage? You are a Christian and have a conscience. You fear God.
Take a good look at yourself and see the many things that I hesi-
tate to mention and for which you should seek penance. I believe
that the Lord is at present sparing you from all dangers so that you
have the opportunity to do penance as you should. Listen to what
is written: "Do not delay in turning to the Lord, and do not put it
off day after day" [Eccles. 5:8]. You claim that there is good rea-
son for what you have done, but I cannot judge your explanation
since I do not know all sides in the argument. Whatever your rea-
son, which we do not need to analyze at this moment, can you
face God and deny that you are in this predicament because you
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loved the things of the world, which, being God's servant, you
knew you should despise and reject completely? You may accept
what is offered to you and use it to please God; but you must not
covet what you have not received or what is entrusted to your
care. This craving has brought on your present problems while
—
you love vanity and cause evil evil not just done by you but,
often, done because of you. Some things are feared because they
hurt for a brief time when they are done; other things are done
that hurt for eternity.
6. To point to one of these things: Who can help seeing the
many persons who stay beside you to protect your power and
your personal safety? They may be faithful to you and trustwor-
thy, but do they not desire certain advantages in life that you can
give them? Their desire comes not from a godly but from a
worldly motive. You, as one who satisfies the worldly desires of
others, should also curb and control your own desires. To satisfy
others, many things must be done that are displeasing to God.
Yet, even then, such covetousness is not satisfied, for it is easier to
abolish it completely in those who love God than it is to satisfy it
even partially in those who love the world. For this reason Scrip-
ture says, "Do not love the world, nor things of the world. If
anyone loves the world, the love of God is not in that person; for
all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes,
and human pride, comes not from God but from the world. And
the world passes away, and the lust in it, but those who do the will
of God abide forever, just as God abides forever'' [1 John
2:15-17]. Since you are surrounded by armed men, whose pas-
sions must be humored and whose cruelty is feared, how can you
everfulfill— or even partially satisfy — the desires of such men
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
cally,how you can remain safe from harm and hang on to your
power and wealth or even increase them, I must admit that I have
no answer, because so much of life is uncertain. If, however, you
ask me about your relationship to God and how to gain salvation,
I have much to say. Fear the word of truth that says, "What profit
is it one who gains the whole world but who suffers the loss of
to
the soul?" [Matt. 16:26]. I have advice for you to follow. There is
nothing more important than what I have already said: "Do not
love the world nor the things of the world. If anyone loves the
world, the love of God is not in that person, for all that is in the
world is the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and human
pride, which comes not from God but from the world. And the
world passes away and the lust in it, but those who do the will of
God abide forever, just as God abides forever" [1 John 2:15-17].
That is my advice! Take hold of it and do it! Prove that you are a
strong man! Take control over the desires that make you love the
world; do penance for your past evil, which resulted from the
control your passions had over you. If you accept my advice, do
not forget it, but continue to follow it. If you do, you will obtain
the blessings that are promised, and you will pass through the
uncertainties of life without losing your salvation.
10. Perhaps you pursue the matter further and ask me how
things can happen while you are so entangled in problems. Pray
earnestly, and offer to God the words of the Psalm, "Deliver me
from my distresses" [Ps. 25:17], for your problems will cease
when your passions are under control. He who has heard your
prayer, and ollr^ayer on your behalf, that you be delivered from
the dangers of visible wars in which the body may be killed (for it
will end sometime, but the soul will live on unless it is captive to
evil passions) will himself grant you an invisible and spiritual vic-
tory over the interior and invisible enemies that are your pas-
sions. You will be able to use this world and yet not be subject to
it, for with its good things you will do good instead of evil. Such
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you. I love you because of God and not because of the world. I
remember what is written, "Rebuke a wise man and he will love
you; rebuke a fool and he will hate you even more" [Prov. 9:8]. I
certainly regard you not as a fool but as a wise man.
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XL
c
Llieodoret of Cyrrhus
it and nourishes it. Those who spend a great deal of money to buy
the pearl then throw the oyster away! The sparkling gems adorn-
ing the crown of a king came originally encased in stone that was
completely worthless. The jewel cutters scraped away the stone
and brought to light the beauty of the transparent and glittering
jewel. The gold that people prize so highly is often found along
with silver, copper, or iron and hidden in sand or earth. Workers
must bore into the veins of gold or silver in the mines and retrieve
the valuable ore bit by bit. Once the gold has been refined and
hammered it is imprinted with the effigy of the emperor, and then
it is no longer placed in a box made of gold but is rather placed in
containers made of leather or wood, where it will be safer.
It is therefore quite understandable that the truths about God
and humanity should be announced not in brilliant and majestic
discourses but in quite simple and down-to-earth terms under-
stood by everyone. It is quite appropriate that this great and won-
derful treasure be contained in such a simple package.
Indeed, the force and power of these writings come from the
comparison of the teachings of the legislators of Greece and
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Theodoret of Cyrrhus
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122
Theodoret of Cyrrhus
upon them. But we must leave this philosophy of Plato until later,
when we shall see that he believed himself to be the greatest of all
lawmakers. For the moment we will look at the weakness of the
Pythian laws and treat them alongside the Lycurgian code. It is
known that as soon as Rome decided to abolish these laws in
favor of her own, the Lycurgian code lost all of its uncontested
force.
On the contrary, the laws of the fishermen, of our tax collec-
tors, of our tentmaker could not be destroyed by Caius or
Claudius, nor by Nero, their successor, who put to death the best
of our legislators. He killed Peter and Paul but he could not
destroy their laws. Neither could Vespasian, Titus, or Domitian!
The last of these used all sorts of force against them; a great many
people were tortured and put to death for following their laws.
Trajan and Hadrian then waged a violent war against these laws,
but even Trajan, who had destroyed the Persian Empire, who
brought the Armenians under Roman control, and who subju-
gated the Scythians, was not able to destroy the laws of our fisher-
men and our tentmaker. Hadrian completely destroyed the towns
of those who had crucified Jesus, but he failed in his attempt to
force Jesus' followers into rejecting him. Antonius, his successor,
and his son, Verus, brought back many trophies from their wars
with the barbarians, and they forced the Roman yoke upon many
people who had been free and independent, but they did not suc-
ceed, either through force or through persuasion, to make our
people abandon their Savior whom they loved, for they carried
the yoke of the cross with love. Many people were threatened,
and many tortures were reinstituted under Commodus, Max-
imian, and many others down to the reign of Aurelius, Carus, and
Carinus. There was the antireligious fury of Diocletian,Max-
imian, Maximinus, Maxentius, and Licinius, but the victory was
won, not merely one by one, two by two, or three by three, but by
the multitude of people who were killed because of their belief in
Christ. It was by the dozens of thousands that they were killed.
There were towns where churches that were filled with men,
women, and children were burned, and it was on the very day
that they had gathered to celebrate the passion and resurrection
of our Lord that this event happened to churches throughout the
Empire. But only a collection of stones was destroyed and not the
collection of souls! The people of old knew all the harm that was
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124
Theodoret of Cyrrhus
Why should you not be reminded of the wars that were waged
in the past against the church? It would be difficult to disregard
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
Elsewhere he wrote,
126
Theodoret of Cyrrhus
Let us go back to our home now. You shall attend to your own
work: the spinning wheel and the loom, and to see that the ser-
vants do their work. War is men's business, and to take part in
this war is the task of every man.
. [Iliad VI. 490-92]
. .
The philosopher did not even make the distinction which the
poet made. Instead, he commanded the women to do gymnastics
completely naked and to ride the horse. Of course, such ideas
bring their own results. This is what he then says:
That man who made these laws has obviously forgotten what the
wife of Candaul said when her husband asked her to show her
naked body:
The woman who takes off her clothes is taking away her chastity
at the same time.
Here you see the philosopher who takes away the chastity of mar-
ried women and who teaches them immodesty! He wrote the
same thing in the Laws:
Finally, for an important reason that the activities of boys
it is
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
Platoand not arguing by refuting his ideas. Let us look at his mag-
nificent laws concerning marriage and I will make some just criti-
cism of them. In the Republic he says,
He also adds,
There will be a lawgiver who will choose men and women to be
paired as best he can according to their natures. Both sexes will
live together and share the same house and meals. None of them
will possess anything in particular. They will come together in
the gymnasium as well as in the rest of their daily lives. I believe
that they will be led by natural instinct to pair up. Does this not
seem to be inevitable? It is by no means a geometric necessity
but a drive which springs from love and which is stronger than
the former in directing and controlling the masses. [Republic
V.458].
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Theodoret of Cyrrhus
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
eludes, "O Youth! See what heavenly rewards your lover will give
to you!" He makes such observations not in regard to chaste lov-
ers but about those whose love is disordered. All of this is quite
clear in his dialogues. Such laws were not even thought up by
Nero, the most abysmal Roman emperor, or by the Assyrian Sar-
danapale, famous for his love of pleasure and the good life. For
my part, I who are so completely caught up in
believe that those
such passions lose any feeling of pleasure and merely become
slaves to their way of life.
Now we must speak about the abnormal laws that Plato insti-
tuted in regard to murder. He orders that one who kills one's own
servant is not to be punished. He condemns to a simple fine one
who kills the servant of someone else in anger. If someone kills a
free person in anger, the killer receives two years' exile; if the
killing was premeditated, three years' exile. Should the killer
return and kill again, that person receives perpetual exile. He leg-
islates in the same fashion against fathers who kill their children,
against children who kill their fathers, husbands who kill their
wives, and wives who kill their husbands!
Now you see! The philosopher gathered together these laws but
never was able to point to one person who lived by them; not a
citizen, a stranger, a city dweller, a country dweller, a Greek, a
barbarian, a slave, a free person, an ordinary man or an ordinary
woman, a young person or an old person, an educated person or
an illiterate.
For my part, I wish only to explain to you the laws of the fisher-
men, the tax collectors, and the tentmaker which have been given
for all people. I believe that after you compare the one set of laws
with the other you will admire the divine radiance of our laws.
The philosopher, we have said, admired unrestrained homo-
sexuality, and he indicated that its reward would be three times
holy! Our Savior, on the other hand, has rebuked not only the evil
deed itself but everything related to it. "Whoever," he said,
"looks at a woman with lust has already committed adultery with
her in his heart" [Matt. 5:28]. Without scruple the philosopher
made a law that people should unite freely among themselves.
The Author of nature, who created human nature, decreed that
one man and one woman should be united and that marriage was
not to be dissolved except for one unique occasion, namely, the
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Theodora of Cyrrhus
one that truly tears apart the marriage bond. "Whoever," he says,
"divorces his wife except for unfaithfulness will make of her an
adulteress; and whoever marries such a person will commit adul-
tery" [Matt. 5:32].
Because of this he commands that one should support one's
spouse even if she should talk too much or be addicted to drink,
or even if she should become aggressive! But if she violates the
laws of marriage and goes with another man, then he orders the
breaking of the marriage bond. He also made similar regulations
through the mouth of the tentmaker, who said in his Letter to the
Corinthians, "It is good not to touch a woman in order to avoid
any temptation. Each man should have a wife and each woman a
husband" [1 Cor. 7: 1-2]. Can you see the difference between the
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Morality and Ethics in Early Christianity
My friends, admire what Paul has taught, and adore him about
whom he talks! Take another look at the laws about murder.
While the philosopher does not demand punishment even for
one who kills one's father, our Savior condemns and speaks
harshly against any injustice. "Whoever," he says, "is overcome
by anger against a brother will face the tribunal; and if he says to
his brother, 'Raca!' he is liable for judgment by the Sanhedrin, and
if he says, 'You fool!' he is liable to the fire of hell" [Matt. 5:22]. He
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Theodoret of Cyrrhus
reject the One who has given them to you with great kindness and
generosity. You too will come to know their perfect divine nature
if you your prejudices and accept them willingly.
will leave aside
133
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134
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SOURCES OF EARLY CHRISTIAN THOUGHT
Series editor, William G. Rusch
New translations of significant literature and documents of the
early church make up this series. Each volume features a
helpful introduction and a bibliography.
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