PATTERNS OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN

CHILD DEITIES

BY
SUNG HWAN YOO

B.A., BUSAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, 1995

M.A., HANKOOK UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN STUDIES, 1999

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE
DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTOLOGY AND ANCIENT WESTERN ASIAN
STUDIES AT BROWN UNIVERSITY

PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND

MAY 2012
 This dissertation by Sung Hwan Yoo is accepted in its present form by the
Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies as satisfying the
dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Date: ____________________ _________________________________________

Professor James P. Allen, Advisor

Recommended to the Graduate Council

Date: ____________________ _________________________________________

Professor James P. Allen, Reader

Date: ____________________ _________________________________________

Professor Leo Depuydt, Reader

Approved by the Graduate Council

Date: ____________________ _________________________________________

Peter Weber, Dean of the Graduate School

ii
© Copyright 2012 by Sung Hwan Yoo

iii
 CURRICULUM VITAE

Sung Hwan Yoo was born on February 28th, 1970 in Busan, Republic of Korea (South

Korea). He received his undergraduate degree in 1995 at Busan National University,

majoring in English Literature and Language. He received Master of Translation and

Consecutive Interpretation from Hankook University of Foreign Studies in 1999. After

graduation, he worked as a professional translator for six years until he was admitted to

Brown University in 2005. As a graduate student at Brown University, he taught the

undergraduate Middle Egyptian course for the academic year of 2008-2009.

He has received awards, including the Army Commendation Medal in 1993 after

serving in the Eighth United States Army for his meritorious service as a KATUSA

(Korean Augmentation Troops to the United States Army); and the Certificate of Merit

(First Prize) awarded by the Minister of Education at the National English Competence

Contest for College Students hosted by Hankook University of Foreign Studies in 1994.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Wilbour Professor James P. Allen and Professor Leo Depuydt for

their support and guidance. I am especially grateful to them for their careful reading of

my successive drafts. Their suggestions and criticism were particularly helpful with

regard to the transliteration and translation of the numerous Egyptian texts in the

dissertation.

I would also like to express my deep gratitude to Dr. Lanny Bell and Dr. Florence

Friedman, who contributed many valuable comments on my dissertation. I am also very

grateful to Professor Matthew Rutz, who was kind enough to read my manuscript and

make many useful suggestions.

Thanks are also due to Claire Benson, Stephen Gervais, Suzan Gervais and Roland

Haper for their support, insight and encouragement. I am also indebted to my fellow

graduate students for their support, encouragement and humor: Erin Fairburn, Emily

Russo, Amada Davis, Julia Troche, Katheryn Howley and Yuzhen Guan.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife Yong A Kim and my son Tae Joon Yoo for their

support and love for last six years. I could not have written this dissertation without the

unwavering support and commitment of my wife, who was always supportive and

willing to take care of all household affairs while I was working on my dissertation.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I. INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Page 2

PART II. BASIC PATTERNS OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CHILD DEITIES

CHAPTER 2. THE SUN-CHILD Page 17

CHAPTER 3. THE HORUS CHILD Page 46

PART III. CASE STUDIES OF THREE CHILD DEITIES

CHAPTER 4. IHY – DIVINE MUSICIAN Page 79

CHAPTER 5. KHONSU – FERTILIZING MOON Page 113

CHAPTER 6. NEFERTEM – MEDIATOR WITH FRAGRANT SCENT Page 164

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION Page 208

BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 228

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 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 2-1: Eternal Recurrence and Eternal Sameness Page 20

Fig. 2-2: Pattern of the maternal birth/rejuvenation of the sun-child Page 23

Fig. 2-3: Image of the solar child Page 32

Fig. 2-4: Pattern of manifestation and reconstitution Page 45

Fig. 3-1: Antipodal structure of the Heliopolitan Ennead Page 49

Fig. 3-2: Horus in the papyrus thicket of Chemmis Page 63

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 PART I

INTRODUCTION

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 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

THE BEGINNING

Once I stpped into the field of Egyptology, I instantly became interested in minor deities in the

Egyptian pantheon. By definition, they include (1) lesser deities not as important as the creator-

gods and state gods, (2) those who are almost forgotten or less known to us than others, and (3)

those who were never worshipped in state-run temples but enjoyed a wide popularity among

their followers. In my research on those gods, demigods and even deified mortals, I have

discovered that some deities are visualized in the form of a child as the child-member of a divine

family. Before long I realized that there had been no attempt to examine them in detail, so I

decided to write a dissertation on these “child deities.” For this project, I raised three basic

questions:

(1) Who are the child deities in ancient Egyptian religious thought?

(2) What are their roles in the Egyptian pantheon and theology?

(3) Are there prototypes that can serve as a model for the child deities?

Therefore, this dissertation constitutes an effort to answer these questions and analyze

developmental patterns, if any, of the deities who belong to the specific category of “child

deities.”

1.1 Identity and roles

As Hornung points out, Egyptian gods are not unbegotten and have a beginning and an end in

time (1982: 143). Though one of the most salient features of Egyptian creator gods is that they are

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all “self-developing” deities, not created or born by others, most of the divine beings in the

Egyptian pantheon are in origin a child of other gods. However, it is necessary to narrow down

the definition of the “child deities” to be studied in this dissertation, because most of them are

only mentioned as a child of a certain creator-god or parent deities without exhibiting certain

attributes of a child god or playing any important role as such. For instance, Shu is mentioned in

many funerary texts as the son of Atum; but he is never described or visualized as a child god

and does not play any role as one in the Egyptian pantheon. Therefore, the first step in the study

of the “child deities” should be to lay down definitions of the “child deities” who form a unique

class in the Egyptian pantheon.

The definitive features of the “child deities” to be studied in this dissertation are listed below:

 They are always male and usually represented in juvenile or youthful human form, and

therefore appear as an infant, a toddler, a child or an adolescent. In most cases, when they

are described in a text or visualized in an artistic representation as a child, their iconography

conforms to the fixed Egyptian convention of representing them – a nude child, sitting or

standing with his index finger held to his mouth and wearing the side-lock of youth on the

right side of his head. 1

 They are child-members of the familial triads consisting of a father, mother and son. The

divine familial triads began to be formed around major cultic centers dating to the New

Kingdom period. In those familial triads, deities such as Ihy, Khonsu and Nefertem became

the child-members because they shared some traits that could qualify them as child-member

in the divine family (see 7.7 below).

1It is also important to note that the child deities, like the child king, are shown with the essential symbols
signifying their royalty and divinity, such as the uraeus, the crowns, or other royal attributes.

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 As a child-member of the divine triad, they symbolize the cyclical rejuvenation of the

universe and the legitimate succession of the king. In the Late Period, many of them were

worshipped in cultic sites of important mother goddesses, such as Isis and Hathor, as their

sons. While they remained in the form of a child, they were regarded to retain the full power

of a deity. Therefore, they received prayers and were called upon for help by their

worshippers.

1.2 What are their role models?

In the study of the roles played by the “child deities,” it is important to check if there is a role

model for them. Throughout ancient Egyptian history, Horus in the child form, or the Horus

child, remained the most prominent role model for other child deities. In addition, we have the

young sun-god, who was usually visualized as a child standing on the lotus blossom above the

primeval water. As we will observe in CHAPTER TWO, the youthful sun-god, or the sun-child,

provides the basis for the concept of the “child deities,” namely the ancient Egyptian notion of

the sun’s life-cycle.

Therefore, there emerge two prototypes that will serve as a basis for unique features of the “child

deities”:

(1) the young sun-god, shown as a shining solar child who is considered to be the

culmination of the ancient Egyptian cosmogonies; and

(2) the Horus child as a faithful son of Isis and the legitimate heir of his father Osiris.

The regular rebirth of the sun-child in the eternal cycle symbolizes the renewal of the cosmos and

may have led to the concepts of the yearly renewal of Egypt’s fertility and the resurrection of the

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dead. Meanwhile, the Horus child is destined to succeed Osiris who became the king of the dead

after he was murdered by his brother Seth, and to restore the divine order on earth as the

legitimate heir and avenger of his father. Later he was solarized, and this solarized form of the

Horus child became closely associated with the idea of (re)birth of the sun (and the moon). The

Horus child, who is first attested in the Twenty-first Dynasty and is now commonly referred to

by the Greek version of his name, Harpocrates (Hrw pA Xrd “Horus the Child”), came to embody

these two prototypes and eventually became the child deity par excellence or the most important

of all child deities (Meeks 1977b: 1004).

As the ultimate role model for other child deities, the Horus child was syncretized and identified

with many of them – especially Ihy, Khonsu, and Nefertem. As the personification of the young

sun, these child deities also served as a deity of fertility, as a healer of the living, and as a

protector of the dead. In addition, as the (re)productive outcome of a union of divine parents, the

child deities became closely linked to the concept of the divine conception and birth of the king

throughout ancient Egyptian history. During the Late Period and the Ptolemaic-Roman Period,

the periodical renewal of divine and political life was believed to be realized and perpetuated by

the birth of the king as a child deity of the mother goddess in every mammisi of major temples

built at the time (Assmann 2001: 116-119).

1.3 Patterns of the child deities

With the identity, prototypes and roles of the child deities having been established, further

questions can be raised as follows:

(1) Are the two prototypes of the child deities applicable to all major child deities?

(2) Is it possible to derive the patterns of the child deities not conforming to those models?

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It is obvious that major “child deities” show the attributes of the solar child and the Horus child

as they are associated, identified and syncretized with those two prototypical child deities over

the course of time. When we take a closer look at divine triads, however, we can observe that the

triads of the other child deities are different particularly from that of the Horus child. The triad of

Osiris, Isis and Horus represents a divine family with a strong bond between husband and wife

and shows traditional relationships found in a human family such as the birth and rearing of a

child and the succession from father to son. However, the triads of other child deities appear to

be more artificially constructed to weld together the creator/sun-god, the intermediary mother

goddess and the archetypical child deities who can be considered as a counterpart or an opposite

image of their fathers.

Therefore, the focus of CHAPTERS FOUR, FIVE and SIX of this dissertation will be on the

difference (as well as similarity) between the Horus child and the other “child deities” in terms of

their roles and characteristics within the framework of their respective divine triads.

CURRENT STATE OF RESEARCH

Almost every prominent deity in the ancient Egyptian pantheon has been the subject of a modern

scholarly monograph. However, many child deities, like many other minor gods, do not seem to

have received that honor. Showing their dependence as a child, even major child deities are, in

most cases, mentioned rather briefly in the chapters about their parent gods. Regarding the major

child deities such as the Horus child, Ihy, Khonsu and Nefertem, we can find a handful of articles,

mostly about the Horus child and Khonsu during the New Kingdom and thereafter. As such,

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there has been no comprehensive work dedicated to them in Egyptology and no monograph has

been written about the child deities and their patterns in the Egyptian pantheon. 2

1.4 Research on child deities in general

First, let us take a look at short articles and encyclopedia entries about ancient Egyptian child

deities in general. A general overview of child deities is found in Brunner’s article in Lexikon der

Ägyptologie (1977c: 648-651). R. Wilkinson’s The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt

devotes a brief section to the child deities, under the subtitle of “Male Child Deities,” which

includes entries on Horus the Child, Ihy, Neferhotep, Nefertem and Shed (2003: 132-135). As

regards the three-dimensional representations of the child deities, Hall published an article

entitled, “Harpocrates and Other Child Deities in Ancient Egyptian Sculpture” in the Journal of

the American Research Center in Egypt (1977: 55-58), which offers only passing comments about the

major child deities and focuses mostly on statuettes of Harpocrates in the Ptolemaic-Roman

Period.

Prominent works about ancient Egyptian religion also contain chapters or sections on the concept

of child deities. In most cases, however, they deal with the birth of gods as a part of the Egyptian

cosmogony and the Horus child as a part of the Osirian cycle (Morenz 1973: 24-26, 159-182;

Hornung 1982: 143-165; L. Lesko 1991: 90-115; Assmann 2001: 116-147). Among the general

reviews of child deities, two stand out: (1) Kingship and the Gods (1978) by Frankfort and (2) Daily

Life of the Egyptian Gods (1996) co-authored by Meeks and Favard-Meeks. In his insightful

2There is one compilation of studies on ancient Egyptian child deities during the Ptolemaic-Roman Period.
Published in 2003, Kindgötter im Ägypten der griechisch-römischen Zeit: Zeugnisse aus Stadt und Tempel als
Spiegel des interkulturellen Kontakts (by Budde, Sandri and Verhoeven) contains chapters on various aspects
and roles of major child deities such as Harpocrates and Khonsu during that period. In this regard, it should
be noted that my dissertation investigates the development of the concept and roles of child deities before
the Third Intermediate Period with a focus on incipient stages in the development of early child deities.

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chapters, Frankfort suggested two aspects of the kingship – one is the king as the son of Re, or the

successor of the sun-god, and the other is the king as the son of Osiris, or the Horus incarnate

(1978: 143-212). He points out that the ancient Egyptians conceived of kingship as an institution

involving two generations and this observation gives us a basis for the notion of Egyptian child

deities used to legitimize the king’s divine descent. 3 Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods has been

criticized for “choosing to treat the Egyptian pantheon as if they were a ‘community that has

caught the interest of anthropologists’” (Pinch 2002: 219), but it nevertheless provides many

interesting insights into the sexuality of the gods, bodily secretion and the birth of gods (1996:

66-80).

There are two comprehensive works regarding children in Egyptian society. One is Janssen &

Janssen’s Growing up in Ancient Egypt (1990), which covers various stages of the lives of Egyptian

children from birth to education, transition to adulthood, and society’s perceptions of the

younger generation. The other is Feucht’s Das Kind im Alten Ägypten (1995), which also examine

various aspects of childhood on the basis of texts and artistic representations. 4 Regarding

Assmann’s statement (2001: 112, 2008: 20) that the mythology or “narrative theology” of the

Egyptians was anthropomorphic (not anthropocentric), it can be said that the two works shed

light on aspects of ancient Egyptian child deities. However, it is important to keep in mind that

they do not deal directly with the divine counterparts of ancient Egyptian children.

1.5 Research on the prototypical child deities

As mentioned above, there has been no comprehensive overview of the common and distinct

nature of the major child deities, and critical information about them is scattered all over the

3 For a general idea of mythology being used to legitimize the living king, see Assmann 2001: 111-147.
4 For a critical review of her book, see Roth 1998: 118-121.

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scholarly treatments of their parent deities – in most cases, their mother goddesses. It is especially

so in the case of the sun-god in the child form. The aspect of the sun-god as a child can be

gleaned from a number of scholarly sources – sometimes from monographs on mother-goddesses

such as Billing’s Nut: The Goddess of Life in Text and Iconography (2002).

When it comes to the Horus child, most of the articles and entries on Horus cover his role as a

child god. As a versatile deity, Horus has a number of aspects, and each aspect is dealt with in

separate entries with titles such as “Horus,” “Harpocrates,” and “Harsiese,” to name only a few. 5

The birth and childhood of Horus is explained briefly in Münster’s Untersuchungen zur Göttin Isis

(1968: 5-12), and a detailed analysis of Isis’s pregnancy and childbirth is presented by O’Connell

in an article titled, “The Emergence of Horus: An Analysis of Coffin Text Spell 148” (1983: 66-87)

in the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. There are a number of articles regarding Horus of Edfu and

a religious narrative of Horus preserved in the form of a sacred drama in the Temple of Edfu,

which deals with the victory of Horus over Seth and his followers (Fairman 1935: 26-36;

Blackman and Fairman 1942: 32-38, 1943: 2-36, 1944: 5-22; Gardiner 1944: 23-60; Griffiths 1958: 75-

85). 6 The function of Horus as the king’s person is elaborated by Frankfort in his Kingship and the

Gods (1978: 36-47). Finally, the visual representation of Horus as a child is discussed in Seele’s

“Horus on the Crocodiles” (1947: 43-52) in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies and Cooney’s

“Harpocrates, the Dutiful Son” (1972: 284-290) in the Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art.

5 For general studies on Horus, see Bonnet 1952: 307-314; Barta 1973b: 154-185; Schenkel 1980: 14-25; Hart
1986: 87-96; Meltzer 2001: 119-122; Pinch 2002: 143-146. For Harendotes, see Meeks 1997a: 964-966. For
Haroeris, see Bonnet 1952: 270-272; Kurth 1977: 999-1003. For Harpocrates, see Bonnet 1952: 273-275; Cooney
1972: 284-290; Meeks 1997b: 1003-1011; Pinch 2002: 146-147. For Harsiese, see Bonnet 1952: 275-276;
Björkman 1977: 1018-1020.
6 Watterson’s The House of Horus at Edfu (1998) provides a short but comprehensive overview of Horus of

Edfu.

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The most comprehensive studies regarding Harpocrates, the ultimate form of the Horus child,

have been undertaken by Sadri and Meeks. Sandri’s Har-pa-chered (Harpocrates): Die Genese eines

ägyptischen Götterkindes (2006) covers every aspect of this child deity par excellence from name and

iconography to cultic centers and functions. Meeks also posted an exhaustive iconographic

analysis of Harpocrates on the website of the Iconography of Deities and Demons (2009:

http://www.religionswissenschaft.uzh.ch/idd). There is another study focusing on Horus as the

son of Isis or Harsiese. Forgeau’s Horus-fils-d’Isis: La jeunesse d’un dieu (2010) examines the origin

and development of Harsiese as well as the nature of the relationship between Isis and Horus.

1.6 Research on divine triads

In researching child deities, it is important to look into past work on the concept and

development of the numerical groupings of deities and especially those of the triads, because the

major child deities are the child-member of the divine triad. Such studies have been done as part

of efforts to classify the Egyptian pantheon or address the question of divine unity and plurality.

Adopting the numeral-genealogical classification proposed by Otto (1963: 264-272, esp. 267-269

for the concept of the triad), Hornung puts more emphasis on the significance of the number

three, which was the preferred ancient Egyptian way of expressing plurality (1982: 217-223). 7 For

this dissertation, however, te Velde’s approach based on genealogical classification proves to be

more useful (1971: 80-86). Though remaining cautious, he distinguishes “pluralistic triads (triad)”

from “monistic triads (trinity)” and maintains that mixed male-female triads form pluralistic

triads, which leads to the birth of the divine child and thus constitutes the divine family. His

article also offers an interesting interpretation of the relationship between the divine triad/family

7 For a detailed explanation of the numerical groupings, see Kees 1956: 161-171; R. Wilkinson 2003: 74-79.

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and the ancient Egyptian familial structure and introduces various types of pluralistic triads

(1971: 83, 84-86). The concept of the trinity and influences on the Christian doctrine of the Trinity

is examined in Griffiths’ article “Triune Conceptions of Deity in Ancient Egypt” (1973: 28-32) in

Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, and in his book, Triads and Trinity (1996),

which is based on a thorough analysis of original sources from Egypt (1996: 11-113),

Mesopotamia and Indo-European traditions.

Finally, in the chapters devoted to child deities below, brief histories of scholarly work on each

child deity will be presented.

SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY

1.7 Sources and methodology

Given the practical constraints on a dissertation, the primary focus will be on child deities from

the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom. The sources will be in most cases important religious

texts. The Pyramid Texts contain only a few comments about child deities (or the child attibutes

of deities). However, the Coffin Texts and the Book of the Dead provide more and more specific

information about child deities – i.e. their roles, familial relationships and mutual identifications.

In addition to religious texts, major literary works, hymns to gods, historical records and medical

treatises will be examined and cited in order to cover various topics related to child deities, such

as childbirth, education and family structure.

Besides the textual materials of the dynastic period, I will consult important sources of the late

periods – mostly temple inscriptions and some magical texts of the Ptolemaic-Roman Period. The

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texts from this period constitute major sources of epithets, descriptions, cultic practices and

narratives involving child deities (Finnestad 1997: 185-237). Classical works, such as Plutarch’s De

Iside et Osiride, will also provide precious information missing in earlier sources. Of course,

factors such as foreign influence and cultural changes should be taken into account when

differences are encountered between the earlier and later sources. Sources of the later periods will

be used only to supplement observations that I make based on the sources of the dynastic periods.

Like textual sources of the later periods, visual representations such as reliefs and sculptures that

depict the principal child deities will be examined in order to support observations based on

textual evidence.

Finally, in addition to a diachronic approach and examining important traits of child deities in

each historical stage, this dissertation will also focus on identifying and tackling topics relevant to

the child deities. One may wonder if a purely topical approach can take into account diachronic

nuances in the data. In this regard, I believe that it is imperative to take note of chronological

developments of important theological concepts when they are introduced. Important topics that

will be dealt with in each chapter of the dissertation are presented in detail in the following

section.

STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION

1.8 Part I: Introduction

The first part of this dissertation (see above) has been about the background of the research on

child deities. It deals with basic elements such as the definition of child deities to be studied in

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the dissertation, their role models or prototypes, the current state of research, and the structure of

the dissertation.

1.9 Part II: Basic Patterns of Ancient Egyptian Child Deities

Before embarking on a full-scale investigation of child deities in the ancient Egyptian pantheon, it

is important to take a close look at the basic patterns of child deities who serve as the “prototype”

of ancient Egyptian child deities. The two prototypical child deities are the sun-child and the

Horus child.

The sun-child is considered to be the culmination of the ancient Egyptian cosmogony because the

sun symbolizes the concept of nHH or “Eternal Recurrence” and completes its perpetual cycle by

uniting with the mother goddess who represents the concept of Dt or “Eternal Sameness.” Based

on the daily cycle of the sun, the sun-child naturally represents a cyclical and reversible

rejuvenation and regeneration.

On the contrary, the Horus child embodies a generational transmission and succession. As the

legitimate heir of his father and the deceased divine king Osiris, he is the quintessential successor

of a future generation and the fruition of perpetual creation. Moreover, his dramatic childhood

marked by events such as nursing, protection and conflict emphasizes generational transmission.

The important characteristics and basic patterns of the two prototypical child deities will be

examined in detail in CHAPTER TWO and CHAPTER THREE, respectively.

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1.10 PART III: Case Studies of Three Child Deities

In PART III, a case study on each of three child deities – namely, Ihy, Khonsu and Nefertem, will

be presented in CHAPTERS FOUR, FIVE and SIX. Besides these child deities, there are many

deities who also appear as a child, such as Heka, Neper, Shed and Somtus. However, I selected

the aforementioned three child deities in this dissertation for the following reasons:

First, according to the definition of the child deities to be studied in this dissertation, (1) ancient

Egyptian child deities are the child members of familial triads consisting of a father, mother and

son; (2) they are usually represented in juvenile or youthful human form; and (3) they symbolize

the cyclical rejuvenation of the universe and the legitimate succession of the king (see 1.1 above).

Second, it seems that the three child deities in question share a few common traits already in the

Middle Kingdom, as indicated by the fact that they appear side by side in Coffin Texts Spell 563

(see T1-1 below). The exact function of the child deities mentioned in the spell remains obscure

but it is apparent that they are considered to be very closely related to one another. In this regard,

Allam writes that these three deities can replace each other as the son-god of their parent deities

(1963: 135): “Diesen drei Göttern ist gemeinsam, daβ jeder von ihnen andern Gottheiten als deren Sohn

beigesellt.”

T1-1. Coffin Texts Spell 563 (CT VI 162n-v) 8

162-n jnk wr nj rx rn.f

162-o bA.j pw bAw 162-p Swwt.j pw Xnmw
162-q jnk nb mAat mr.f nfrt
162-r nj sxdd.j m-m sxdw

8 For a translation, see Faulkner 1977: 169.

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 162-s jrr.j Smwt Hr rdwj.j mj nfr-tm
162-t snn.j TAw m fnD.j mj xns[w] HoA DfAw
162-u mAA.j wAt m jrtj.j 9 162-v mj jHy zA Hwt-Hrw mry.s

162-n I am a great one whose name is unknown.

162-o The rams are my ba; Khnum is my shades
162-q I am a lord of ma’at who loves what is good.
162-r I will not be turned upside down among those who are turned upside down.
162-s I make marches on my feet like Nefertem.
162-t I sniff air with my nose like Khonsu, the lord of sustenance.
162-u I see the path with my (two) eyes 162-v like Ihy, son of Hathor, whom she loves.

Finally, their common traits, as well as different phases of their development into a child deity,

will be discussed in detail in CHAPTER SEVEN. In addition, attempts will be made to answer the

important questions raised at the beginning of this CHAPTER (see 1.3 above).

9 Cf. the reading m mAw jrt.j, see Faulkner 1977: 169, note 2.

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 PART II

BASIC PATTERNS OF ANCIENT

EGYPTIAN CHILD DEITIES

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 CHAPTER 2. THE SUN-CHILD

2.1 Introduction

For ancient Egyptians, the rising sun was the symbol of the creation of the world and the course

of the sun the symbol of the cyclical renewal of the cosmos. Therefore, the sun-god always held

paramount importance as the creator god and the lord of the created world throughout ancient

Egyptian history. In the study of the patterns of child deities, particularly noteworthy is the fact

that the life cycle of the sun provides the basis for the concept of child deities. Among a number

of manifestations that he can assume, the sun god sometimes appears as a youthful child who

symbolizes eternal rejuvenation and resurrection. In this aspect, the sun-god is visualized as a

child god who emerges from the universal mother goddess who embodies the primeval waters at

the time of creation or from the sky-mother who forms part of the eternal cycle of renewal after

the creation.

Given that the sun-child pattern is based on the eternal cycle of the sun’s course, the first step to

understand the essence of the sun-child and his prototypical pattern should be a close

examination of the two ancient Egyptian concepts of eternity – that is Dt “Eternal Sameness” and

nHH “Eternal Recurrence.” As we will see later, the two concepts are very useful in understanding

the two prototypical child deities: (1) the new-born solar child (the embodiment of the nHH-

element) born out of the primeval ocean or the sky-goddess Nut (the Dt-element); and (2) the

Horus child (as well as other major child deities) who also embodies the nHH-element in the

rejuvenated form of his father.

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2.2 Two ancient Egyptian concepts of eternity

In his explanation of the development of ancient Egyptian trinity (“Dreieinigkeit”), Westendorf

mentions two polar elements that periodically become one in the “eternal, cyclical life-force

sphere” (1974: 137). The two elements are Dt “Eternal Sameness” and nHH “Eternal Recurrence.” 10

The two elements are mentioned in Coffin Texts Spells 78-80 (CT II 19a-43h), which explain how

the natural order of existence derived from the first act of creation – that is, zp tpy the “First

Occasion.” 11 As a real beginning, the First Occasion should be reenacted by repetitions of rituals

to maintain the functioning of the created world. In this regard, time is a paradigm to denote

periodicity for the Egyptians (Morenz 1973: 166). 12 The repetition of the First Occasion is most

manifest with the rise of the sun (as the most powerful force in nature) every morning from the

primeval waters of Nun. The reenactment of the creation takes place on the historical level as

well as on the cosmic level. Each new pharaoh (as the most powerful force in human society)

replaces the dead king as the possessor of the royal ka and the maintainer of kingship (J. Allen

2000: 144). 13

10 For the concept of Dt “Eternal Sameness” and nHH “Eternal Recurrence,” see Assmann 1975: 41-48, 2001: 73-
80, 2002: 18-19; Wente 1982: 17-26; J. Allen 1988: 21-27, 2000: 104-106; Hornung 1990: 93-96. The use of the
pair to express the concept of “time” in its totality stems from the “typically Egyptian manner” that reflects
a penchant of the ancient Egyptians to express the totality with a union of pairs that sometimes contrast or
conflict with each other and by so doing encompass all elements in between the two opposites (Assmann
2001: 74). Also note Wilkinson (1999: 129): “The phenomenon of duality pervades Egyptian culture and is at the
heart of the Egyptian concept of the universe itself.”
11 For a translation and comments on the texts, see J. Allen 1988: 21-27 and NOTE 14 below.

12 Also note Bochi (1994: 55): “It is probable that the nature of time may have been perceived at first by ancient

Egyptians through the observation of the cyclical rhythm of nature such as alternation of day and night, the clockwork
succession of seasons and the Nile’s annual inundation. These early observations contributed to formulating the
concept of time.”
13 Regarding the royal ka, note Bell (1995: 5): “With the Creator essentially being the ka of the king, the royal ka

was the immortal male creative spirit of divine kingship, symbolizing the legitimacy of the king’s inheritance from his
Heavenly Father.”Also note that at any time of crisis, the king, as an incarnation of the Creator God, was
required to reestablish ma’at as it had been on the First Occasion. Indeed, the dating starts all over again at
the beginning of each reign (Dunand & Zivie-Coche 2004: 66).

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In his reference to the pair Dt “Eternal Sameness” and nHH “Eternal Recurrence,”Assmann

mentions more fundamental principles of the ancient Egyptian world view. One is “stasis” or the

notion of creation as perfect and complete, which can be expressed with the Egyptian verb wnn

“exist,” whereas the other is “change” or the notion of life as dynamic and recurrent, which can

be expressed with the Egyptian verb xpr “develop.” The whole idea is summarized in the table

below (Assmann 1975: 44-45, n. 156).

Stasis (wnn): Change (xpr):

Tefnut (tfnt) 14 Shu (Sw)

Order (mAat) Life (anx)

Eternal Sameness (Dt) Eternal Recurrence (nHH)

As such, Dt “Eternal Sameness” does not correspond exactly to the linear or diachronic concept of

time composed of time-points such as present, past and future on an infinite line. Rather, it refers

to the concept of stability or time at a standstill. To quote Assmann, Dt “Eternal Sameness” is “a

sacred dimension of everness, where that which has become – which has ripened to its final form

and is to that extent perfect – is preserved in immutable permanence.” 15 In sum, Dt “Eternal

14 The birth of Shu and Tefnut is the first act of creation and set the cycle of existence in motion. Therefore,

Tefnut and Shu are identified with Dt “Eternal Sameness” and nHH “Eternal Recurrence,” respectively. See
Coffin Texts Spell 80 (CT II 32b-e): zAt.j pw anxt tfnt, wnn.s Hna sn.s Sw, anx rn.f, mAat rn.s “My living daughter is
Tefnut. She will exist with her brother Shu. Life is his identity, Order is her identity.” Also note a similar
phrase in Coffin Texts Spell 78 (CT II 22a-23c): jnk nHH jt(j) n HH, snt.j pw tfnwt zAt tm mst psDt … jnk ms HHw
wHmw n tm, Dt pw, snt.j pw tfnwt “I [Shu] am Eternal Recurrence, father of an infinite number. My sister is
Tefnut, daughter of Atum, who bore the Ennead. … I am the one who bore repeated millions for Atum: that
is Eternal Sameness; that is my sister Tefnut.”
15 This concept is directly connected with the Egyptian concept of eternity (“a stretch of time that does not

have beginning or end”) as a way of surviving death, almost completely free from the passage of time and
everything to which the Egyptians attached negative values such as illness, injury and aging. While hoping
for survival after death, the Egyptians had no notion of going through the cycle of life all over again. Instead,
they wished to continue their lives after death “in the full vigor and enjoyment of earthly life” (Kadish 2001:
408).

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Sameness” is time at a standstill and only in nHH “Eternal Recurrence” does time move (Assmann

2002: 18-19). Therefore, it can be said that the Egyptian world is an “unchanging pattern of

elements, forces, and relationships (Eternal Sameness) that is continually changing in its

realization (Eternal Recurrence)” (J. Allen 1988: 57). The concept underlying nHH “Eternal

Sameness” refers to the pattern of existence that was set at the time of creation and will remain

the same until the end of the world. 16 Meanwhile, the concept of cyclical time is embodied in nHH

“Eternal Recurrence,” which refers to repeating and ever-changing forces in the framework of the

fixed principle of existence (Fig. 2-1).

Fig. 2-1: Eternal Recurrence and Eternal Sameness

In the ancient Egyptian view of the created world, the two elements do not stand apart; rather,

the element of nHH “Eternal Recurrence” develops out of Dt “Eternal Sameness,” as if being born

from the mother’s womb, and goes back to it for rejuvenation and rebirth. In other words, the

cyclical movement of the nHH “Etenal Recurrent” is realized on the background of Dt “Eternal

16This concept of time is expressed in attempts by the ancient Egyptians to eternalize a final results or
attainments; and their striving for “imperishability and immutable continuance” is manifested in the core
elements of Egyptian culture such as writing (hieroglyphs), funerary architecture (pyramids) and
mummification (Assmann 2001: 77). This attitude also explains Egyptian artists’ consistent efforts to
eliminate the effects of time in their works throughout the pharaonic era except for the Amarna period.

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Sameness.” 17 The relationship between the two elements can be summarized in the table below

(Westendorf 1974: 137): 18

Dt-Eternity nHH-Eternity

Female (mother/consort) Male (father/spouse/son)

Space (static) Course of time (dynamic)

Night/darkness Day/sunlight

Next world/out-worldly This world/mundane

Duration Recurrence

Osiris/royal mummy Re/Horus/living king

XAt-corpse bA-spirit

At this point, it can be said that the pattern of the nHH-element completes its cycle of

rebirth/rejuvenation through the Dt-element. The most prominent example showing the cyclical

development of the nHH-element (regenerative power) against the background of the Dt-element

(the matrix) would be the daily cycle of the sun-god who goes into the womb of the mother/sky

goddess Nut (or the primeval ocean Mehet-Weret) or the unchanging matrix of the Dt-element in

the evening and reemerges as a rejuvenated child in the morning. 19

17 Also note Westendorf (1974: 137): “Etymologisch ist nHH als ‘der Kreislauf (bzw. der Kreisläufer)’ aufzufassen, Dt
als ‘der (Mutter-)Leib’.”
18 Also note Assman’s interesting comment regarding Westendorf’s “Zuordnungen” (1975: 44-45, notes 156

and 156a): “Er [Westendorf] hat sie zu einer stattlichen Reihe paarweiser Oppositionen ergänzt, wobei allerdings nHH
und Dt als zwei allumfassende komplementäre Prinzipien in der Art von Yin und Yang erscheinen, die letztendlich auf
den Gegensatz von männlich und weiblich zurückgeführt werden.”
19 For Nut as the descendent of the Great Mother Goddess in ancient Egyptian mythology, see B. Lesko 1999:

23-24, 36-38.

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As shown in the daily solar cycle, the conception in the evening and the (re)birth in the morning

not only explains the disappearance and reappearance of celestial bodies including the sun, but

also indicates that the creation of life takes place, oscillating between the two poles of jwr

“conception” and mswt “birth,” as aptly summarized in Papyrus Berlin 3048 (Assmann 1969: 118-

122; Troy 1986: 26-27; Billing 2002: 33-37, note 54):

T2-1. Hymn to the Rising Sun (p.Berlin 3048, IX 4a-15a) 20

4a xy mss ra nb 5a mj jr.f tn, jr.n n.f hnw 6a dj.n jAw n tjt.f Sps 7a m rnw.f nbw nfrw
8a nxx jmj Drw nHH 9a mj jr.f tn, jr.n n.f hnw 10a dj.n jAjw n tjt.f Sps 11a m rnw.f nbw nfrw
12a jAwj zbb Dt 13a mj jr.f tn, jr.n n.f hnw 14a dj.n jAjw n tjt.f Sps 15a m rnw.f nbw nfr

4a Child who is born every day! 5a Come so that we make jubilation for him
6a and give praise to his august image 7a in all his perfect names.
8a Adult who is in the limit of the Eternal Recurrence!
9a Come so that we make jubilation for him
10a and give praise to his august image 11a in all his perfect names.
12a Elder who travels the Eternal Sameness! 13a Come so that we make jubilation for him
14a and give praise to his august image 15a in all his perfect names.

In other words, the motif of the rebirth/rejuvenation of the sun-god as a child through the two

poles of creation symbolizes the eternal (self-)generation of the cosmos, the gods and the royal

dynasties. The cycle of the sun’s eternal generation can be represented as a diagram shown in Fig.

2-2 below. 21

It is also noticeable that the sun-god, the most prominent player in the nHH-element, shows two

aspects in this cycle. 22 He first appears as a child/son in the morning but becomes a father/spouse

20 For the text, see Wolf 1929: 34-35. For a translation, see Wolf 1929: 36-37.
21 For the various modes of the sun-god’s regeneration in the later sources, see Zandee 1992b: 181-185.
22 For the sun-god especially as lord of the nHH-element, see the solar hymn of Montuemhat (Daressy 1922:

167-168): [nb] nHH ntt nHH m drt.f Dt m xfa.f, smn anx, […] Aw m r(m)T xr nTrw, wD{.tw}.f anx jr.f sDD smsw nTrw (the

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in the evening, when he goes back to the body/womb of his mother-consort goddess to rejuvenate

himself. As he becomes the cause of his own development, the sun-god becomes kamutef, literally

“bull of his mother” (see EXCURSUS 2-1).

Fig. 2-2: Pattern of the maternal birth/rejuvenation of the sun-child

However, the double aspect of the nHH-element – that is, the son becoming the father in the course

of time – can be represented not only in the form of causa sui/kamutef but also in the form of a son

who embodies the rejuvenated form (“Wiedererscheinungsform”) of his father, which is rendered

possible only through the unchanging power of the Dt-element (Westendorf 1974: 138).

Procreation thus requires three elements, resulting in a triad comprised of father, mother and son.

Regarding the son as a rejuvenated form of his father, the Horus child, Ihy and Nefertem can be

regarded as the sun/morning-child and Khonsu as the moon-child.

sun-god), “the [Lord] of Eternal Recurrence, in whose hand Eternal Recurrence is and in whose fist Eternal
Sameness is. […] length among people and with gods. The one who commands life, the one who rejuvenates
the elders among the gods.” In a text found in the tomb of Tjanefer, the nHH-element itself is depicted as a
personified actor who rejuvenates itself (Assmann 1975: 37-39): jw nHH rnpjw jnn Hapj m TpHt.f r sanx rmTw nTrw,
dwA […] r ms rnpwt, nHH nHH “Eternal Recurrence rejuvenated, who brings the Inundation from his cave in
order to nourish (cause to live) people and gods; morning […] in order to give birth to years eternally
(Eternal Recurrence), eternally (Eternal Recurrence).”

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2.3 The Sun-child pattern

In ancient Egyptian mythology, the creation of the void that led to a distinction between top (sky)

and bottom (earth) is not an end of the creative process but a backdrop for the prime act of

creation – the first sunrise (J. Allen 1988: 25, 2000: 144). As a creator god, the sun-god may appear

as a self-creating god at the time of creation. 23 Many images were adopted to describe the first

sunrise, including (1) a fiery bird or the one emerging from a cosmic egg laid by a primeval bird,

a snake or a crocodile, (2) a blue lotus rising above the surface of the dark primeval ocean Nun,

and (3) a naked child or a ram-headed figure sitting on the lotus especially from the New

Kingdom on (Pinch 2002: 59-61). From the perspective of the nHH-element completing its cyclical

movement on the background of the Dt-element, however, the first sunrise can be expressed in

the image of childbirth. As mentioned above, the youthful sun-god appears from the primeval

water at the time of creation (e.g., CT IV 184/5b-191c), but he is also regarded as a son of the sky-

goddess Nut in the eternal cycle after the creation as mentioned in Pyramid Text Spell 650: 24

T2-2. Pyramid Texts Spell 650 (Pyr. § 1835a-c) 25

1835-a ms sw mjwt.f pt anx.(w) ra nb mr ra

1835-b xa.f Hna.f m jAbt, Htp.f Hna.f m jmnt
1835-c nj Sw mjwt.f nwt jm.f ra nb

1835-a His mother, the sky, shall bear him alive every day like Re,
1835-b and he shall appear with him (the king) in the east,
and go to rest with him (the king) in the west.
1835-c and his mother Nut shall not be void of him every day.

23 According to his different aspects, the sun-god appears in the form of different deities, such as Atum (as
the source/finish of all life), Khepri (as the beginning of the process of daily life), Re (as the sun in the
broadest terms) and Horus (as the predominant force in the world). See J. Allen 1988: 10-12.
24 For a comprehensive study of the sky-goddess Nut, see Billing 2002.

25 For translations, see Faulkner 1969: 268; J. Allen 2005a: 265.

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2.3.1 Nut as mother-goddess

As shown above, Nut is mother of the sun-god, bearing him daily, as mentioned in funerary

spells and other texts (Hollis 1987: 498):

 Pyramid Texts Spell 606 (Pyr. § 1688a-c): Hmsw.k Hr xndw pw n ra, wD.k mdw n nTrw, n Twt js ra pr

m nwt msst ra ra nb, ms (nmtj-m-zA.f mrj.n ra)| pn ra nb mr ra “you will sit on this chair of Re so that

you (the king) will govern the gods, because you are Re who comes forth from Nut, who

gives birth to Re daily, and this Nemtiemzaf Merenre will be born every day like Re.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 267 (CT III 398a-b): ms.n Tw nwt xft mswt ra “Nut has borne you (the

deceased) according to the birth of Re.”

 Papyrus Carlsberg I, IV 37: mj ms.s ra ra nb “… like she (Nut) gives birth to Re daily.”

Therefore, Nut can be considered as a personification of the sky who gives birth to the sun-god (J.

Allen 1989: 16) and various place names of the sky in Pyramid Texts Spells 264 and 510 may have

originated from her female anatomy (L. Lesko 1991: 118-119). 26

In this regard, it is also noticeable that Nut is depicted as having her hair braided in Coffin Texts

Spell 77 (CT II 18g): wd.kw jm.s m zA zAt nwt, Hnzktt mst nTrw “I (the deceased identified with the ba of

Shu) was set in it (the Great Ennead) as son and daughter of Nut, she with the braided hair who

bore the gods.” This description conjures up an image of an ancient Egyptian woman in labor

who kept her hair from being a nuisance during labor (B. Lesko 1999: 28). In the New Kingdom

period, Nut’s conception and birth is expressed in iconographical images, including the one in

26Also note Hollis 1987: 497: “Nut appears in an organic activity, namely bearing the gods, not as the static lifeless,
heavenly roof of the world structure, which is the usual portrayal of the sky.” In Egyptian mythology, Nut is not
just mother of the sun but also of stars. Cf. Goebs 2008: 7-8.

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the cenotaph of Sety I at Abydos and the ceiling in the tomb of Ramesses IV, where the sun is

shown being swallowed by Nut, a giant nude woman arched above the earth, in the evening,

passing through her body at night and being born again in the morning. 27

2.3.2 Nut, Mehet-Weret and Akhet

In ancient Egypt the sky was often thought of as a watery region, and Nut was closely associated

with Mehet-Weret (mHjjt wrt) “Great Flood,” a female counterpart of Nun. Sometimes envisioned

as a cow astride the earth, Nut was paired or even identified with Mehet-Weret who was shown

as a cow-headed woman or a cow carrying a child (J. Allen 1989: 16; B. Lesko 1999: 23-24; Pinch

2002: 163). 28 In this connection, Mehet-Weret stands as a primeval cow goddess who gave birth to

the sun-god. It is interesting to note that Mehet-Weret gave birth to the sun in the form of a calf,

as mentioned in the Pyramid Texts Spell 485A (Pyr. § 1029a-b): jw.n (pjpj)| pn xr.k ra, bHz n nbw ms

nwt, xAD n nbw omAw HzAt “This Pepi has come to you, Re, a calf of gold to whom Nut gave birth, a

fatted calf of gold whom Hezat created” (Barta 1984: 167). 29 The statement calls to mind the fact

that Ihy, regarded as one of the sun-children, is born as a calf (Hoenes 1980: 125).

27 For the cycle of the sun through Nut’s body, see J. Allen 1988: 1-7. For various depictions of the sky, see
Westendorf 1966: 10-13, 63-66; Hornung 1977: 1216. For a description of Nut as the night sky, see Roulin
1996: 33-37. For Nut as personification of the Milky Way, see Wells 1992: 305-321; Kozloff 1994: 169-176
(especially in connection with a type of spoons in the form of a “swimming girl”). According to Wells, the
Egyptian month “Mesore” came from mswt ra “birth of Re,” because in origin the winter solstice fell in it at a
time when that part of the Milky Way representing Nut was visible from the waist to the feet as a woman
ready to give birth. On the other hand, the sunset at the spring equinox was regarded as the time when the
sun enters Nut through her mouth. He points out that the number of days between the spring equinox and
the winter solstice is 272 days, identical to the nine-month period of human gestation.
28 Also note the description of Nut as Awt-ab “long of horn” in Pyr. § 1344a. For more examples, see Roulin

1996/1: 34, note 150.

29 Hezat (HzAt), meaning “Wild One,” is a cow-goddess and appears as the mother of Anubis and the sun

already in the Pyramid Texts (R. Wilkinson 2003: 173-174).

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At the time of birth, the sun-god is born into a place called Axt “akhet” that can be translated as the

“place of becoming effective.” 30 Pyramid Text Spells speak of Nut’s role of guiding the king

(identified with the sun-god) into the akhet:

 Pyramid Texts Spell 422 (Pyr. § 756a-b): pr.k r.k xr mjwt.k nwt, nDr.s a.k, Dj.s n.k wAt r Axt r bw

Xr(j) ra “So, you should go forth to where your mother Nut is, and she will take hold of your

arm and give you the way to the akhet, to the place where Re is.”

 Pyramid Texts Spell 677 (Pyr. § 2028a-c): hA (pjpj nfr-kA-ra)| wab, gm Tw ra aHa.tj Hna mjwt.k nwt,

sSm.s T(w) m wAwt Axt, jr.k jmn.k jm, nfrw Hna kA.k n D[t Dt] “Ho, Pepi Neferkare! Become clean

and Re will find you standing with your mother Nut. She will lead you in the akhet’s paths

and you shall make your abode there, perfect with your ka for (the course [of) eternity].”

According to J. Allen (1989: 17-21), the akhet is the place where “the sun undergoes the final

transformation from the inertness of death and night to the form ‘akh’ that allows him to live

effectively.” The association of the akhet with the sun-god’s (re)birth is mentioned in the final

hour of the New Kingdom Book of Night.

T2-3. Book of Night: Eleventh Gate, Twelfth Hour (Third Register) 31

1 prt m dwAt, Htp m {m} mandt, sodt nw r wnwt 2 n ra ptr nfrw nb.s
xpr m xprj, xfdt r Axt, 3 ao m r, pr m kAt
wbn m r n aAwj 4 Axt r wnwt sxat nfrw ra r jrt anx r(m)T

30 For the meaning of akhet as the “place of becoming effective,” see Friedman 1986: 101-102. It is also
mentioned in Pyramid Texts Spell 217 (Pyr. § 152d): wbn.Tn m Axt m bw Ax.n.Tn jm “You [the sun-god Re and
Atum] shall rise from the akhet, from the place in which you have both become akh.” For the image of the
king given birth like the sun and Horus and crossing to the akhet, where “the gods were born,” see Pyr. §
1074c-d. Meanwhile, for the original meaning of Ax as “effective” and the notion of Ax-“effectiveness” in
cosmic, kingship (filial), and funerary spheres, see Friedman 1985: 39-46.
31 For the text, see Piankoff 1942: 80. For translations, see Piankoff 1942: 81, 1954a: 428; J. Allen 1989: 20.

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 1 Coming forth from the duat, 32 coming to rest in the day-barque,
and sailing Nu at the hour 2 of the sun (called) “Seeing the Perfection of Her Lord.”
Becoming Khepri, climbing to the akhet,
3 having entered the mouth and come forth from the vagina.
Rising from the doorway 4 of the akhet at the hour (called)
“Causing Re’s Perfection to Appear” in order to make people live.

Before the sun’s birth (or rising) in the eastern sky, the sky becomes red and bright. This is

envisioned by the ancient Egyptian as Nut’s blood turning the sky red when she gives birth to the

sun-god. It is depicted in a text found in the cenotaph of Sety I. 33

T2-4. From the Cenotaph of Sety I: Sun-disk before Nut’s Foot 34

G dSrt m-xt mswt F wab.f m-Xnw awj jt(j).f wsjr

sw anx jt.f Ax.f dj.(w) n.f xr.f
E wbA.f m nHpt.f, nb.f Hr Tms.f

G The redness after birth,

F as he becomes pure in the embrace of his father Osiris.
Then his father lives and becomes effective,

32 Along with the sky-mother Nun and the akhet, the duat is the place where the deceased king, like the sun

and stars, is born; at the same time, it is the domain of Osiris where the king spends the night before his
rebirth at dawn (J. Allen 1989: 14, 22-25). Note that the duat is regarded as the daughter of Nut, as mentioned
in Pyramid Texts Spell 504 (Pyr. § 1082a-b): jwr pt m jrp, js ms.n nwt m zAt.s dwAt “The sky has become pregnant
with wine: behold, Nut has given birth through her daughter, the duat.” Troy sees this as the sky goddess
giving birth to a daughter as well as a son. She explains that the daughter shares with her mother the role
that is differentiated into the phases of conception and birth. So she notes (1986: 27): “The feminine element is
thus, parallel with the masculine, a composite of two generations. The sky goddess is the wife-mother who conceives the
child while the dawn goddess [the duat], her daughter, is responsible for the birth of her son-brother.” However, I do
not follow Troy’s idea of (1) the solar disc as a “disembodied womb” and (2) the double role of mother-
daughter in a generational structure associated with the birth of the sun-child.
33 At the time of the sun’s (re)birth, Nut was supposed to eat the moon and stars. This violent image led to

the description of Nut as a sow devouring her own piglets (stars); see Neugebauer & Parker 1960: 67-69;
Kurth 1982: 538-539; Pinch 2002: 174. Regarding the connection between devouring and giving birth (also
impregnation), note Kurth’s interesting comment (ibid. 539, note 16): “Dieses sicher der Realität entnommene
Bild lieferte dem Ägypter eine Erklärung für die Verbindung von Verschlingen und Gebären, die das Bild der
menschengestalltigen Himmelsgöttin nicht im gleichen Maβe liefern kann.” For the interpretation of the redness in
the morning as the bloody battle that the sun-god wages against his enemies, see Goebs 2008: 297-299.
34 For the text, see Frankfort 1933/II: Plate LXXXI; Neugebauer & Parker 1960: Plate 44 (Texts G, F and E). For

translations, see J. Allen 1988: 3 and 76 (for textual notes), 1989: 20; Dorman 1999: 93-94.

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 having been given to him (to be) with him
E as he sets in motion his potter’s wheel 35
and swims in his redness.

After the birth, the sun-god needs to be purified, fed, protected and raised. He is purified in the

Field of Reeds (sxt-jArw) as well as on the Primeval Hill, in the Lake of Ma’at or in the Lake of

Natron; he is fed in the Field of Offerings (sxt-Htp). It should be noted that all the places

meaningful to the sun-god were collectively called the Field of Re (sxt-ra) (Barta 1984: 167). Here,

Nut appears as a protector of the sun-child after birth, as in Coffin Texts Spell 765:

T2-5. Coffin Texts Spell 765 (CT VI 395f-j) 36

395-f j(w).k Hna ra r sxt-jArw

395-g gm.k nTrw Hay m-xsf.k mj ra nb tpw
395-h jw Tz Tw nwt aAt m nfr.k 395-i Sn.n.s Tw m awj.s
395-j ATw <Tw> nbtj dpw mj Hrw zA wsjr

395-f You are off to the Field of Rushes with Re,

395-g and you will find the gods joyful at meeting you like Re, Lord of People (Heads)
395-h for Nut the Great will raise you in your (youthful) perfection,
395-i having enclosed you in her arms
395-j the two ladies of Dep will nurse <you> like Horus, son of Osiris.

The image of the new-born sun-god under the protection of the mother goddess (and other

protective goddesses such as Isis and Nephthys beloning to the Osirian cycle) emerged only

during the New Kingdom period as mentioned in many solar hymns composed mostly from the

Nineteenth Dynasty to the Twenty-first Dynasty (Assmann 1995: 45):

35 For the central role played by the potter’s wheel in the daily rejuvenation of the sun-god, see Dorman
1999: 83-99. In particular, he notes that the central figure in frontal perspective depicted in the first hour of
the Book of the Day is not the pregnant sky-goddess but the creator-god himself who is at work at his
potter’s wheel, modeling a lump of clay into a child (ibid. 88).
36 For a translation, see Faulkner 1977: 295.

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 (1) the sun-god protected by his mother (LL, II 1): xnm tw mjwt.k ra nb “your mother nurses

(gladdens) you every day” 37

(2) the sun-god in the arms of Isis and Nephthys (LL, II 2): sTz tw Ast Hna nbt-Hwt “Isis and

Nephthys raise you” 38

(3) the sun-god nourished by the crown goddesses (LL, III 4): rnn sw nbtj mrtj “the Two

Ladies, the two Merty-goddesses suckle him.” 39

In this regard, it should be also noted that the newborn sun-god is mentioned as “child,” such as

xjj n dwAt “child of the morning” only in the New Kingdom period (Assmann 1995: 45, note 40). In

fact, the sun-god was frequently depicted as born each morning from the sky-mother Nut before

the New Kingdom period, but he was rarely described in the child form. Billing points out Nut’s

lack of association with the act of conception and quotes J. Allen’s recognition of Nut as an

“amniotic sac, from which the deceased king, like the sun, was born each day” (J. Allen 1989: 17;

Billing 2002: 36-37). This indicates that the image of mother-child began to take shape in the New

Kingdom period.

The same can be said about the image of the sun-child sitting on the lotus flower, which is

regarded as a particular image of the morning sun. 40 The blue lotus flower submerges during the

night and reappears at the time of sunrise. In addition, this lotus flower is pollinated by beetles

that are closely associated with Khepri, the morning manifestation of the sun-god (Pinch 2002:

37 For a translation, see Assmann 1969: 169-170 and 175.

38 For a translation, see Assmann 1969: 187-190 and 197.
39 For a translation, see Assmann 1969: 315-316 and 319.

40 The plant associated with the morning sun is, in fact, not the lotus but the blue water-lily or Nymphaea

cerulea. However, the terms, such as “blue lotus,” “white lotus” and “lotus-blossom,” will be used here
because, as Harer points out, the misnomer “lotus” is so entrenched in Egyptology (Harer 1985: 49-51;
2001/II: 304-305). For the details about the blue lotus see CHAPTER SIX.

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158). The ancient Egyptians thought that the plant mimics the cosmic and daily course of the sun.

As a result, it became the symbol representing the daily rebirth of the sun and the rebirth of the

deceased (Morenz & Schubert 1954: 43; Brunner-Traut 1980: 1092). 41 Morenz assumes that (1) the

image of the sun-god squatting or standing on the lotus flower was not attested in the Pyramid

Texts; and (2) therefore, it might have belonged to the Heracleopolitan theology (1954: 44).

However, many scholars agree that the image of the solar infant on the lotus flower is attested

only after the Amarna period. Notably during the Twenty-first Dynasty, the image and role of

the youthful sun-god became associated predominantly with the independent Horus child form,

or Harpocrates (Tait 1963: 134; Schlögl 1977: 33; Ryhiner 1986: 19-20, 22; Meeks 1997b: 1004). The

first textual evidence for the sun-child on the lotus blossom is found in the Nineteenth Dynasty

hymn of the Nakhtamun (Schlögl 1977: 20-22; Ryhiner 1986: 19; Assmann 1995: 5-6, 45):

T2-6. Hymn to the Rising Sun (p.Berlin 3002 = BD Chapter 15A) 42

2 j.nD Hr.<k> nxn 3 jmy mn[yt].f wbn m sSn

4 Hwnw nfr pr m Axt
5 sHD [tAwj m] Szp.f

2 Hail to you, youth 3 who is in his ro[ot], who rises in the lotus flower.
4 Beautiful youth, who comes from the akhet
5 and illuminates the [Two Lands] with his light.

The notion of the solar child led to an image that shows the sun in the typical Egyptian child form

inside the ouroboros supported by the sky-cow and the two lions of yesterday and tomorrow (Fig.

41 However, Harer makes it clear that the daily blooming of the lotus flower is not precise because the lotus
flower does bloom at the time of sunrise but it tightly closes after noon (1985: 52).
42 For the text, see Naville 1886a: Plate XVII. For translations, see Schlögl 1977: 21; Assmann 1995: 45, 1999:

131; Carrier 2009: 53. The sculptural image corresponding to the text mentioned above is the wooden statue
the head of Tutankhamun as the sun-child bursting out of the lotus flower (Munro 1981: 40-41). The motif of
a deity/king on the plant will be discussed in CHAPTER SIX.

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2-3). As mentioned earlier, the concept of the sun-child who undergoes regular rebirth in the

eternal cycle led to the appearance of the divine child Harpocrates – the image of a powerful

child deity who represents the “höchste Hoffnung für den Menschen” (Brunner 1977c: 649); his cult

became extraordinarily popular and widespread in the Late Period, as observed by Ryhiner

(1986: 23): “L’enfant divin, image chargée d’espoir, prend une importance dont témoignent la naissance et

la multiplication des Harpocrates ainsi que des données qui font entrevoir la création, à Thèbes et ailleurs,

d’édifices telles que les mammisis et institutions religieuses: le clergé, les mères divines, les nourriciers,

spécialement consacrés à la naissance perpétuelle d’un enfant roi.”

Fig. 2-3: Image of the solar child

2.4 Functions of the sun-child pattern

As mentioned earlier, the cycle of the sun-child forms the basis for the concept of other child

deities. In addition, the sun-child pattern based on the two temporal aspects (nHH and Dt) plays a

significant role in the ideology of kingship and the after-life existence of the deceased. Assmann

writes that there are three different semantic levels associated with the “transfiguration” of the

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solar journey; they consist of (1) a cosmic level of the solar journey itself; (2) the kingship level;

and (3) the funerary belief level (1995: 42). In fact, the sun-child pattern can be applied to all three

of these levels.

On the cosmic level, the sun-god completes the process of creation by appearing as a youthful

child-deity who emerges from the womb of the primeval water. After the creation, as the primary

source of creative energy, the sun was worshipped as the champion of the cosmic order. In his

form as a child deity, the sun-god also represents the rejuvenation of the cosmos in the eternal

cycle, as we have seen in Pyramid Texts Spell 650 above.

On the kingship level, the pharaoh, as the most powerful force in human society, reaffirms his

power through a reenactment of the First Occasion manifested by the first sunrise. In the eternal

cycle after the creation, the king plays his role, as a true image of the sun-god, of maintaining the

order of the created world based on the rule of “consubstantiality,” or the studied similarities

between the solar event and royal acts (Frankfort 1978: 149). Moreover, the coronation of a new

king, ideally taking place on New Year’s Day, reenacts the creation of the world and the

subsequent reign of the sun-god, as well as the establishment of the living Horus on the throne of

his deceased father (Zandee 1992b: 179, note 338, 184-185). Here a new king replaces the dead

king as an incarnation of the creator sun-god who reestablishes ma’at and as the possessor of the

royal ka. After the coronation, each year of the king’s reign was considered to mirror the great

cycle of the creation. Therefore, royal ceremonies were held each year to renew kingship (Bell

1985: 251-294). 43

43A much more elaborate renewal process – the so-called sed-festival – was celebrated after thirty years of
his reign, which represents the length of a generation. In the sed-festival, the king had to identify himself

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However, the significance of the sun-child as a symbol of resurrection comes to the fore

especially in the funerary sphere. In order to understand the role of the sun-child in the (royal)

funerary sphere it is necessary to see the king’s destiny after death dictated in the Pyramid Texts.

In this regard, J. Allen observes (1989: 1):

The destiny of the deceased king in the Pyramid Texts is to “go forth to the sky among the
imperishable stars” (Pyr. 1123a) and “go around the sky like the Sun” (Pyr. 130d). For the
Pyramid Texts, this celestial vision of the afterlife is a single-minded goal. Even what used
to be viewed as a separate “Osirian” destiny of the king in these texts has more recently
been recognized as one aspect of his celestial cycle – the regenerative phase through
which he passes before “rising in the eastern side of the sky like the Sun” (Pyr. 1465d-e).

Like the sun and other celestial bodies, the king was also conceived and given birth by the

sky/sky-goddess Nut. 44 Regarded as a receiving mother, Nut (= the amniotic sac) was also

identified with the coffin, sarcophagus and tomb in which the king’s (and the deceased’s)

imperishable body was laid awaiting rebirth (J. Allen 1989: 17, 25-26; B. Lesko 1999: 38-44). The

identification of Nut with the coffin/tomb corresponds to the identification of the dead king/the

deceased not only with the sun-god who is borne by Nut every day but also with Osiris, king of

the netherworld, who is the son of Nut in the Heliopolitan Theology (B. Lesko 1999: 28). 45

Therefore, laying the corpse in the coffin was like the sun-god returning to his mother’s womb for

rebirth as well as Osiris lying within the duat (given that the burial chamber of the pyramid/tomb

served as the king’s/the deceased’s personal duat).

again with the life-giving youthful forms of the creator and the sun-god throughout the ancient Egyptian
history (Hornung 1992: 53-54).
44 According to Egyptian religious thought, the king could be born in/from various deities or places such as

Nun, the sky/sky-goddess Nut, the akhet and the duat (Allen 1989: 14).
45 In his explanation of the generational transition, Billing uses the concept of the “elder mother,” which

designates Nut as mother of Osiris, in contrast to that of the “younger mother” for Isis, mother of Horus. For
the double identity of the king as Osiris and Horus, coupled with the two respective mothers, he quotes Pyr.
§ 741a-e (2002: 38).

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Like the sun-god who is born into the akhet, the king/the deceased emerges into the akhet

(identified with the antechamber) and transforms himself into a living form of akh. Then he

moves from the akhet/antechamber through the corridor (identified as the birth canal) into the

outside world, completing “his daily rebirth into the sky to begin his eternal cycle of celestial life

anew” (J. Allen 1989: 25-26). 46 As such, the pattern of the sun’s (re)birth provided the king/the

deceased with the hope of overcoming death throughout Egyptian history (Assmann 1995: 65;

Brunner 1977c: 649) 47 and this is why the worship of the newborn sun-infant in the form of

Harpocrates became so popular in the later periods, as mentioned by Ryhiner cited above.

Excursus 2-1. Kamutef: Sun-child pattern for royal divine birth

Kamutef (kA mjwt.f “bull of his mother”) is not the name of a deity but a functional epithet

associated with the name of a deity – usually Min or Amun-Re. 48 Generally, it is represented in

the form of Min with an erect phallus (Traunecker 2001: 221). As this meaning indicates, the

essence of the epithet is the union of two generations in the same deity who unites with his own

mother and begets himself (Jacobsohn 1939: 15). As such, it does not represent the mode of self-

begetting of the creator gods but rather embodies the repeating self-renewal through the

“changing mode of theophany” (Jacobsohn 1980: 308).

46 In this context, J. Allen observes that (1) the layout of texts in the Old Kingdom pyramids paralleled the

passage of the sun through the night, from west to east; and (2) the concept is also reflected in the
architecture of the pyramid’s subterranean chambers (1994: 5-28, 2005a: 10-12).
47 It is noteworthy, in this regard, that the daily miracle of the sun’s transformation and rejuvenation was the

central theme of the texts and images on the walls of the tombs in the New Kingdom Valley of the Kings as
well (Hornung 1990: 90).
48 Bell gives us a simple but clear explanation about the relationship between kamutef and other deities (1985:

259): “Kamutef/Amenemopet is the manifestation of Amun as the Theban Min, the physical creator of the gods (at
Medinet Habu) and of the king and his ka (at Luxor); in him are united both Amun-Re of Karnak and the Amun of
Luxor.” The relationship between Min and Amun can be traced back to the Middle Kingdom when scenes
show Amun in the form of the ithyphallic Min. Much of the evidence for the connection between these two
deities, however, is known from the New Kingdom on.

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Regarding the patterns of the child deity, the kamutef concept fits readily with the pattern of the

sun-child, who is swallowed by his mother goddess Nut each evening and born again as a

newborn baby each morning. 49 As Nut can appear as a cow goddess, the sun can present himself

as a calf that grows to become a bull and impregnates his mother to be reborn, embodying the

concept of kamutef as hinted in Pyramid Texts Spell 271 (Pyr. §§ 388c-389a): (wnjs)| pw dmDy mjwt.f

smAt wrt, mjwt nt (wnjs)| smAt Hmt tpt Dw sHsH “It is Unas: join together, (you) his mother, the great

wild cow, the mother of Unas, the female wild cow on the hill of stork” (Hollis 2008: 175). 50

Apart from the cyclical pattern of the sun-child, the kamutef concept can also be encountered in

the generational transition as the creative “binding member” (Bindeglied) of the father-son

succession (Jacobsohn 1968: 425). In this generational transition, the kamutef concept represents a

“way of denying linear time and inverting the succession of generations by uniting the past and

the present in one personnage (sic)” (Traunecker 2001: 221). The “personage” possesses an

unquestionable legitimacy because he is both father and son at the same time, and this idea of

legitimate descent with ancestry encompasses the continuity of the generation of royal dynasties,

as well as the lineage of the gods in the form of Amun-Re-Kamutef. Since the kamutef concept can

be found in the generational transition, it is comparable with the pattern of the Horus child, who

will be dealt with in detail in CHAPTER THREE. In fact, both the Horus child pattern and the

kamutef concept emphasize the divine generation and the continuity of kingship. However, the

latter does not correspond directly to the former, because, as has been stressed previously, father

49 The action of swallowing is usually considered to be destructive, but it can appear to be creative in the
myth of the sun-child because it brings about change and creates something new. For instance, note the
creation of the lunar disc on the forehead of Thoth in the Late Egyptian narrative of the Contendings of
Horus and Seth. The lunar disc comes from the semen of Seth who was deceived by Isis to swallow it (Goebs
2008: 296, note 650). The notion of getting pregnant by the action of swallowing is also found in the Late
Egyptian story of the Two Brothers, in which the wife of Bata swallows a chip of wood and becomes
pregnant. This episode is mentioned later in this EXCURSUS.
50 The idea of kamutef can be traced back to the Pyramid Texts. For the sun as a calf, see Pyr. § 1029a-c.

Page | ３６
and son in the Osirian cycle are not one and the same but the son always replaces the father. On

the contrary, the kamutef concept has father and son as a union – that is, the inseparable

integration of the old and the new. 51 The fact that father and son are identical and that father

becomes son through his mother/consort reminds us of the nHH-element coming out of the Dt-

element in the sun-child pattern.

Besides its association with the pattern of the sun-child, the kamutef figures prominently on the

kingship level. In fact, the kingship theory can be regarded as the primary source of the kamutef

concept (Assmann 1982: 264). On this level, kamutef no longer appears as a bull to the queen

(chosen as the matrix who plays the role of the mother goddess) but as the reigning pharaoh who

has been united with the creator god, as in the case of Hatshepsut: 52

T2-7. Urk. IV 219-220, 1-4 (= 1714, 1-4) 53

1[Dd mdw jn nTr pn Sps jmn nb tAwj]

[jr].n.f xprw.f [m] Hm [n] hy.s pn nswt bjt (aA xpr kA ra)|
[gm].n.sn {n} s(j) nDm.s 2 m nfrw nw aH.s
rs.n.s Hr st(j) nTr, sbT.[s] xft Hm.f
sw Sm.f xr.s Hr a, sw HAd.f r.s, 3 sw rdj jb.f r.s,
sw rdj mA.s sw [m] jrw.f n nTr m xt jw.f tp jm.s Ha.tj 4 m mA nfrw.f
mrwt.f xp.s m Haw.s
[aH baHj.(w) m st(j) nTr], [xnmw].f nbw m pwnt

1 [Recitation by this august god, Amun, lord of the Two Lands,]

51 In this regard, Assmann notes that the Horus/Hamlet constellation (or the generational transition)
thematizes the conflict of generation since the conflict of genders plays no role here, whereas the kamutef
constellation thematizes the conflict of genders since the conflict of generations is annulled. In addition, the
Osiris-Horus succession encompasses the rational, cultural and community phenomenon, while the kamutef
concept represents the irrational character of “Vaterschaft,” or the natural mystery (1991: 117-118).
52 During the Old Kingdom period when the kamutef motif evolved into the myth of the divine conception,

the creator god was the sun-god, as in the narrative in the Papyrus Westcar about the first five kings of the
Fifth Dynasty. Later he appears as Amun-Re, as in the accounts of the royal divine birth of Hatshepsut and
Amenhotep III (Jacobsohn 1968: 419-420).
53 For a translation, see Breasted 1906a: 80.

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 after he [made] his form [in] the Incarnation of her (Hatshepsut’s mother) husband,
the dual king Aakheperkara
after they [found] her as she was resting 2 in the innermost chamber of her palace.
She woke at the fragrance of the god, smiling before his Incarnation.
He went to her immediately; he lusted for her; 3 his heart was given to her;
she was made to see him [in] his form of the god after he came before her,
while she was excited 4 at the sight of his beauty.
And his desire passed through her limbs,
[while the palace was flooded with the fragrance of the god], all of his [odors] from
Punt.

In other words, kamutef here is a divine person in which father and son are united in the royal ka

(Jacobsohn 1968: 420), 54 or the collective identity embodied in both father and son, through which

all kings become a member of the single imaginary dynasty (Frankfort 1978: 61-78). 55

As mentioned above, the mother of kamutef is the queen but at the same time, she is Hathor the

divine mother of the king (Urk. IV, 244): zAt pw nt kA mjwt.f [Hwt-Hrw] mrrt “She is the daughter of

kamutef, [Hathor] the beloved” (Jacobsohn 1939: 19). 56 According to the kamutef concept that

revolves around the fertilization of his own mother, the mother-goddess seems to play the role of

the matrix by receiving and containing the seed of the bull god who possesses the active power of

engendering life. Therefore, she can be seen merely as a vessel of renewal that preserves the

divine seed and thus safeguards the continuation of the royal dynasty (Roberts 1995: 82). What is

important here, however, is that the mother of kamutef – first Hathor, then the Ennead and finally

54 In this regard, Assmann notes (1982: 264): Die beiden Götter [Min and Horus] sind in diesem Bezug [the raping
of their mother Isis in the kamutef constellation] identisch; ihre Gemeinsamkeit beruht aber nicht auf dem Element der
männlichen Fruchtbarkeit, sondern auf iherer Eigenschaft als Königsgötter (im Sinn von Göttern, die sich im König
verkörpern). For the transmission of the royal ka through the agency of kamutef, see Bell 1985: 258-259.
55 This explains why kamutef is practically absent from the funerary texts and comogonies (Traunecker 2001:

222). For Horus and Re as the ka of the king, see Frankfort 1978: 77-78. The reigning king is regarded as the
incarnation of Horus, who was the ka of the king. Likewise, the king is also considered to be the earthly
manifestation of kamutef (Jacobsohn 1939: 19).
56 For the restoration of Hwt-Hrw “Hathor,” see Hollis 2008: 178, note 111.

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Isis 57 – is the divine mother of the dynasty, or more precisely, the divine mother of kingship as an

institution (Assmann 1982: 264). 58

Since the kingship is an institution that involves two generations, at the time of his ascension to

the throne the new king appears not only as the son of the creator god but also as his expressed

generational power – i.e., kamutef. To reiterate, the son is essentially identical as his father even

after the generational transition. This important idea is well preserved in the Late Egyptian

narrative of the Tale of Two Brothers, which was written during the New Kingdom period when

the kamutef concept evolved into its fully developed form. It is noteworthy that Bata’s birth in the

story shows a combination of the cosmic and kingship levels of the kamutef concept: the

conception of Bata follows the pattern of the sun-child (Papyrus d’Orbiney 28, 5-8): wn.jn wa nADA

Hr pwy, jw.f (Hr) ao m r n tA Spsj, wn.jn.st Hr amAm, jw.st Hr Szp jwr m km n jAdt Srj “Then a chip flew up

and entered the mouth of the noblewoman; then she swallowed and received pregnancy in the

completion of an instant” – whereas his birth reveals the legitimizing account of the royal divine

birth (ibid. 28, 8-29, 1): xr jr m-xt hrww onw Hr-sA nn wn.jn.st Hr msyt wa zA TAy, jw.tw Hr Smt r Dd n Hm.f a-

w-s, msy.tw n.k wa n zA TAy ... xr jr m-xt hrww onw Hr sA nn wn.jn Hm.f a-w-s Hr djtw.f r-pat n pA tA Dr.f “Now,

after many days after this, then she gave birth to a male son, and one went to tell His Incarnation

57 For the Ennead as the mother of kamutef, see Barta 1973b: 35-38. For Isis as the mother of kamutef, see
Bergman 1968: 127-130. Much of the evidence for the connection between the goddess and kamutef dates
from the New Kingdom and later, but her mother-son relationship with Min or Min-Horus dates back to the
Middle Kingdom (Münster 1968: 129-137).
58 The idea of impregnating one’s own mother can be regarded as an act of incest, like Geb violating his

mother. In the kamutef constellation, Min or Min-Horus is said to rape his mother Isis. For the texts depicting
the rape of Isis by Horus, see Münster 1968: 129. Jacobsohn writes that Horus (the Elder) and Min (as the
bull-god) are the creator/fertility gods par excellence, and the motif of raping Isis was the early Egyptian way
of materializing the kamutef concept (1968: 414). Min-Kamutef was considered as the son of Isis and many
scholars think that this is caused by the introduction of the Osirian mythology to the theology of Coptos, the
cult center of Min, with Min-the-son assuming the functional name of Horus (Assmann 1982: 264;
Traunecker 2001: 221). For the different interpretation of the integration of Min into the Osirian myth, see
Jacobsohn 1968: 414-415.

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l.p.h.: ‘A male son has been born to you.’ ... Now, after many days after this (the appointment of

Bata as King’s Son of Kush), then His Incarnation l.p.h. made him heir of the whole land.”

Assmann sees the cycle of the divine birth of the king as a legitimizing myth, whose “purpose is

not only to explain a present situation by means of a story that occurred in the past, to make the

present situation ‘readable’ by filling it with meaning, but first and foremost, and unmistakably

so, to provide a mythic basis for a given pretender’s claim to the right to rule” (2001: 118). Later

this function gave way to the “explanatory” and “meaning-imparting” function along with the

rise of the child deities who embodied the kamutef concept in later periods, characterized by

ceaseless foreign invasions and the misrules of foreign kings. At the time, the kingship theology

experienced dramatic changes, with the son-god of the divine triad regarded no longer as the

reigning king but as a savior who assured the well-being of Egypt and its people. With the

growing importance of the child deity, the kingship was now legitimized through the worship of

the child deity. In addition, the father-god and the son-god tended to be understood as the father-

form and the son-form of the same deity, as in the case of Harpocrates in Edfu and Harsomtus in

Dendera, and the mother-goddess played the role of the mother-consort goddess (“Muttergattin”).

The idea of the deity who could bring himself into the world through the mother-consort goddess

allowed Egyptians in the grip of foreign rule to see the present as divine providence

(“gottgewirkt”), independently of the actual conditions (Assmann 1992: 264).

The mother-consort goddess who brings the child deity into the world takes up her role of

continuously connecting the female creative power (namely, the Dt-principle) with the male

creative power (namely, the nHH-principle) or the kamutef concept that unfolds in the perpetual

cycle of father and son (Westendorf 1974: 138; Assmann 1975: 28-30).

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Excursus 2-2. Union of the sun-god and Osiris

Besides the sun-child pattern, in which the nHH-element completes its rejuvenating cycle throug

the Dt-matrix, ancient Egyptians also believed that the two principles of the creative order – i.e.,

nHH “Eternal Recurrence” and Dt “Eternal Sameness” – corresponded in Egyptian funerary beliefs

to (1) two major aspects of a person: ba and corpse; and (2) the two principal deities: the sun-god

(Re) and Osiris. 59 This relationship, or “constellation,” is aptly explained by Assmann (2001: 79): 60

The Egyptian imagined the constellation in which Re and Osiris work together as
embodiments of the two antinomic or complementary aspects of time, as a ba and a corpse,
by analogy with the two aspects of the person in which the deceased led an eternal life,
“going in” and “going out” as a ba in the neheh-time of the sun and “enduring” as a corpse
in the djet-time of Osiris. Ba and corpse would unite at night, the ba alighting on the
mummy in bird form, thus ensuring the continuity of the person. In the constellation of Re
and Osiris, this model was applied to cosmic totality as a sort of formula. Night after night
as a ba, Re would “go in” and “go out,” that is, descend into and emerge from the
netherworld; and around midnight, he would unite with Osiris, the corpse that lay
continuously in the deepest depths of the netherworld, thus ensuring the continuity of the
cosmos.

Therefore, the sun-god’s daily course through the sky was viewed as a journey from birth to

death, and his rebirth at dawn was made possible through the union with Osiris who embodies

“the force through which one generation of living beings produces the next” (J. Allen 2005: 8). By

means of the temporary but nonetheless very critical union of the two deities, the sun-god

receives the power of new life through Osiris, and Osiris is enabled to live again through the sun-

god. After being rejuvenated through the union, the sun-god can continue his journey

throughout the netherworld and rise to new life again in the morning (J. Allen 2000: 95).

59 For the association of Dt “Eternal Sameness” and dwAt “the Netherworld” through the identification of
Osiris with the Dt-element and assonance (resemblance of sound), see Stricker 1953: 26, note 196 (especially
hieroglyphic writings in the Ptolemaic-Roman Period); Kákosy 1963: 29.
60 See also Wente 1982: 22-25.

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The solar and chthonic themes corresponding to nHH “Eternal Recurrence” and Dt “Eternal

Sameness” are expressed in Coffin Texts Spell 335:

T2-8. Coffin Texts Spell 335 (CT IV 184/5a-202/3b = BD Chapter 17) 61

184/5-a r n prt m hrw m Xrj(t)-nTr jn jmAxy N pn Dd.f

184/5-b xpr mdt, nnk tm, (185-c jnk ra) 186/7-a wnn.j wa.kw
186/7-b jnk ra m xaw.f tpw (186-c wbn.f m Axt)
187-d wbn.f pw m jAbt pt, ky dd 187-f SAa ra pw m xat Hr tA
188/9-a jnk aA xpr Ds.f , 188-b ptr sw, aA xpr Ds.f 188/9-c mw pw nw pw jt(j) nTrw
190/1-a omA rnw.f, nb psDwt, 190/1-b jwtj xsf.f m nTrw
191-c zy tj pw 191-d tm pw jmj jtn.f
192/3-a n(j) jnk sf, jw.j rx.kw dwAw 192/3-b jr sf wsjr pw 193-c jr dwAw ra pw
193-d zy tj pw, hrw pf A n jw.n mn.n 193-e orst wsjr pw Hna sHoA zA.f Hr(w)
…

196/7-a jw.j rx.kw rn n nTr pw aA ntj jm.s

197-b zy tj pw 197-c Hknw, ra rn.f
198/9-a jnk bnw pw aA ntj m jwnw
199-b zy tj pw 199-c wsjr pw
200/1-a jr sjp n ntt wn 200/1-b ptr sw 200/1-c wsjr pw
200/1-d jr ntt wn 200/1-e nHH pw Hna Dt
202/3-a jr nHH, hrw pw 202/3-b jr Dt grH pw

184/5-a Spell for emerging by day in the necropolis by this revered one N, saying.
184/5-b The word developed, all was mine (185-c I am Re)
186/7-a when I existed alone.
186/7-b I am Re in his first appearance (186/7-c when he rose in the horizon).
187-d It means that he rises in the east of sky.
Variant: 187-f It is the beginning of Re appearing over the land.
188/9-a I am the great self-developing (god),
188-b Who is he, the great self-developing god?
188-c It is water: 189-c it is Nu, father of the gods.
190/1-a who created his identities , lord of the Enneads
190/1-b the unstoppable one of the gods.
191-c Who is he? 191-d It is Atum in his disk.
192/3-a Yesterday is mine, I know tomorrow.
192/3-b As for yesterday, it is Osiris;

For a translation, see Faulkner 1973: 260-269 (esp. 266, note 7). For penetrating comments on the spell, see J.
61

Allen 1988: 30-35.

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 193-c as for tomorrow, it is Re.
193-d Who then is it?
That day of “We Are Enduring.”
193-e It is the burial of Osiris and causing his son Horus to rule.
…
196/7-a I know the name of this great god who is in it.
197-b Who then is he? 197-c The Acclaimed, Re, is his name.
198/9-a I am the great heron that is in Heliopolis.
199-b Who then is it? 199-c He is Osiris.
200/1-a the accountant of that which exists.
200/1-b Who then is it? 200/1-c He is Osiris.
200/1-d As for that which exists, 200/1-e it is Eternal Recurrence and Eternal Sameness.
202/3-a As for Eternal Recurrence, it is day;
202/3-b as for Eternal Sameness, it is night.

The spell clearly indicates that the two elements – i.e., nHH “Eternal Recurrence” and Dt “Eternal

Sameness” – are the two principles of the created order (CT IV 200/1d-e): jr ntt wn, nHH pw Hna Dt

“As for that which exists, it is Eternal Recurrence and Eternal Sameness.” With the symbolic

contrast of day and night, it then defines the Dt-element as the static pattern of existence (matrix

or night) and the nHH-element as the dynamic pattern of regenerative power (day) (CT IV 200/1d-

202/3b): jr nHH hrw pw, jr Dt grH pw “As for Eternal Recurrence, it is day; as for Eternal Sameness, it

is night.” Moreover, the glosses of the spell equate the static pattern of existence (the Dt-element)

and the dynamic development of the pattern (the nHH-element) with Osiris and the sun-god by

saying (CT IV 192/3a-c): n(j) jnk sf, jw.j rx.kw dwAw, jr sf wsjr pw, jr dwAw ra pw “Yesterday is mine, I

know tomorrow. As for yesterday, it is Osiris; as for tomorrow, it is Re.” 62

As mentioned, Re and Osiris represent the nHH-element and the Dt-element, respectively.

Therefore, the two deities embody the whole cycle that began at the time of creation and had

been continuously realized in daily life (J. Allen 1988: 33-34). The spell (with its glosses) is also

62 For the two elements as a cosmic energy to maintain the created order, see Assmann 1975: 36-41.

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significant, in that it reveals the two mythic paradigms (the sun-god/the solar mode of

regeneration and Osiris/the Osirian mode of resurrection): (1) the appearance of the sun-god from

the primeval waters as the culminating event of the creation (and from the sky goddess Nut in

daily life following the creation) (CT IV 184/5b-191c); and (2) the Horus child as the heir and the

rejuvenated form of his father Osiris (CT IV 193e): orst wsjr pw Hna sHoA zA.f Hr(w) “It is the burial of

Osiris and causing his son Horus to rule.”

In addition to the maternal rebirth/rejuvenation of the sun-god as a child, the above-mentioned

pattern can also symbolize a generational transition expressed in the form of the old meeting the

new – that is, the union of Re and Osiris. In order to explain this, I would like to adapt the

concepts of “reconstitution” and “manifestation” put forth by Billing to explain the duality in the

ontological process, through which “death is transformed into life, chaos becomes order and

night turns into day” (2002: 26-28). The concept of reconstitution revolves around the verb sAx

“make akh” and refers to a process of restoration, effectuated by the akhifying (sAxw) rituals,

whereby something in disorder is returned to its original state. 63 The causative verb form

emphasizes a passive and receptive position of the deceased at this stage where Osiris (the old =

yesterday/father/corpse in the Dt-time) and the sun-god (Re: the new = tomorrow/son/ ba in the

nHH-time) become one (Billing 2002: 31). Meanwhile, the concept of the manifestation is expressed

with the verb prj “come forth” and means a transformation that entails “leaving one spatially

bound/limited condition for another after the reconstitution”(Billing 2002: 28). The active verb

indicates that the deceased plays an active role in the later stage of coming out into the world

restored and rejuvenated (Fig. 2-4).

63 For the significance of sAxw “akh-makers” or “akhifiers,” see J. Allen 2005a: 7-8.

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Fig. 2-4: Pattern of manifestation and reconstitution

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 CHAPTER 3. THE HORUS CHILD

3.1 Introduction

In the Egyptian pantheon, Horus plays many complicated roles that are complementary rather

than antithetical. Attested as early as the Predynastic Period, Horus is one of the earliest deities in

Egyptian history and he remained one of the most prominent well into the Ptolemaic-Roman

Period.

Based on his forms, titles, epithets and roles, Horus can be categorized into two distinct entities:

(1) Horus the Elder as the sky-god or the sun-god; and

(2) Horus the Younger as the child of the divine familial triad.

While the contrast of Horus the Elder against Horus the Younger was clear-cut throughout all

periods and cultic centers (Kurth 1977: 999), 64 Horus the Elder (Hrw-wr, also called Harwer or

Haroeris) is generally regarded as a primeval being who initiated the creative process. He is also

the lord of the sky whose wings span the skies and whose eyes are the sun and moon. In this

form, he is regarded as the son of a sky-goddess, either Nut or Hathor (Pinch 2002: 143).

Horus the Younger belongs to the Osirian cycle, in which he is usually mentioned as the son of

Isis. In this role, Horus is known as Harsiese (Hrw-zA-jst), which literally means “Horus Son of

64Referring to Pyramid Texts Spell 303 (Pyr. § 466a-b): Twt Hrw zA wsjr, Twt (wnjs)| nTr smsw zA Hwt-Hrw, Twt mtwt
gbb “You are Horus, the son of Osiris; you, Unis, are the senior god, the son of Hathor; you are the seed of
Geb,” Frankfort claims that the two Horuses are one and the same (1978: 41). Meltzer also writes that
numerous roles of Horus should be understood as different aspects of the same divine persona (2001: 119).
However, Bleeker observes that while they are linked in an almost inextricable way, the two Horuses are
easily distinguishable (1973: 25). Consistent distinction between the two through the usage of different
epithets was not made until the New Kingdom (Barta 1973: 164).

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Isis.” In the cycle of the Osirian myth, Harsiese is born, nurtured, protected and raised by his

devoted mother-goddess Isis who conceived him after the murder of her husband Osiris by their

brother Seth. Later he grows up to avenge his father Osiris and takes his place as the legitimate

ruler of Egypt. In the role of the dutiful son, Horus (Harsiese) can be compared with two other

forms of Horus – (1) Horus “Iunmutef” (Hrw-jwn-mjwt.f “Pillar of His Mother”) and (2)

Harendotes (Hrw-nD-jtj.f “Horus the Avenger of His Father”). In particular, Horus “Iunmutef”

serves as the prototype for the eldest son of the deceased or a mortuary priest dressed in a

leopard skin and performing a series of funerary rituals before the deceased’s coffin.

It would be out of the scope of this dissertation to cover every aspect of Horus. Instead, the focus

will be on establishing a pattern for Horus as a child deity. For this, the traits of Horus will be

reviewed through three important stages of the deity’s childhood: (1) the posthumous conception

and birth of Horus; (2) Horus as an infant-child who is born and hidden after his birth by his

mother-goddess in the papyrus thicket of Akhbit (the so-called “Chemmis Motif”); and (3) Horus

as a youth who has grown strong enough to wrest the kingship of Egypt from Seth.

3.2 The Horus child pattern

In contrast to the pattern of the sun-child representing a cyclical and reversible self-

regeneration/rebirth, the pattern of the Horus child is generational in many aspects.

First, the genealogy of the Heliopolitan theology that begins with Atum and ends with Horus

points to a generational transience from father to son. In the theology, the first three gods form a

triad that shows a real distinction between the concept of wnn “being” and xpr “development,” as

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Atum remains one at the beginning and becomes three later (Morenz 1973: 145-146). This

structure emphasizes Atum’s role as a creative monad, as mentioned in Coffin Texts Spell 80:

T3-1. Coffin Texts Spell 80 (CT II 39b-h) 65

39-b jnk anx nb rnpwt, anx n nHH nb Dt

39-c jr.n tm smsw m Axw.f 39-d m mst.f Sw tfnt m jwnw
39-e m wn.f way m xpr.f m xmtw 39-f m wpt.f gbb r nwt
39-g nj msyt Xt tpt, nj xpr.t psDtj pAtj 39-h wnn.sn Hna.j

39-b I am life, lord of years, life of the Eternal Recurrence, lord of the Eternal Sameness,
39-c Atum made the eldest through his effectiveness,
39-d when he gave birth to Shu and Tefnut in Heliopolis,
39-e when he was alone and developed into three,
39-f when he parted Geb from Nut,
39-g before the first Corps was born, before the two original Enneads developed
39-h and were existing with me.

The Heliopolitan Ennead, which is the result of Atum’s development, consists of four pairs of

deities, each descending from one generation to the next, ending with a more common triadic

family grouping of Osiris-Isis-Horus. This familial triad of Osiris-Isis-Horus (defined as the

“cratogony” by Assmann, 2001: 121-122) demonstrates a reversed structure of the first triad of

Atum-Shu-Tefnut (“cosmogony”), as shown in Fig. 3-1; it stresses the role of Horus, standing at

the terminus antipodal to Atum, as a legitimate successor who symbolizes not only the next,

future generation but also the fruition of the perpetual procreation (Griffiths 1973: 28). 66

65For a translation, see Faulkner 1973: 85; J. Allen 1988: 23.

66Concerning the creation of the Heliopolitan Ennead topped by Atum, Anthes writes that the Heliopolitan
Ennead arose out of the necessity of answering the question of Horus (a new living king) succeeding Horus
(the previous dead king) in the earliest period of Egyptian history (1954: 38-39). He asserts that the
Heliopolitan genealogy was developed from Horus upward to Atum and not from Atum down to Horus
(1959: 175). In this regard, he accepts Sethe’s view that “Atum ein Erzeugnis theologischer Spekulation sei”
(1958: 2). Anthes also claims that this late development is why Atum is represented as a human form with
the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (1958: 3). For the anthropomorphism of Egyptian deities,
however, see Morenz 1973: 17; Hornung 1982a: 101-109 (esp. 105).

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 Atum

Shu Tefnut
Divine
Generations
Osiris Isis

Horus

Fig. 3-1: Antipodal structure of the Heliopolitan Ennead 67

Second, the triad of Osiris-Isis-Horus represents an ideal family as conceived by ancient

Egyptians. According to te Velde, the triadic structures found in Egyptian religious thought are

generated to answer the question of the divine plurality and unity (1971: 80). These structures can

be further divided into two types: monistic and pluralistic. He observes that a pluralistic triad, as

opposed to a monistic triad (or trinity), usually takes a familial structure of father-mother-child

because the sexual differentiation (or “binary opposition”) in the structure makes impossible a

return to a unity (e.g. the unity of Amun-Re in which one god remains as an indweller of

another). 68 The union of man and woman is not restrictive but productive, and this leads to the

birth of a child, who is, as a rule, a son. The son, usually the Horus child, represents the pharaoh

who is the ideal man (ibid. 80-83). 69 In this pattern, the masculine element is doubled in the father-

son relationship and the binary opposition is also repeated in the mother-son relationship.

However, what is important here is that the father-son relationship does not form a cooperative

67 Note te Velde’s view that another male-female coupling of Seth and Nephthys brought forth by the union
of Geb and Nut disturbs the harmonious development of creation (1967: 27, 49). Moreover, the couple is
hardly regarded as an ideal divine pair as in the case of Osiris and Isis, and Nephthys is almost always
linked to Isis as an inseparable companion (ibid. 29). For details regarding the marriage of Seth and
Nephthys, see Klasens 1952: 86.
68 For this kind of relationship between two deities, see Hornung 1982a: 91-99.

69 It is confirmed by the fact that the pharaoh could form the third member of this pluralistic triad (te Velde

1971: 83).

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pair (as in the case of the mother-daughter relationship) but the son replaces his father in a

generational succession (ibid. 84, 86).

Third, at the final stage of his childhood, Horus is to grow into manhood and wrest the kingship

of Egypt from Seth. 70 With scattered references to the quarrel between the two powers attested

already in the Pyramid Texts (e.g. Pyr. § 1463a-e), the conflict of Horus and Seth refers to the

burial of the deceased father and the coronation of his son, which validates the succession from

father to son. 71 In this cycle of the myth, Horus, who emerges triumphant at the end, is

apparently not the same as Osiris who is killed at the beginning of the narrative. Even after

Horus ascends to the throne as a legitimate successor, Osiris does not return to the world but

achieves a new form of existence in the beyond through the victory and piety of his son

(Assmann 2001: 145). 72 The generational relationship between Osiris and Horus is also confirmed

at the kingship level, where the deceased king is usually identified with Osiris and the living king

with Horus.

The generational nature of the Horus child pattern will be reviewed in detail through the

aforementioned stages of his childhood. Aimed at deriving the viable pattern of the Horus child,

this chapter will concentrate on the early stages of this child deity.

70 For the comprehensive study of the myth about the conflict between Horus and Seth, see Griffiths 1960.
While there is no direct evidence regarding adolescent initiation rites in ancient Egypt, the struggle of Horus
can be regarded as a royal ordeal designed to test and bring young Horus or the future king through the
crisis of puberty to adulthood (Roberts 1995: 100). For the public rituals marking the transition between
childhood and adult life, see Janssen 1990: 90-98.
71 Before the coronation, Horus carries out a series of rituals for his deceased father Osiris, including the

Opening of the Mouth and the raising of the djed pillar. These acts correspond to the royal funerary rituals
performed by the heir of the deceased king to ensure the previous king’s survival after death. These rites not
only enable Osiris to achieve the transformation and take his new role as king of the dead, but also confirm
Horus in his role as king of the living (Pinch 2002: 84-85).
72 According to Assmann, it corresponds to the so-called “piety constellation (Konstellation der Pietät),” in

which a son like Horus and Hamlet always remains conscious of the afterlife and takes on the
responsibilities of a dutiful son before his deceased father (1991: 116).

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3.3 Horus child and his parent deities

The representation of Horus as a child first appeared in the Valley of the Queens by the end of

the New Kingdom (Sandri 2006: 16). While the Horus child may appear in the form of a falcon

according to some textual sources including Coffin Texts Spell 148 (see T3-5 below: Griffiths 1960:

53), the Horus child is also depicted as a human child in others such as Pyramid Texts Spell 378

(Pyr. §§ 663c-664a): nxj n Hrw Xrd nxn Dba.f m r.f, (ttj)| pw Hm Hrw Xrd nxn Dba.f m r.f “The nxj-snake is

for Horus, the young boy with his finger in his mouth. Teti is Horus, the young boy with his

finger in his mouth.”

A direct allusion to his genealogy as the son of Osiris and Isis is found already in Pyramid Texts

Spell 519 (Pyr. §§ 1214b-1215b): … n jst wrt TAzt mDH m Ax-bjt, jn.s dAjw.s sjd.s tp-awj zA.s Hrw Xrd nxn,

DA.f tA m Tbwtj.f HD.tj, j.Sm.f jr mAA jt(j).f wsjr “… for great Isis – she who tied the headband in Akhbit,

using her dress and censing before her son Horus the young boy so that he might cross the land

in his white sandals and go to see his father Osiris.” 73

3.3.1 Mother goddesses of Horus

Besides Isis, Hathor and Nut are also mentioned as the mother of Horus (Kurth 1977: 1001).

Hathor as the mother of Horus is mentioned in Pyramid Texts Spell 303 (Pyr. §§ 466a-b): Twt Hrw

zA wsjr, Twt (wnjs)| nTr smsw zA Hwt-Hrw, Twt mtwt gbb “You are Horus, the son of Osiris; you, Unis, are

the senior god, the son of Hathor; you are the seed of Geb.” Some Egyptologists believe that

73As mentioned, the reference to the genealogy of Horus is found already in the Pyramid Texts, and
Frankfort claims that the aspect of Horus as “son of Isis” is attested as early as in the First Dynasty (1978: 44).
However, the term Harsiese is completely absent in the Pyramid Texts (Garnot 1954: 124), and therefore the
recognition of the Horus child may not have been common in the early periods (Hollis 1994: 84). Some
scholars believe that the aspect of Horus as the son of Osiris and Isis may have been first established when
the Osirian cycle was incorporated into the Heliopolitan theology (Anthes 1959: 199-202; Bergman 1968: 135).
Griffiths observes that Horus might not belong to the Osirian cycle originally and that the deity was later
made into a child of the divine family in order to fit him in to the framework of the cycle (1960: 15, 20-21).

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Hathor was the original mother of Horus and later she was replaced by Isis when a genealogical

adjustment was made in order to fit Horus in to the Osirian cycle (Sethe 1930: 54-55; Griffiths

1960: 13; Tassie 2005: 67). Others hold the view that Hathor, who personalizes the concept of

heavenly motherhood, was regarded as the mother of Horus the Elder (or the sun-god) and as the

wet nurse or foster mother of Horus the Younger (Barta 1973: 163; Bleeker 1973: 25; Pinch 2002:

80). 74

Given that the king was considered an earthly embodiment of Horus, Frankfort’s observation

merits our attention in the understanding of the relationship of Horus with Hathor and Isis as his

mother goddesses (1978: 173): “If, on the other hand, the king’s origin was considered, not from the

point of view of legitimacy (for then he was Horus son of Osiris) or from that of actuality (for then he was

Horus son of Isis), but from the point of view of his faculties and potentialities – his divinity, in short –

then he appeared in the fullness (sic) of his power, the embodiment of that great cosmological figure who

embraced sky, sun and moon, clouds and wind in one exuberant image, Horus the son of Hathor.”

Therefore, it can be said that when Hathor – as her name “Enclosure of Horus” indicates – is

understood as the mother of Horus, she is the mother of Horus the Elder, who is the sky-god and

the sun-god. 75 In the same context, Nut also appears as the mother of Horus the Elder (Kees 1929:

74 Barta claims that Hathor in this role represents a localized part of the sky (Pyr. § 1327b). Hathor as the

foster mother has to do with the depiction of kings on temple walls as the Horus child being washed or
suckled by a cow in the marshes. Hathor in this role has a great significance in that royal children were
usually raised by foster mothers. For the suckling of the royal child by Hathor, see Bleeker 1973: 51-52. For
the prominent position of royal wet-nurses, see Janssen 1990: 17-18. Also, a parallel is noted by many
scholars between the motif of the Horus child and the biblical tradition of Moses who was hidden in a
floating basket among rushes and then given to his own mother to be nursed.
75 Based on his interpretation of Hwt-Hrw as “house/realm of Horus,” Goedicke points out that Hathor is the

personification of the ordered universe or the domain where Horus rules (1970: 262, 1975: 208). Meanwhile,
Hollis assumes that the role of Hathor as the vault of heaven or the “playground” of Horus the Elder might
have led by a new relationship to Re. Her importance as the consort or the heavenly sea across which Re
sailed in his daily journey increased along with the increased prominence of Re himself and probably led to

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107; Barta 1973: 163). However, Isis is, as mentioned earlier, relatively firmly established as the

mother of Horus the Younger even though her relationship with Osiris as his consort remained

obscure until the Sixth Dynasty (B. Lesko 1999: 158-159). In this regard, Hollis points out that

only two out of 25 references in the Pyramid Texts, in which Isis appears alone without her sister

Nephthys, speak of her in connection with Osiris (1994: 82-83). In addition, Pinch writes that the

role of Isis remained marginal at the important cultic centers of Osiris until the New Kingdom

(2002: 150). However, J. Allen notes that there are many references to Isis in the Pyramid Texts,

who appears alone as sister and wife of Osiris. 76 (Details on the roles of Isis as the mother of

Horus will be discussed in the following sections. 77) Later other universal mother-goddesses such

as Nut, Amaunet, Neith and Mut were gradually conflated with Isis, and she was regarded as the

mother of all gods (Bergman 1968: 133, note 2). 78

3.3.2 Father gods of Horus

When it comes to the father-god, Atum, Geb and Re can all be counted as the father of Horus. But

it would be reasonable to see their fatherly role as that of an ancestor god of Horus, since their

role is mostly granting their creative power and heritage to the legitimate heir (Barta 1973: 162-

163). 79 Therefore, the relationship between those fatherly gods and Horus should be

distinguished from the exclusive father-son relationship between Osiris and Horus, in which the

an eclipse of Neith during the Third and Fourth Dynasties (1994: 49, 84-85, note 9). For Mesopotamian and
Greek equivalents of Hathor, see Springborg 1990: 135.
76 I would like to thank Professor J. Allen for the comment. For examples, see Pyr. § 3b; Pyr. § 32b; Pyr. §

155a; Pyr. § 172a; Pyr. § 632a; Pyr. § 1199c; Pyr. § 1521b; Pyr. § 1630c; Pyr. §§ 1635b-1636a.
77 For the motherly roles of Isis, see Münster 1968: 5-12.

78 Renenutet, a cobra-goddess of fertility and harvest, is the mother-goddess of Nepri, the personification of

corn, who was equated with Osiris, the corn-god. The apparent parallel between Isis and the Horus child
and Renenutet and Nepri led to a merging of the two goddesses during the Late Priod when they were
worshipped as Isermnithis (Leibovitch 1953: 105-106).
79 It is noteworthy that Isis gradually pushed Osiris into the background along with the growing importance

of Harsiese in the Late Period. Therefore, when the two parents of Horus were mentioned, the epithet “son
of Isis” usually took precedence over “son of Osiris” (Bergman 1968: 137, note 2).

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two deities become reciprocally effective through their roles as a divine father and a dutiful son

(Friedman 1985: 41-45).

3.4 Posthumous conception and birth

In the pattern of the generational succession, the most salient aspect should be the apparent

sexual union of the male and female principles – in other words, the (implied) sexual intercourse

of the two and the reception of the seed from the male, as opposed to the conception through

abnormal ways such as swallowing in the case of the sun-child. Therefore, the pattern of the

generational succession can develop only through the combination of the two sexual principles,

which always results in a triad of two parent gods and a divine child who symbolizes the next,

future generation and the terminus of the perpetual procreation (Manniche 1994: 54). 80 This

generational pattern made possible by a sexual union of the two principles can be encountered

through numerous references to the posthumous conception and birth of Horus. One of the early

texts describes the birth of Horus from Isis as Sothis. 81

T3-2. Pyramid Texts Spell 366 (Pyr. §§ 632a-d) 82

632-a j n.k snt.k jst, Haa.t(j) n mrwt.k

632-b dj.n.k s(j) tp Hms.k

80 As mentioned earlier, that is why the pharaoh sometimes replaces Horus as the third member of the

divine triad (te Velde 1971: 83).

81 For the role of Isis as Sothis, see B. Lesko (1999: 156-160). The emergence of the star from behind the sun in

the middle of summer marked the start of the Nile’s annual inundation. B. Lesko observes that: (1) the death
of Osiris, the god of regeneration, was seen in the wilting and drying off of the fields during the hot and dry
season before the inundation; (2) the resurrection of Osiris became apparent with the coming of the
inundation caused by his wife Isis. According to the second observation, Osiris is identified with the
inundation itself and Isis serves as the star that calls forth the inundation, thus remaining as the
indispensable female principle of reviving and sustaining life and defying death. In this way, Isis becomes
synonymous with fertility and abundance.
82 For a translation, see Faulkner 1969: 120-121; J. Allen 2005a: 81. The reference of the concept of Horus in

Pyramid Texts Spell 593 (Pyr. §§ 1635b-1636b) is identical with Pyramid Texts Spell 366 (Pyr. § 632a-d)
except for the final sentence (Pyr. § 1636b): m rn.f n Hrw jm(j) spdt “in his name of Horus in Sothis.”

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 632-c pr mtwt.k jm.s, spd.t(j) m spdt
632-d Hrw spd pr.(w) jm.k m Hrw jm(j) spdt

632-a Your sister Isis has come to you, excited [for] love of you.
632-b You have put her on your phallus
632-c so your seed emerged into her, sharp as Sothis
632-d and sharp Horus has emerged from you as Horus who is in Sothis. 83

It should be noted that Horus was conceived posthumously, as Isis used her magic to call forth

her husband’s latent life force and achieved a mysterious conception. In this regard, some

scholars proposed that the posthumous birth of Horus might be the result of parthenogenesis,

based on a passage in the second line of the Late-Period Papyrus Louvre 3079.

T3-3. Papyrus Louvre 3079 84

1. jnk snt.k jst

2. nn wn nTr jr jr.n.j nTrt r-pw
3. jr.n.j TAj jw.j m Hmt 4. m-mrwt sanx rn.k Hrj-tp tA
5. mw.k nTr m-Xnw Xt.j
6. rd.n.j sw Hr sA tA 7. nD.f odw.k 8. snb.f mn.k 9. wD.f onw r jr s(j) 85
10. stS xr.(w) n S(a)d.f 11. smAjt stS zb.(w) n stS
12. nst n gbb n.k
13. ntk zA.f mrw.f
1. I am your sister Isis.
2. There is no god who can do what I have done, nor goddess.
3. I have made a male although I am (only) a woman
4. in order to make your name alive on the earth.
5. Your divine water (semen) was within my belly.
6. I have put it on the back of the earth 7. so that it may rescue your form,
8. so that it may make healthy your illness,
9. so that it may command onw against one who did it.
10. Seth having fallen to his cutting, 11. the confederates of Seth having been sent to Seth,
12. The throne of Geb belongs to you;

83 For Horus as Sothis, see Griffiths 1960: 15, 150, note 1.

84 For the text, see Spiegelberg 1917: 94-95. For translations, see Spiegelberg 1917: 95; Griffiths 1960: 104.
85 Emend HD.t(j).f(j) into wD.f and read jw as r.While Spiegelberg translates onw as an “act of violence”

(“Gewalttat”), the exact meanings of the word is not clear.

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 13. You are his son, his beloved one.

With regard to the sentence in the Line 3: jr.n.j TAj jw.j m Hmt “I have made a male although I am

(only) a woman,” Spiegelberg interpreted the word TAj “man” as “begetter” based on the phallus

determinative (D53). 86 However, he also writes (1917: 96) that “sie (Isis) den Samen des Osiris lange

nach seinem Tode … in ihrem Leibe zur Entwicklung brachte.” As Griffiths points out (1960: 105), this

confirms that the seed of Osiris is still the origin of Horus. Another Pyramid Texts Spell supports

the impregnation of Isis by Osiris:

T3-4. Pyramid Texts Spell 518 (Pyr. §§ 1199a-c) 87

1199-a aHa jr.k wsjr

1199-b wD.k (pjpj)| pn n Hr(j)w sxm wDA-jb mHtj sxt-Htp
1199-c mr wD.k Hrw n jst hrw (pw) swr.n.k s(j) jm

1199-a So stand up, Osiris.

1199-b and commend this Pepi to those over the causeway “Sound of Heart,
north of the Marsh of Rest”
1199-c like you commended Horus to Isis on the day you impregnated her.

In this spell, the phrase mr wD.k Hrw n jst “like you commended Horus to Isis” means that Osiris

commended his son into the womb of his mother (Münster 1968: 6). 88 The spell demonstrates that

the conception and parentage of Horus were fully established already in the Old Kingdom.

During the Middle Kingdom and later, those concepts are further elaborated, as shown in Coffin

Texts Spell 148:

86 Regarding this unusual passage, Manniche regards it something miraculous, if not as astonishing as
immaculate conception, and comes up with an interesting interpretation (1994: 54-55): “By playing ‘the part of
man,’ Isis assumed the conventional male position in intercourse, thereby becoming, in Egyptian mythology, the closest
we have to a creator goddess.” Meanwhile, Griffiths believes that the sentence suggests that Isis was
responsible for both aspects of the sexual act by reviving the dead Osiris (1960: 105).
87 For translations, see Faulkner 1969: 191-192; J. Allen 2005a: 160.

88 In the legend of the divine conception of the pharaohs, Amun also puts a son in the womb of the queen

(Brunner 1964: 43).

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T3-5. Coffin Texts Spell 148 (CT II 209c-226a) 89

209-c jrt xprw m bjk

209-d oj sSd, snD nTrw
210-a rs jst bkA.t(j) Xr mtwt sn.s wsjr
210-b Tz.n.s s(j) Hmt wn.t(j)
210-c jb.s nDm.(w) m mtwt sn.s wsjr
211-a Dd.s wy nTrw
211-b jnk jst snt wsjr rmt Hr (j)t(j) nTrw
211-c wsjr wp Sawt tAwj
211-d jw mtwt.f m-Xnw 212-a Xt.j
212-b T(A)z.n jrw nTr m swHt 212-c m zA.j xntj psDt
212-d HoA.t(j).f tA pn, jwa.t(j).f gbb
213-a mdw.t(j).f Hr (j)t(j).f
213-b smA.t(j).f stX xft(j) n (j)t(j).f wsjr
213-c my nTrw jr.Tn mkwt.f m-Xnw jdt
214-a rx m jb.Tn 214-b nb.Tn js pw nTr pn jmj swHt.f
214-c Tfrr jrw nb nTrw
214-d aA.sn nfr.sn
215-a Hw Swtj xsbD
215-b jH j.(w) jn ra-tm sA jb.T Hmt
215-c j.rx.T n(j) jr.f mj jSst 215-d nTr js 216-a pw nb jwa(w) psDt
216-b jrj.T n(j) r.f m-Xnw swHt
216-c jnk jst Axt Spst r nTrw
216-d jw nTr m-Xnw 217-a Xt.j tn, 217-b mtwt wsjr pw
217-c Dd.jn ra-tm 217-d jwr.T sdx.T Hnwt pw jwr.T mss.T r nTrw
217-e wnt mtwt wsjr js pw
217-f jm jw row pw smA (j)t(j).f
217-g sD.f swHt m-Xnw nxn.s
218-a nr r.f wr-HkAw
218-b sDm nw nTrw j.t(j) jn jst Dd.n ra-tm nb Hwt-aXmw
218-c wD.n.f n.j 218-d mkt zA.j m-Xnw Xt.j
218-e T(A)z.n.f Snwt HA.f m-Xnw jdt.j tn
219-a rx.f jwaw wsjr js pw
219-b dy sA bjk jmj Xt.j tn jn ra-tm nb nTrw
219-c mj prj Hr tA 219-d dj.j n.k jA(w)
219-e Sms Tw Smsw (j)t(j).k wsjr
219-f jr.j rn.k 220-a pH.n.k Axt swA.t(j) Hr snbw Hwt jmn-rn

89For translations and philological analyses, see Griffiths 1960: 52-53 (up to CT II 225b); Faulkner 1968: 40-44,
1973: 125-127; Gilula 1971: 14-19; O’Connell 1983: 66-87. For comments regarding the spell, see Hannig 1990:
91-95.

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 220-b pr pHtj m-Xnw jf.j
220-c pH.n At m-Xnw jf.j
220-d pH.n At ks.f
220-e sod jAxw 221-a jr.n.f st.f Ds.f 221-b Hms.(w) m xnt nTrw m Snwt wHa
221-c bjk sA.j Hrw Hms r.k m tA pn 221-d n (j)t(j).k wsjr
221-e m rn.k pw n bjk Hr(j) zbnw Hwt jmn-rn
221-f dbH.j wnn.k 222-a m Smsw ra-Axt m-HAt wjA pAt nHH Dt
222-b hA jst r wHa jn Hrw
222-c dbH.n jst wnn.f m wHa m Ssmw nHH
222-d mA jr.Tn Hrw nTr
222-e jnk Hrw bjk aA 223-a Hrj snbw Hwt jmn-rn
223-b pH.n aXt.j Axt 223-c swA.n.j nTrw nwt
223-d sxnt.j st.j r pAwtjw
223-e nj pH.n jAAw aXt.j tpt
224-a wA st.j r stX xft(j) n (j)t(j).j wsjr
224-b jn.n.j wAwt nHH n anDw
224-c Tn.j m 224-d aXt.j
224-e nn nTr jr jrt.n.j
224-f Ad.j r xft(j) n (j)t((j).j wsjr
224-g dy Xr Tbwt.j 225-a m rn.j pw n Admw
225-b jnk Hrw ms.n jst jry mkt.f m-Xnw swHt
225-c nj Ad wj 225-d hh n r.Tn
225-e nj pH.n wj Ddt.Tn r.j
225-f jnk Hrw wA st r r(m)T(w) r nTrw
226-a jnk Hrw zA jst

209-c MAKING TRANSFORMATION AS A FALCON.

209-d The lightening-flash has struck, the gods have become afraid. 90
210-a Isis has woken pregnant with the seed of her brother Osiris.
210-b The woman has raised herself hastily,
210-c her heart being sweet with the seed of her brother Osiris.
211-a saying: “Oh, gods. 211-b I am Isis, the sister of Osiris, who wept for the father of the gods,
211-c Osiris who parted the slaughtering of the Two Lands.
211-d His seed is within 212-a my body.
212-b The shape of the god has knit together in the egg 212-c as my son,
the foremost of the Ennead,
212-d who will rule this land and who will inherit from Geb,
213-a and who will contend over his father
213-b and who will slay Seth, the enemy of his father Osiris. 91

90Faulkner believes that Isis is impregnated by a lightening flash (1968: 41, note 2). B. Lesko comments that
this reminds us of the later story of Zeus and Semele, except for the fact that Isis survived (1999: 289, note 9).

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 213-c Come, gods, and make his protection within the womb.
214-a Know in your heart that 214-b he is your lord, this god who is in his egg,
214-c tfrr of form, the lord of gods 92
214-d their greatest, their most perfect 93
215-a who waves the two lapis-lazuli plumes.” 94
215-b “Oh,” said Re-Atum, “Let your heart become wise, woman.
215-c How do you know 215-d whether he is a god, 216-a the lord, the heir of the Ennead
216-b so that you make his respect inside the egg?”
216-c “I am Isis, more effective and august than the gods.
216-d A god is within 217-a this body of mine. 217-b He is the seed of Osiris.”
217-c Then Re-Atum said,
217-d “As you are pregnant, it means, young lady, that you should conceal from the gods
(the fact) that you have conceived and that you will give birth.
217-e and that it is the seed of Osiris
217-f so that this enemy who killed his father may not come
217-g and break the egg within its infancy,
218-a the one whom the Great of Magic (Seth) should respect.” 95
218-b “Hear this, gods,” said Isis, “that which Re-Atum, the lord of the Enclosure of Images has said.
218-c He has commanded to me 218-d the protection of my son within my body,
218-e He has knit together an entourage about him within this womb of mine
219-a for he knows that he is the heir of Osiris. 96
219-b The amulet of the falcon that is in this body of mine has been placed by Re-Atum,
lord of the gods.”
219-c “Please come out on the earth 219-d so that I may give you praise
219-e so that the followers of your father Osiris may follow you.
219-f I will make your name 220-a when you have reached akhet
and passed by the Ramparts of the Enclosure of the Hidden of the Name.

91 Gilula sees T(A)z.n jrw nTr as the emphatic sDm.n.f (1971: 14, 16, note 9). Note that his translation is different
from mine: “and it is as the son of the foremost of the Ennead who will rule this land and who will become
heir to Geb and who will speak for his father and who will slay Seth, the enemy of his father Osiris, that I
have moulded the shape of the god within (my) egg.”
92 For the interpretation of Tfrr as “blue-black hair,” see Faulkner 1968: 42, note 8.

93 Cf. the reading aA nfr(w).sn in S2P, S1P and S1Chass. Faulkner (1968: 40, 42, note 9) and Gilula(1971: 14, 17,

note 12) translated the sentence “great and beautiful are the barbs (?) of the two blue plumes,” seeing the
suffix pronoun –sn refers to either jrw “forms” or Hw “barbs(?).” Meanwhile, O’Connell regarded the two as
the circumstantial sDm.f (1983: 72, 73): “when they [the gods] are great and they are full.”
94 Faulkner assumes Hw to be the ‘barbs’ or feathery part of a plume as distinct from the stem (1968: 42, note

9).
95 For the identification of the Great of Magic with Seth, see Münster 1968: 7, note 113 (Pyr § 204a); J. Allen

2005a: 431.
96 Gilula took the two sentences (218c-e) as the emphatic Perfect Relative sDm.n.f (1971: 14, 18, notes 21 and

22). Note that his translation is different from mine: “It is within my body (womb) that he has decreed for
me the protection of my son and it is within this womb of mine that he has arranged an entourage around
him.”

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 220-b Strength has come out from inside my flesh
220-c and the power (Osiris) has reached within my flesh, 97
220-d and the power has reached its range (?).
220-e The sunshine shall sail forth 221-a when he has made his own place,
221-b and is seated at the foremost of the gods in the entourage of the Fisherman (the sun-god). 98
221-c “Falcon, my son Horus, dwell in this land 221-d of your father Osiris
221-e in this your name of Falcon that is on the Ramparts of the Enclosure
of the Hidden One of the Name. 99
221-f I will ask that you will be 222-a in the suite of Re of the akhet in the prow of the bark
of the Primeval Time for ever and ever.”
222-b Isis went down to the Fisherman after Horus was brought 100
222-c and Isis asked that he will be the Fisherman as the leader of eternity.
222-d “Behold Horus, gods!
222-e I am Horus, the Great Falcon 223-a that is upon the Ramparts of the Enclosure
of the Hidden of Name.
223-b My flight has reached the akhet 223-c and I have surpassed the gods of Nut.
223-d I will promote my position more than that of the primeval gods.
223-e The Combatant cannot reach my first flight
224-a so my place is farther than Seth, the enemy of my father Osiris. 101
224-b I have used the paths of the Eternal Recurrence to the dawn.
224-c I have become distinguished in 224-d my flight.
224-e There is no god who can do what I have done.
224-f My wrath is against the enemy of my father Osiris 224-g placed under my sandal
225-a in this my name of “Avenger.” 102
225-b I am Horus, born of Isis, whose protection was made within the egg.
225-c/d The fiery blast of your mouth will not catch me,
225-e and what you will say against me cannot reach me.
225-f I am Horus, more distant of place than people and gods.
226-a I am Horus son of Isis. 103

97 O’Connell explains that At is not the same type of power as pHty (CT II 220b) and here refers to the surging

energy of the childbirth pains of Isis (1983: 80). In addition, as for ks.f “its range (?)” Gilula (1971: 18, note 31)
and O’Connell (1983: 80) suggest that ks may have some meaning of “endurance” and translate the sentence
as “the power has reached its limit (?),” referring to the labor in giving birth to Horus.
98 Faulkner read wHa as “Releaser (?)” or “Redeemer (?)” (1968: 43, note 24). Meanwhile, O’Connell assumes

that it might refer to the “primeval bark of the entourage of Re-Akhty” (1983: 80).
99 For the significance of the epithet bjk Hr(j) sbnw Hwt jmn-rn “Falcon that is on the Ramparts of the Enclosure

of the Hidden of the Name,” see Gilula 1982: 263-265.

100 It can be also translated as “Isis has gone down to the Fisherman who brought Horus.”

101 Regarding the word jAAw “Combatant,” Faulkner (1968: 43, note 29) and O’Connell (1983: 81) propose the

general field of meaning as “contender,” “adversary,” or “aggressor.”

102 Faulkner (1968: 43, note 30) and O’Connell (1983: 81) assume that the word Admw “Avenger” is related to

Ad “aggressive” through a “bad pun.”

103 In S1P and S1Chass, it is zA wsjr “son of Osiris.”

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As the spell does not elaborate on the process of the posthumous conception of Horus, the focus

here should be on the role of Isis who makes sure that her child comes forth from her womb

(219c) and proclaims his destiny as the successor of Osiris (220e-221e). Her role in this spell

reminds us of what she did for the children of Rud-djedet in the Papyrus Westcar (Münster 1968:

8). 104 Her ability to proclaim the fortune of newborn children is similar to that of the Seven

Hathors encountered in Late Egyptian narratives such as the Tale of Doomed Prince and the Tale

of Two Brothers (B. Lesko 1999: 180). 105 For the details of the posthumous conception, we need to

turn to a New Kingdom hymn that contains the most comprehensive account of the Osirian myth

outside of Greek sources (Lichtheim 1976: 81):

T3-6. Louvre C 286 (The Great Hymn to Osiris on the Stela of Amenmose) 106

(13.) ... jr.n snt.f mkt.f sHryt xrwjw

14. sHmt zpw Sd xrw m Axw r.s
jort ns nj whj.n mdw.s
mnxt wD-mdw
...
jst Axt nDt sn.s, H(j)H(j)t sw jwtt b(A)gg.s
15. pXrt tA pn m HAyt
nj xn.n.s nj gmt.s sw
jrt Swyt m Swwt.s
sxprt TAw m DnHwj.s
jrt hnw m(j)nt sn.s
16. sTzt nnw n wrd.(w)-jb

xnpt mw.f, jrt jwaw,

Sdt nxn m waaw nj rx bw.f jm
bst sw a.f nxt.w m Xnw wsxt 17. gbb
(13.) ... His sister provided his protection, she who drove away enemies,

104 For Isis giving the name of each child of Rud-djedet, see p.Berlin 3033 10, 7-11, 3. It is noteworthy that it is
Isis who gives names to the newborn children in Papyrus Westcar but it is Meskhenet who grants them the
kingship (p.Berlin 3033 10, 12-11, 1). For the proclamation of a person’s fate at the time of his/her birth, see
Feucht 1995: 104-107.
105 Her role in proclaiming a person’s fortune eventually elevated her to the position of savior goddess. For

Isis as the Goddess of Fate in later periods, see Bleeker 1963: 1-16; Bergman 1967: 35-51; Witt 1971: 25-35.
106 For the text, see Moret 1931: 739-748. For translations, see Moret 1931: 739-748; Lichtheim 1976: 83-84;

Assmann 1999: 479-480; B. Lesko 1999: 171-172.

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 14. she who made a stop to the deeds of the disturber (?) by the spells of her mouth,
excellent of tongue whose speech cannot fail (to be effective),
effective of the governance (literally, the word of command),
…
effective Isis who protected her brother, who sought him, tirelessly,
15. who traveled around this land in mourning.
She could not alight before she found him,
who made a shade with her plumage,
who created a breeze with her two wings,
who made henu and who buried her brother, 107
16. who lifted up the inertness of the weary-hearted,
who seized his semen (literally, water), who produced an heir,
who suckled the child in solitude, the place where he was 108 being unknown,
who brought him when his arm was strong into the Broad Hall of Geb.

The posthumous birth of Horus was made possible by Isis using her powerful magic to extract

the creative power of the dead Osiris (creating a breeze and lifting up the inertness of Osiris) and

bring Horus into life (Münster 1968: 5). 109 Given that the result of this process can be attributed to

the latent life-force in Osiris, the Horus child not only serves as the living evidence of the vitality

of Osiris (Björkman 1977: 1018), but he may also represent the nHH-element emerging out of the Dt-

element, which reminds us of the pattern of manifestation and reconstitution realized through

the union of the sun-god and Osiris (see EXCURSUS 2-2).

3.5 Chemmis motif

The toponym Ax-bjt(j) “Akhbit” (rendered Chemmis in Greek) means “the papyrus thicket of the

Lower Egyptian king” located in the north Delta near Buto (Bergman 1968: 137; J. Allen 2005a:

107 For the henu gesture (A8), see R. Wilkinson 1994: 16-17; Betrò 1996: 39.
108 Note that it should be bw ntj.f jm, rather than bw.f jm in the text.
109 The role of Isis (as a kestrel) who used her wings to fan the breath of life into Osiris and revive the sexual

power of Osiris is comparable to that of the Hand Goddess who aroused the penis of the creator god to
create the first life (Pinch 2002: 80).

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425). 110 Horus was concealed by his mother from his enemies inside the papyrus thicket or on a

floating island (Fig. 3-2). 111

In the Horus child pattern, Isis faithfully fulfils her caring role as a protective divine mother,

which clearly contrasts with the mother of the sun-child who merely serves as a matrix of

rebirth/rejuvenation. 112 At the birth of Horus in Akhbit, Isis, as an ideal mother, provides Horus

with the care typically given to a newborn baby in ancient Egypt. 113 This includes (1) naming, (2)

washing, (3) suckling, and (4) protecting the divine infant from various dangers.

Fig. 3-2: Horus in the papyrus thicket of Chemmis

110 For Akhbit as the birthplace of Horus, see Pyr. § 1703c; Pyr. §§ 1214b-1215b (see the text quoted above);

Pyr. §§ 2190a-2191b (see the text quoted below); CT IV 91e-f; CT IV 37h (also Pe as the place of his
conception: jwr.j m p ms.j m Ax-bjt “I was conceived in Pe and born in Akhbit”); CT IV 37g.
111 For Isis seeking a secret place to conceal Horus, see the Book of the Dead Chapter 157, 1: jj.n jst xns.n.s

njwwt Dar.n.s swt StAw.(t) n Hrw m pr(t).f m jdHww.f Hr.f nhs.(w) “Isis has come and traversed towns, having
searched for secret places for Horus when he goes forth from the swamp with his face being awake (?).” The
idea of protecting Horus in a secret place is comparable to the emergence of the sun-child from the lotus,
who had to be protected by a primeval goddess from the monstrous inhabitants of the primeval waters
(Pinch 2002: 146).
112 It is true that the sun-god is also purified, fed and protected after birth, as mentioned in Coffin Texts Spell

765. However, the childhood of the sun-child is not as dramatic and specific as that of the Horus child and
thus did not develop into an elaborate narrative as in the case of the Horus child.
113 For scholarly and philological references concerning the role of Isis as a protective mother-goddess, see

Bergman 1968: 137-146, esp. 137-138.

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3.5.1 Naming

It has already been mentioned above that Isis named Horus after his birth in Coffin Texts Spell

148 above (CT II 219f-221e): jr.j rn.k pH.n.k Axt swA.t(j) Hr snbw Hwt jmn-rn … bjk sA.j Hrw Hms r.k m tA pn

221-d n (j)t(j).k wsjr m rn.k pw n bjk Hr(j) sbnw Hwt jmn-rn “I will make your name when you have

reached akhet and passed by the Ramparts of the Enclosure of the Hidden of the Name. … Falcon,

my son Horus, dwell in this land of your father Osiris in this your name of Falcon that is on the

Ramparts of the Enclosure.” Janssen notes that it was usually the mother who decided on the

name given to a child at birth (1990: 14), but Feucht writes that (1) both parents could choose the

name; and (2) the notion that a person’s name was determined by a cry of his/her mother (or

other person present) at the time of delivery should be regarded as “Mythologisierung der Sitte”

(1995: 107-108). Regardless of how it was accomplished, it is important to understand that the act

of naming by a parent is another indicator of the generational nature of the Horus child pattern.

3.5.2 Washing

According to the Papyrus Westcar, a newborn baby was washed after the umbilical cord had

been cut: ja.jn.sn sw Sad XpA.f, rdj Hr jfdj m Dbt “They (the goddesses) washed him (a newborn child)

after his umbilical cord was cut, and he was put on a cloth in brickwork” (p.Berlin 3033: 10, 11-12;

repeated in 10, 19-20 and 11, 2-3). Whereas there is no clear reference to Isis washing Horus in

early texts, Münster assumes that “tying the headband” and “censing before her son Horus” in

Pyramid Texts Spell 519 (Pyr. §§ 1214b-1215b; see the text quoted above) may refer to washing (or

drying after the washing) and purification of Horus (1968: 6). She also writes that it can be

supported by another Pyramid Texts Spell (Pyr. §§ 2190a-2191b): pr Hrw m Ax-bjt, aHa p n Hrw wab.f

jm, j Hrw wab.(w) nD.[f jt(j).f] “Horus has emerged from Akhbit. Pe has awaited Horus so that he

could become clean there. Clean Horus has come that [he] might tend [his father Osiris].”

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However, the relationship between the two spells remains obscure. In this regard, it would be

more appropriate to remember that the king in his role as the Horus child was often depicted as

being washed (or suckled) by a motherly cow-goddess (Pinch 2002: 80).

3.5.3 Suckling

It is never mentioned specifically in the Pyramid Texts that Isis suckled Horus (Leclant 1951: 124).

However, the spells mentioning the milk of Isis that the deceased king wished to receive as an

essential ingredient for his resurrection (Pyr. § 707a; Pyr. § 734a-b; Pyr. § 1873a-b; Pyr. § 1883a-b)

provide a clue that she suckled her divine infant (Münster 1968: 10-11). 114 An indirect comment

that Isis suckled Horus is also found in Coffin Texts Spell 255 (CT III 360a-e): mw r-awj.j, xa.j m Hrw

oA.j m nbwt(j), sno.j m jst AT.n wj nbt-Hwt m S n zAb “Water is on my hands. I appear as Horus. I am

exalted as Him of Nubet. I was suckled by Isis; Nephthys has nurtured me in the Jackal Lake.” 115

Moreover, other protective goddesses – most frequently Nephthys – are also depicted as a wet

nurse of the newborn divine child (Münster 1968: 11). 116

114 Münster counters Leclant’s claim, saying that the myth is not told in a comprehensive form but only
presents parts that correspond to the relevant rituals (1968: 10). Leclant was also unaware that CT I 280j-281a,
which mentions Isis suckling the deceased (see NOTE 115 below), occurs in the pyramids of Pepi I and Pepi
II.
115 See also Coffin Texts Spell 66 (CT I 280j-281a-i): jn jst sno.s Tw nbt-Hwt dj.s n.k mnD.s sxdxd.(w), dj n.k nbtj dp

smAw.sn, jwt n.k mjwtj.k jmjtj nxb, DA.sn mnD.sn tp r.k, fA.sn Tw, sDn.sn Tw “It is Isis who shall suckle you. While
Nephthys gives you her pendulous breast. The Two Ladies of Dep shall let down their hair for you. Your
two mothers who are in Nekheb shall come to you; they shall take their breasts to your mouth; they shall lift
you up and carry you.”
116 For the Pyramid Texts spells referring to Nephthys suckling the deceased king (as Horus cared for by Isis),

see Pyr. § 371c; Pyr. § 623a; Pyr. § 1354a; Pyr. § 1375a. For Coffin Text spells that depict Nephthys suckling
Horus, see CT I 281b; CT III 360c-d. It is noteworthy that Nephthys took her role as the wet nurse only for
Horus son of Isis (as said in Pyr. § 371c: AT sw jst, sno sw nbt-Hwt “Isis will nurture him, Nephthys will suckle
him”; see Munster 1968: 10). It corresponds to the ancient Egyptian custom that a mother had a wet nurse to
suckle her child(ren). For more comments regarding the royal wet nurse, see NOTE 74 above. As mentioned
earlier, Hathor suckles royal children as a motherly cow goddess. Nekhbet also appears as the nurse of
Horus as in Pyr. § 1118b. In this regard, the crown goddesses can appear as the two mothers of Horus
(Münster 1968: 10).

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What is more important than the identity of the goddess who suckles Horus (or the deceased

cared for by the mother goddess) is that the divine milk (especially that of Isis) has the magical

power not only of reviving the deceased king (i.e., Osiris) but also of granting kingship to the

newly born or newly crowned king (i.e., Horus) (Daumas 1958: 204-206; Leclant 1960: 135-145;

Darby et al 1977: 760; Guglielmi 1982: 126). In this regard, Assmann elucidates the idea succinctly

but aptly as follows (2001: 134):

As a mother of the Horus child, Isis, who in this instance (Hathor suckling Hatshepsut)
has been merged with Hathor, is not only the great healing goddess, but also the bestower
of legitimate kingship. Her milk not only heals illness, it makes the child a king, it
“creates,” as the Egyptian terminology puts it, “his beauty.” Isis is the “kingmaker” par
excellence. … The king steps into the role of the royal child in the constellation of the
mother-goddess Isis in order to incorporate the kingship of Horus into himself by means
of her milk. In Egypt, the legitimate, salvation-bringing king was not the “anointed one,”
but the “suckled one.” Many temple reliefs, particularly from the New Kingdom,
represent him in this role, in the arms and at the breast of the mother-goddess Isis.

3.5.4 Protecting from various dangers

Horus is the single deity whose childhood is described in myth. However, his childhood is not

depicted as idyllic and peaceful but as a time full of dangers and difficulties. At this critical stage,

Horus needs to overcome these difficulties with the help of Isis so that he, as a grown-up, can

fulfill his duty of taking the kingship of Egypt (Sandri 2006: 15). Another fact that attracts our

attention is that Osiris (identified with the deceased on the funerary level) and the motif of his

salvation from death is totally absent at this stage. Instead, Isis is, though helped by other deities,

solely responsible for the safety of Horus, who is identified with those suffering from bites and

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stings of venomous and dangerous animals, serving as the mythic prototype for all patients

(Quirke 1992: 61). 117

The poisoning (and burning) of the Horus child is a common motif in magical texts of the Late

Period. It is used as an analogy for real diseases and dangers, and the narratives in them are

important sources providing the most elaborate accounts about the struggles against dangerous

elements threatening the life of a human infant in his/her early childhood (Pinch 1994: 143-

146). 118 In most of these narrative spells, Horus is depicted as a sick child who needs his mother’s

maternal protective power, but in others he is shown to possess his own magical healing power,

which eventually led to the triumphant image of Horus as a healing god who appears on a

special type of Egyptian art known as cippi – i.e., the naked child-deity standing on the backs of

crocodiles and holding dangerous animals such as snakes, scorpions, lions and antelopes. 119

Nonetheless, according to a few magical texts, Horus is blamed for his plight through his own

foolishness and greed and viewed as an impetuous child (Pinch 2002: 81).

117 That is the reason Assmann sees this as an entirely independent cycle of myths about mother and child
with a meaning of their own (2001: 133). Meanwhile, te Velde links the bites of venomous animals to the
idea of homosexual acts on the part of Seth, because Horus is in distress on account of mtwt “poison,” which
can also mean “semen” (1967: 37-38).
118 In this regard, Horus can be regarded as a fatherless, abandoned child. Cf. Eliade’s comment about the

abandoned child (1963: 250): “The tragedy of the abandoned child is made up for by the mythological grandeur of the
‘orphan,’ the primeval child, with his utter and invulnerable loneliness in the universe, his uniqueness. The appearance
of such a child coincides with a moment in the dawn of things: the creation of cosmos, the creation of a new world, of a
new epoch of history, a ‘new life’ – at no matter what level of reality. A child abandoned to the Earth-Mother, saved
and brought up by her, no longer has any part in the common destiny of mankind, for he re-enacts the cosmological
instant of ‘beginning,’ and grows not in the midst of a family, but in the midst of the elements.”
119 For some magical texts regarding Horus as a sick child, see Klasens 1952: 54-58; Borghouts 1978: 58-71;

Leitz 1999: 16, 19, 73. For the cippi of Horus, see Seele 1947: 43-52. For the Metternich Stela that contains the
most comprehensive narrative spell regarding the Horus child, see Scott 1951: 201-217; J. Allen 2005b: 49-64
(including the latest translation and exhaustive references).

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3.6 Struggles of Horus and Seth

The struggles between Horus and Seth do not take place until Horus reaches maturity and

becomes capable of wresting the kingship of Egypt from Seth. 120 So before the conflict between

the two antagonists, we first need to consider a passing reference to the rite of passage through

which an Egyptian child enters the age of youth in Pyramid Texts Spell 519 (Pyr. §§ 1214b-1215b):

… n jst wrt T(A)zt mDH m Ax-bjt, jn.s dAjw.s sjd.s tp-awj zA.s Hrw Xrd nxn, DA.f tA m Tbwtj.f HD.tj, j.Sm.f jr mAA

jt(j).f wsjr “… for great Isis – she who tied the headband in Akhbit, using her dress and censing

before her son Horus the young child so that he might cross the land in his white sandals and go

to see his father Osiris.”

In the spell Isis ties the headband of Horus. The rite of the “tying on the headband (TAz-mdH)” is

found already in Old Kingdom inscriptions. For instance, it is mentioned in the Autobiography of

Weni: jnk jd Tz mDH xr Hm n (ttj)| “I am one who tied on the headband as a child during the

incarnation of Teti” (Urk. I, 98, 12). 121 The rite marked the beginning of manhood, probably at the

age of eighteen (Brovarski 1975-76: 1-8; Feucht 1995: 238-245). 122 The mention of clothes and

sandals in the spell also indicates that Horus is no longer naked, thus losing this characteristic of

a child and leaving the protective papyrus thicket for the first time in order to avenge his

deceased father and inherit the kingship as a legitimate heir (Sandri 2006: 8).

120 Pinch writes that when it comes to the royal succession, the struggle between the two antagonist deities is
nothing more than a fight between might and right (2002: 84).
121 For a Middle Kingdom example and its significance in Egyptian society, see Gunn 1939: 218.

122 Tassie writes that (1) Hathor’s bicornate headdress represents the primordial womb and the side-lock of

youth of Horus replicates the texture of the coiled umbilical cord, both symbolizing the mother-son
relationship; and (2) therefore, the cutting of the side-lock of youth at the rite of “tying on the head band”
signifies cutting the child free from the feminine domain and integrating him into society (2005: 65-71).

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However, Horus is still regarded as a child at the beginning of the Contendings of Horus and

Seth, the most complete narrative about the struggle preserved on a papyrus of the Twentieth

Dynasty. 123 Here the sun-god prefers Seth, who is aA pHtj, zA nwt “great of strength, son of Nut,”

(p.Chester Beatty I, 38, 8-9) 124 and dismisses Horus as pA aDd bjnw dpt r.f “the boy whose mouth

tastes bad” (ibid. 40, 11-12). 125 In this regard, among many other interpretations, the narrative of

the Horus-Seth conflict can be considered as a story about bringing the young god (or the future

king) through the crisis of puberty into adulthood, described by te Velde as follows (1967: 32):

In the myth of Osiris the duality of Osiris and Seth is that of death and life. Seth makes
separation between death and life. Seth makes separation between life and death. The
restoration of the unity of life here and yonder is symbolized by the birth of the divine
child Horus. Isis receives the seed of the living dead Osiris. Yet Seth also limits the
existence of Horus and his mother. The child Horus is brought forth by Isis in solitude. In
the difficulties and dangers mother and child have to endure, not in ordered society, but
in the inhospitable marshes of Khemmis, the glorious, original divine life is almost lost.
Not only is the cosmos surrounded by primeaval chaos, the cosmos itself proves to be
fissured at Seth’s first stirring. Horus no longer has a female complement, like the gods
before him. In contrast with the gods of the ennead, he also displays the state of being a
child (Harpocrates) and of being brought up. Bringing up had become necessary because
the cosmos had become disordered through the untimely birth of Seth. The Osiris hymn
of Amenmose relates (see T3-6 above), that Horus was not presented to the gathering of
the gods by his mother until he was sufficiently equipped physically and mentally: strong
of arm, firm of heart. Horus had to learn and win adult divine life through sad
experience. 126

123 For the early sources of the Horus-Seth conflict, see Griffiths 1960: 12-27; te Velde 1967: 32, note 5; Tobin

1993: 93-110. Many scholars including Griffiths believe that the narrative of the Horus-Seth conflict is earlier
than the Osirian cycle (Griffith 1960: 17-22; Assmann 2001: 134-135). Also cf. te Velde 1967: 74-80 for a view
opposing Griffiths’ tendency to see the narrative as a reflection of historical events.
124 The relationship between Nut and Seth, however, is not the same as that between Isis and Horus. Seth is

not a child god and there is no trace of love on the part of his mother (te Velde 1967: 28). Quoting the
remarks of Hintze, te Velde comments that the strength in the epithet of Seth aA pHtj “great of strength” is
sexual strength in contrast to tnr “physical strength” as in the Two Brothers (p.d’Orbiney 3, 5-6): wn.jn.sst Hr
gAgA n.f m Dd, wn pHtj aA jm.k, xr tw.j Hr ptrj nAy.k tnr m mnt “Then she [the wife of Anubis] goggled at him,
saying: ‘There is great strength in you, and I see your might daily.’”
125 For this derogatory expression to denote an inexperienced feeble child, see Shiah 1938: 127-128.

126 It is also noteworthy that the opponent with whom Horus has to engage should inevitably be the very

one who wrested life from Osiris (Roberts 1995: 100).

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In the course of the narrative, the introduction of Horus into adulthood is indicated by (1) the loss

of innocent childhood; (2) the rupture of the maternal bond; and (3) the reconciliation with

opponent power. The trend becomes apparent especially in the second half of the Contendings of

Horus and Seth, where Horus is directly locked in fierce combat with Seth to prove himself as a

potential ruler of Egypt. From this moment, Horus begins to embody violent traits and even

attacks Isis. 127 At this stage he clearly shows that he is no longer an uncorrupted child under the

protection of his mother. In addition, the appearance of Hathor (who embodies sexual

regenerative power in adulthood) after the loss of his eyes at the hand of Seth also marks the

surfacing of adolescence that compels the youth to leave his mother and break free from the

hitherto strong but restrictive maternal bond (Roberts 1997: 106). Finally, his ordeal and

reconciliation with the turbulent opponent at the end of the story demonstrates that Horus, as a

physically and mentally prepared leader, has the capability of assuming the kingship of Egypt. 128

3.7 Functions of the Horus child pattern

As is the case with the sun-child, the Horus child also plays an important role on each of the

cosmic, kingship and funerary levels.

On the cosmic level, the Horus child symbolizes the renewal of the cosmos (as a third member of

the divine triad, which represents the future generation). If the sun-child is destined to begin the

127 Gardiner remarks that this story is designed to explain Hathor’s form as the cow-headed goddess and
how Isis was identified with Hathor as the cow-goddess (1931: 20, note 2; see also Griffiths 1960: 48).
128 Seth ignores the boundaries of the ordered world and thus he is incapable of assuming leadership (te

Velde 1967: 65). The Contendings of Horus and Seth tends to show the foolishness of Seth in many aspects
(Goedicke 1961: 154), leading to his being outwitted by Horus with the help of his mother Isis. For Seth as a
trickster, see te Velde 1968: 37-40.

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work of creation through the first sunrise, the Horus child is destined to establish the divine

order on earth when he grows up to become a revengeful king of Egypt (Pinch 2002: 146). 129

On the kingship level, the whole drama of the childhood of Horus from birth to coronation

provides a mythic basis for legitimizing kingship (Assmann 2001: 116). The birth of Horus and

his danger-filled childhood makes his triumph all the more glorious, laying the groundwork of

legitimacy for the pharaohs who compared their achievements with those of Horus (Sandri 2006:

16). 130 This can be supported by the fact that a number of New Kingdom pharaohs adopted the

Chemmis motif as an ideal biography and identified themselves as the Horus in Akhbit

(Bergman 1968: 138):

 Ahmose (Urk. IV 16, 8-9): sxm.n wADtj n Hr.f mj Hrw HoA.n.f tAwj.fj jty a(nx.w) (w)DA.(w) s(nb.w) jt

xaw m Ax-bjt nb xa “The Two Wadjets (Greens) have controlled for his face like Horus when he

has started to rule his two lands, sovereign, l.p.h., who makes his appearance in Akhbit, lord

of appearance.”

 Thutmose III (Urk. IV 157, 3): jw.j m omA tjt jwn-mjwt.f mj nxnw Hrw m Ax-bjt aHa.kw m wADyt mHtt

“I am the created one, the image of Iunmutef like the youth, Horus in Akhbit, standing in the

colonnade of the Delta.”

129 In connection with the Horus child as a deserted and fatherless child shown in the Chemmis motif, the
significance on the cosmic level can be found in Moon’s comment (1991: 232): “The divine child is often
depicted in a close connection with the powers of nature, especially the waters. In legend, then, one finds children
brought by fishers such as the stork or by water dwellers such as a frog. In this image, the divine child is born out of the
lotus, which is a plant that resembles symbolically the crocodile, yet another bearer of the divine child. The crocodile can
live both in and out of the water; equally of a twofold nature, the lotus grows in the water but blossoms forth in the air.
Both are symbols of a mode of being that connects the natural realms of the waters and the heavens. The waters
represent chaos, the state in which all things are dissolved together as one; the heavens represent the world of
differentiation, where things can be seen by the naked eye as discrete and separate. It is the realm that is governed by
the light of the sun, whereas the deeper one goes into the waters, the darker it becomes.”
130 With regard to the triumph of Horus, Assmann point out that its “Sitz im Leben” may be found in the

festival of the royal coronation (2001: 142): “In the light of a prelude that tells of assassination and murder, of grief
and fear, salvation, joy, and abundance now make their appearance all the more gloriously to characterize the present.”

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 Hatshepsut (Urk. IV 237, 3-5): jj.n.(j) m p, Sm.n.(j) <m> dp, xns.(j) zSw pHw wAwt-Hrw sxn m Ax-bjt

m sA Hrw.j “I have come from Pe; I have gone from Dep, traversing pools, marshlands and the

ways of Horus; alighting in Akhbit in the protection of my Horus.”

 Hatshepsut (Urk. IV 239, 4-5): Xnm.(j) Hmt.T m anx wAs mj jrt.n.(j) n Hrw m Xnw sS n Ax-bjt “I will

unite Your Incarnation with life and dominion like what I did for Horus inside the nest of

Akhbit.”

Moreover, the birth of the divine child also guarantees the continuity of life and the dynastic rule

through the succession of generations.

On the mortuary level, a transition between two successive generations represents the dynamic

transformation from father to son, from death to life. Therefore, the deceased identified

themselves with Osiris so that they might follow the mythic precedent of his salvation from death

through vengeance and justification by his dutiful son. 131 In many spells of the Pyramid Texts

and the Coffin Texts, the deceased also identified themselves with Horus in order to overcome

death as the deity triumphed over dangers and enemies (Sandri 2006: 16). Moreover, as Horus

emerged as mAa-xrw “true of voice (= justified)” in the lawsuit with Seth, the deceased wished to

emerge also as “true of voice,” just like him, in the court that will determine his/her fate in the

afterlife (Assmann 2001: 137).

Also, in Egyptian society, the son’s duty towards his father is defined by the role that Horus plays in the
131

Osirian cycle. In this role, the son-Horus is the protector, avenger and legal heir of his father (Leprohon
1999: 55).

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Excursus 3-1. Harpocrates – the child deity par excellence

During the Twenty-first Dynasty the Horus child eventually evolves into an independent child

deity, Harpocrates (Hrw pA Xrd “Horus the Child”), who embodies the two prototypical child

deities and eventually becomes the most important of all prominent child deities in the Late

Period. His emergence is closely related to a new development of the New Kingdom, when the

kings began to visualize themselves as a child. In this regard, it would be useful to take a look at

the historical development of portraying the king as a child.

Historically, the portrayal of the king as a child is rarely known before the New Kingdom.

During the Old Kingdom period, only a single image is found that depicts Pepi II as a child. In

the alabaster statue (Brooklyn Museum No. 39.119), however, the king is represented not as a

child but as a small adult fully attired with the nemes head-cloth and apron. Hall assumes this to

be the representation of Pepi II as Harpocrates or an important child deity who served as a model

for an ideal king who came into the world after the divine conception and birth (1977: 56). Given

that Harpocrates emerged as an independent deity only in the Third Intermediate Period (Meeks

1977b: 1003), however, Hall’s assumption runs counter to his own comment that Isis and Horus

were not shown together during the Old Kingdom (1977: 55). Therefore, it would be appropriate

to see it as a portrayal of the real boy king Pepy II who ascended the throne at the age of six. 132

From the New Kingdom onward, the king began to be depicted as a child even during his

adulthood. 133 In this case, the visual representation shows the conventional characteristics of

childhood that include nakedness, the side-lock of youth and the (right) finger at his mouth. The

132 For another Old Kingdom representation of the king being suckled by a goddess, see Ranke 1950: 228-236;
Feucht 1984: 403.
133 It is noteworthy that, contrary to the new trend, the visual representation of young princes and princesses

is rarely found even in this period.

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image of the rejuvenated king as a child originated from the pictorial image of the divine

conception, whose earliest version is found in the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri,

where reliefs show the queen receiving the legitimate kingship from Amun in the conventional

form of a child (Sandri 2006: 201). The child-king motif was expanded during the reigns of

Amenhotep III and Ramesses II and the image of the child-king was often used as a part of a

rebus expressing the king’s throne name (Hall 1977: Plate XXV-3). As such, it can be said that the

image of the child-king was incorporated into the formal repertoire of the visual representation of

the king from the Eighteenth Dynasty onward (Ranke 1950: 231).

The new trend of the child-king motif is surely connected with efforts to establish an

unquestionable legitimacy by showing that the king is the child of the creator-god born through

divine conception. In the course of time, however, the concept of the child-king was expanded to

encompass the image of the son-god of the divine triad, who embodied the principle of rebirth

and regeneration. In the process, a growing number of gods worshipped in various cultic centers

began to appear as a child and to be incorporated into the third member of the local divine triads

(Allam 1977: 111-112; Brunner 1977c: 650; Sandri 2006: 24-25). At the end of this process in which

these child deities fulfilled many religious functions, Harpocrates emerged as the child deity par

excellence. Based on the textual evidence regarding his cult sites and clergy, Harpocrates seems to

have emerged as an independent deity with his own fixed iconography only in the Third

Intermediate Period (Meeks 1977b: 1003; Sandri 2006: 200). 134

134Meeks writes that the name with the definite article pA is attested from the late New Kingdom period. For
the early existence of pA Xrd, see Hayes 1960: 31, note 3. The number of proper names referring to the child
deities, such as pA-n-xrdw “The One Who Belongs to the Child,” ns-pA-Xrdw “He Belongs to the Child,” and
ns-pA-sf “He Belongs to the Child,” increased in the late periods (Brunner 1977c: 649).

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As a conflated form of the sun-child and the Horus child, Harpocrates plays a role on each of the

cosmic, kingship and funerary levels. On the cosmic level, Harpocrates is associated with the sun-

god, personifying the young sun. The relationship between the sun-god and Horus can be traced

from the early period (Barta 1973: 158-159; Altenmüller 1975: 145). In some texts, Horus is

identified with the sun-god (CT I, 311b), while in others Horus is mentioned as the son of the

sun-god (Pyr. § 1508b; CT VII 19s-20l). Later Harpocrates as the young sun is usually represented

as a child deity standing or seated on the lotus blossom and crowned with the sun-disk (El-

Khachab 1971: 132-145). While the relationship between the sun and Nefertem, the young god on

the lotus blossom, was mentioned already in the Pyramid Texts, the idea of the birth of the sun

from the lotus blossom began to appear only after the Amarna Period (Tait 1963: 134; Schlögl

1977: 33; Ryhiner 1986: 19-20, 22; Assmann 1995: 5-6, 45; Meeks 1997b: 1004). Therefore, it can be

said that the relationship between Harpocrates and the lotus blossom (as well as the concept of

the sun emerging out of the lotus blossom) was a late development. 135

On the kingship level, Harpocrates is regarded as the firstborn (and only) son of Osiris and Isis. 136

Based on this familial relationship, Harpocrates assumes the role of the legitimate heir of his

deceased father and thus serves as a model of the ideal king through numerous texts and images.

This can also be supported by the fact that the earliest attested cultic center of Harpocrates is the

Theban area 137 and there he was worshipped as the divine child-king who succeeds Amun, the

king of the gods. As mentioned earlier, however, Harpocrates had become an independent deity

135 In the Ptolemaic-Roman period, Harpocrates personifies the sun at the first hour of the day (Daressy 1917:
200-202, Tables I and II; Meeks 1977b: 1004). For another form of the Horus child as the sun-god, see Budde
2003: 15-110.
136 For the aspects and functions of Harpocrates on the kingship level, see Sandri 2006: 163-186.

137 The geographical origin of Harpocrates is unclear (Meeks 1977b: 1005). But the most ancient cultic center

is thought to be the Theban area from the priestly titles Hm nTr jmnw wAst, Hm-nTr Hrw-pA-Xrd “the god’s servant
of Amun of Thebes, the god’s servant of Harpocrates.” See Barguet et al 1951: 497-498.

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who embodies certain aspects of the Horus child that include (1) the son of Osiris and Isis, (2) the

legitimate heir of the divine couple, and (3) the divine child as the (re)generative principle and

the model of the king (Sandri 2006: 188). 138 As a result, the image of the Horus child faced with

the various dangers of childhood is missing in the description of Harpocrates, and the same is

true in the description of the later kings who modeled themselves on the supreme child deity. In

addition, Harpocrates does not inherit the functions of Horus who overcomes the murder of his

father and wrests the kingship from his enemies. That role was taken over by Harendotes,

another Horus-god who had also become independent in the Late Period. Harendotes is regarded

as a son of Osiris and Isis, but he is assumed to be a powerful young god who fights for the

kingship and fulfills his roles in the mortuary rites for his father. In fact, these independent

Horus-gods, such as Harpocrates, Harendotes and Harsiese, could appear side by side in temple

reliefs of later periods (Sandri 2006: 189-192).

From the divine child-king and the model of the ideal king were derived two roles of

Harpocrates that were also shared by other child deities of the late periods. First, he was

supposed to possess the means of provisions that he constantly distributes not only to the king

but also to all human beings in abundance. In this aspect, Harpocrates played the role of fertility

god (Brunner 1977c: 650) and was closely associated with the agricultural rites. 139 It may have to

do with his early cultic center, the Theban area, where ithyphallic fertility gods such as Min and

Amun were worshiped (Meeks 1977b: 1005). 140 Second, as the posthumous son of his deceased

father Osiris, Harpocrates was also interpreted as the reincarnation (“Erscheinungsform”) of his

138 In this regard, it is noteworthy that Harpocrates was never represented as a falcon or falcon-headed man
but always portrayed in purely anthropomorphic form.
139 As a fertility god, Harpocrates was worshipped as Karpocrates. See Meeks 1977b: 1009, note 22; Sandri

2006: 177-178.
140 In the temple texts of the Ptolemaic Period, Harpocrates is mentioned as the lord of bread and the

provider of viands (Meeks 1977b: 1005).

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father (Sandri 2006: 186) and thus embodied the principle of (re)generation. With the growing

importance of the child deities, which eventually led to the appearance of mammisi, Harpocrates

became the deity of the mammisi. 141 The theology of the mammisi, which emphasizes the birth of

a divine child as a savior of the world, led to the identification of the divine triads with the royal

family, in which the king and his mother were identified with Harpocrates and Isis, respectively,

while his father took the form of Min or Montu (Meeks 1977b: 1005). As such, Harpocrates served

as the symbol of regeneration for the royal family.

Although Brunner notes that all Egyptian child deities share the roles of child heir, provider of

provisions and symbol of regeneration (1977b: 649; also Budde 2003: 88), Harpocrates is

nonetheless distinguished from other child deities in terms of his importance in the Egyptian

pantheon, his role as model for the ideal king, and his uniqueness as the son of Osiris and Isis. In

sum, Harpocrates became the most important, the most characteristic, and the most illustrated of

the child deities who formed the third member of divine triads in many temples of the later

periods. His popularity continued to increase along with that of his caring mother Isis. The two

were worshipped throughout the Mediterranean world by the time of the Roman Empire and

finally identified with the Virgin Mary and Jesus as the conductor of the soul.

141While it is accepted that the cult of Harpocrates and the divine triads appeared simultaneously by the
time of the Twenty-first Dynasty, nothing indicates that the same is the case with the mammisi (Meeks
1977b: 1009, note 25). The most ancient mammisi preserved is that of Nectanebo I (Daumas 1958: 83-84).

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 PART III

CASE STUDIES OF THREE CHILD

DEITIES

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 CHAPTER 4. IHY – DIVINE MUSICIAN

INTRODUCTION

Ihy is a god who usually appears in a pure child form – a naked boy wearing the side-lock of

youth and holding his finger to his mouth – from the early periods of the Egyptian history.

Unlike other child deities such as Khonsu and Nefertem, whose character experienced a dramatic

transformation in the course of time, Ihy’s iconography and role remained nearly unchanged

from the Old Kingdom to the Ptolemaic-Roman Period. Moreover, he is closely associated with

his mother-goddess Hathor as her divine acolyte in the temple rituals. This explains why he was

the last among the three child deities to be integrated, in later periods, into a divine familial triad,

namely the one of Horus (of Edfu)-Hathor-Ihy at Dendera. As a typical child deity who

symbolizes perpetual regeneration, Ihy played a prominent role in the mammisi of Nectanebo I,

where his (and the king’s) divine conception and birth were celebrated.

Since there are only a few articles specifically about Ihy, we can investigate Ihy by researching the

vast amount of scholarly work concerning his mother Hathor and her cult in general. Even some

dictionaries of ancient Egyptian religion tend to include him in entries about Hathor. 142 In

addition to those short entries, B. Altenmüller makes a brief statement about Ihy, who was

associated with many other deities (1975: 24), and Allam examines Ihy’s character in the Coffin

Texts in his book about the cult of Hathor (1963: 133-138, 140-141, 144-146). Ihy’s most prominent

Independent statements about “Ihy” („Ihi“) include Bonnet 1971: 321-322; Hoenes 1980: 125-126; Hart
142

1986: 98; Pinch 2002: 148, 137-139; and R. Wilkinson 2003: 132-133. Meanwhile, Somtus, who was identified
and associated not only with Horus but also with Nefertem and Ihy, is treated in his own right in Bonnet
1971: 728-729 and Derchain-Urtel 1984: 1079-1082.

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role, as the son of Hathor, is that of a musician and a sistrum player. Therefore, it is also

necessary to take a look at previous research on the roles of the musical instruments sacred to

Hathor, such as the sistrum and the menit, as well as those of ancient Egyptian music and dance

in general. 143

NAME AND ICONOGRAPHY

4.1 Name of Ihy

It has been claimed by some scholars that Ihy was worshipped in the form of a calf as son of

Hathor, who frequently appeared as a cow-goddess (Junker 1943: 192; Bonnet 1952: 322;

Hermann 1959: 31; Allam 1963: 6 and note 6, 112-113; Hoenes 1980: 125). 144 In particular, Junker

assumed that his name jHjj might be the diminutive form of jH “young bull” (1943: 192): “Vielleicht

ist iHii nur die Koseform, ein Diminutivum, von iH ‘Rind,’ wie ja auch iH.t Hathorkuh bezeichnen kann.”

It should be noted, however, that Ihy is always depicted in anthropomorphic form, 145 usually in

the form of a youthful boy-god of music shaking the sistrum (ritual rattle) and the menit (beaded

necklace – actually, a counterpoise for balancing heavy necklaces on the shoulders), the two

instruments most closely associated with music played in temples and sacred to his mother-

143 General articles about ancient Egyptian music and musical instruments include Hickmann 1977: 656-659,
1982a: 230-231, 1982b: 235-239; Ziegler 1984: 958-963; Lawergren 2001: 2:450-454; and Manniche 2001: 3:292-
293. For the only book-length treatment of ancient Egyptian music in English, see Manniche 1991 (esp. 57-
73). Regarding ancient Egyptian performing art (music and dance) in the funerary and religious context, see
Anderson 1995: 4:2555-2568; Spencer 2003: 111-121 (esp. 115-117); and Teeter 2009: 25-29, 30-32.
144 For Hathor as a cow-goddess, see Allam 1963: 112; Bleeker 1973: 30-34.

145 In the earliest mention of the deity in the Palermo Stone (Urk. I, 247, for the text see 4.2.1 below), the

phrase denoting the statue of Ihy (Dam jHj twt) is determined by the hieroglyphic sign of an
anthropomorphic standing statue.

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goddess Hathor (Bonnet 1952: 321; Hoenes 1980: 125; H. Altenmüller 1991a: 18). 146 Here Ihy plays

a role as the divine musician who through music propitiates an angered god, especially his

mother Hathor (H. Altenmüller 1991a: 19, 24).

Ancient Egyptians believed that their gods could be entertained and propitiated by music and

dance (Teeter 2009a: 25). Therefore, music and dance were counted as one effective method of

appeasing irritated deities, especially aggressive solar goddesses, such as Hathor, Sekhmet and

Tefnut (Brunner 1955: 7-8). 147 While worshipped as the goddess of love and happiness (Galvin

1989: 29; Robins 1994: 32), Hathor, as one of the solar goddesses, is also easily roused to anger

and thus needs to be propitiated. In order to appease this irritable goddess, the ancient Egyptians

relied on music and dance. As such, music and dance played a significant role in the worship of

Hathor and this made her the patroness-goddess of music and dance (Bleeker 1973: 53-58;

Manniche 1991: 57-58; Anderson 1995: 2555-2556). 148

146 H. Altenmüller disputes the idea that Ihy is depicted as a calf and decoy (“Lockkalb”) in the Sixth Dynasty

mastaba of Kagemni (1991: 17-27). He concludes that the phrases containing Ihy on the wall of the mastaba
should be interpreted as a call for the god to help the herd cross the river safely, considering the deity’s
aspect as a caring guide for difficult passages (ibid. 24-25). Regarding the concept of Ihy as a good guide, cf.
Roberts 1995: 32 for a possible interpretation of the Golden Calf episode in the Biblical Exodus (32:1-6) as Ihy
(in the form of a young bull-calf).
147 The other methods include (1) sexual attraction, as when Hathor cheers up the sulking sun-god by

exposing her genitals in the Contendings of Horus and Seth (Roth 2000: 194; Roberts 1995: 58; for the text see
4.5 below); and (2) inebriation, as described in the Destruction of Mankind (Brunner 1954: 81-83). Besides
appeasing deities, music was also regarded as a source of calm and solace, as in the episode of the delivery
of Rud-djedet in Papyrus Westcar (Anderson 1995: 2557).
148 In the Egyptian pantheon, Merit is a goddess who is considered to personify music or the songstress who

brings sacred texts to life (Manniche 1991: 57; Lawergren 2001: 453). However, she never had a cult chapel of
her own. For Merit, see Berlandini 1982: 80-88; Guglielmi 1991: 57-104. Based on the Ptolemaic-Roman
sources, Egyptian deities associated with music include Thoth, Osiris and Isis (= Hathor). Besides Ihy, the
only Egyptian deity who appears as a musician is the dwarf god Bes.

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In the worship of the patroness of music, the two most important instruments were the sistrum

and the menit (Allam 1963: 127-128). 149 The sistrum is so strongly associated with Hathor that her

face decorates the handle (Teeter 2009b: 30) 150 and the columns of Hathor’s Dendera temple are

shaped like the sistrum (Anderson 1995: 2555). The original function of the sistrum can be

inferred from the ritual of plucking papyrus stalks and shaking them, which produced a rattling

sound (Ziegler 1984: 960; Manniche 1991: 63, 2001: 292; Teeter 2009b: 30).

The practice of pacifying the goddess by plucking papyrus is already attested in the Old

Kingdom, as seen in a scene showing Queen Meresankh III and her mother pulling papyrus

stalks while standing on a papyrus skiff. The inscription over the stern of the skiff reads as

follows (Dunham et al 1974: 9-10 and Fig. 4): sSS.s wAD n Hwt-Hrw m pHw Hna mjwt.s, mAA.sn xt nbt nfrt

ntt m mHt “She pulls papyrus for Hathor in the marshland with her mother; they see every good

thing which is in the marsh.” 151 This is connected with the aspect of Hathor as a wild cow usually

found in the papyrus thicket. However, Hathor can also be identified in this respect with Isis,

who took refuge in the pyramid thicket with her infant son (Ziegler 1984: 960; Manniche 2001:

292). Meanwhile, the soothing sound of the sistrum is complemented by the sound of the menit

that makes a swishing sound that may have been associated with the sound of papyrus blowing

in the marsh (Staehelin 1982: 52). 152

149 For the sistrum, see Klebs 1931: 60-63; Ziegler 1984: 958-963; Manniche 2001: 292-293; Teeter 2009b: 30-32.
For the menit, see Staehelin 1982: 52-53.
150 The sistrum is later carried not only by priestess and noble ladies but also by a drunken woman in one of

the erotic scenes in the Turin Papyrus (Manniche 1991: 109). Without doubt, this is connected with the
concept of Hathor as the goddess of love and sex.
151 Teeter points out that the words “sistrum” and “pulling” are sSSt in ancient Egyptian and the former is

onomatopoeic (2009b: 30).

152 The menit is almost entirely associated with females but it is noteworthy that Khonsu, another child deity,

wears it around his neck as one of his characteristic attributes (Staehelin 1982: 52; Teeter 2009b: 32).
Interestingly, the emblem of Nefertem, the lotus blossom topped with two feathers, also features the
counterpoise of the menit.

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In religious and funerary rituals, priestesses of Hathor, who doubled as temple musicians, sang

hymns to the goddess, played musical instruments and performed sacred dances. 153 Most

importantly, they shook the two most important instruments – the sistrum and the menit – to

entertain the goddess. At the forefront of these priestly musicians stands Ihy who is, as a divine

musician, usually depicted wearing the menit around his neck and shaking a sistrum in the

worship of his mother Hathor.

4.2 Iconography

As a divine musician, Ihy almost always appears in a human child form, sporting the side-lock of

youth, holding the sistrum in his right hand and wearing the menit around his neck. This basic

iconography remained unchanged throughout Egyptian history.

Ihy is attested already in the Old Kingdom Palermo Stone in the company of his mother-goddess

Hathor (see 4.3 below). In the Middle Kingdom an example of Ihy as a divine sistrum player is

found in the tomb of the mother of Antefoker (Davies 1920: Plate 21). The deity is also shown in a

relief at Serabit el-Khadim carved during the reign of Amenemhat IV. He stands beside Hathor

and extends his hand to an official (Gardiner et al 1917: Plate 47, 125a). Most of the visual

representations of the child deity Ihy are found in the New Kingdom. For instance, he is

portrayed accompanying Hatshepsut as a child deity in her Deir el-Bahri temple sanctuary (see

153Dances performed in worship of Hathor were intended to please the goddess and promote the fertility
guaranteed by her, and they are by nature impulsive and ecstatic (Bleeker 1973: 57). The dance for Hathor is
already known in a type of Old Kingdom dance that shows the performers with their arms curved above the
head so that they might mimic the horns of a cow (Anderson 1995: 2563). In addition, so-called mirror
dances were also performed by young girls. The use of a mirror indicates Hathor’s close association with the
sun-god since the mirror disk is a symbol of the sun that can catch the sun light (Lilyquist 1979: 97-99 and
Figs. 106, 107; B. Lesko 1999: 100; R. Wilkinson 1999: 32). It is important to note that the mirror belongs to
important ritual items offered to Hathor, along with the sistrum, the menit and various ointments. For
textual evidence, see CT IV 183b-183j.

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4.11 below). 154 However, the prime example should be the two statues of sistrum players

discovered in the tomb of Tutankhamun (Abitz 1979: Figure 16; H. Altenmüller 1991b: 13-14) and

the two unfinished figures drawn on a wall of the tomb of Sety II (Abitz 1979: Figures 3a-b, 16;

Hornung 1990: 181). From the late New Kingdom, Ihy began to be depicted wearing royal crowns

and holding various kinds of scepters. In the Ptolemaic-Roman period, he is frequently shown

sitting on the throne as a royal child (Leitz 2002-I: 542-548). It is quite rare that he appears in

animal form. As a son of Hathor, however, he is portrayed as a lion-headed mummy in the Late

Period and also as a bull-headed god holding two knives in the Ptolemaic-Roman Period.

Based on his name and basic iconography, Ihy has been regarded by a number of Egyptologists

as the divine musician (or the divine sistrum player) par excellence (Sethe 1930: 23, 121; Bonnet

1952: 321-322; Hoenes 1980: 125; Hart 1986: 98; Pinch 2002: 148). His role as sistrum player is

already attested in the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 183h, see T4-1 below):

Drwt.j pw sSSt.s ddw n.s mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw r snnt.s jm “her sistrum is my (two) hands, which my mother

Hathor gives to herself in order to make herself inert therewith.” In the Ptolemaic-Roman Period,

one of the commonest epithets of Ihy was associated with the music that pleases his mother-

goddess Hathor (Chassinat 1947: Plates CCCCXLIII and CCCCXLIX-CCCCL, for the text see

Chassinat 1952: 156-157; Leitz 2002-I: 543-548): sHtp mjwt.f m mnjt sSSt “the one who satisfies his

mother with the menit and the sistrum.” Given Ihy’s apparent role as the divine musician, it is

appropriate to interpret his name (and iconography) as “sistrum player,” which is “the raison

d’être of this god” (Hart 1986: 98), or as “musician” who “personifies the jubilation associated

with the use of the sacred instrument” (R. Wilkinson 2003: 133).

154 Naville describes Ihy in the scene as the “divine boy-priest” (1901: 5).

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 HISTORIC OVERVIEW

4.3 The Old Kingdom

The cult of Ihy is not attested in the Old Kingdom, and no mention is made about the deity in the

Pyramid Texts. 155 Little is known about his childhood, unlike that of the Horus child (Hoenes

1980: 126; H. Altenmüller 1991a: 19). Explicit descriptions of Ihy as a child are found in epithets of

later periods (Sambin 1988: 391; Leitz 2002/I: 542-548). 156 However, there is a brief statement

about Ihy already in the Old Kingdom, as the Palermo Stone hints at his filial relationship with

his mother-goddess Hathor (Urk. I, 247): nswt-bjt (nfr-jr-kA-ra)| jr.n.f m mnw[.f] ms(t) wpt-r Dam twt jHj

Sms r Hwt-Hrw nht mrt-(snfrw)| “Dual King Neferirkara: he made it as [his] monument, namely the

fashioning and opening of the mouth of an electrum statue of Ihy for the procession (literally,

following) to Hathor of the Sycamore (in the structure called) Beloved of Sneferu.”

The statement implies that Ihy was closely connected with Hathor as his cult statue accompanied

the procession to the temple of Hathor (T. Wilkinson 2000: 175). It is well attested that Ihy was

worshipped as the youthful god of music and as the son of Hathor and Horus of Edfu in Dendera,

the principal cultic center of Hathor, during the Ptolemaic-Roman Period. In this respect, it is

noteworthy that Pepi I, the Sixth Dynasty king who was honored even in the Ptolemaic-Roman

Period for his devotion to Hathor of Dendera, is shown “kneeling before Hathor and presenting

155 It should be noted, however, that Ihy already appears in many theophoric names of the Old Kingdom
such as jHjj m zA.f “Ihy is his protection,” which indicates that the cult of Ihy might have been established in
the Old Kingdom (Ranke 1935: 44.24; Junker 1943: 192; H. Altenmüller 1991a: 23). Moreover, this can be
further confirmed by a number of other Old Kingdom personal names. For the Old Kingdom personal
names bearing Ihy, see Ranke 1935: 44.20, 44.23-27, 45.1, 150.4, 195.12, 332.9 and 1952: 223.
156 Most of the epithets are from the temples of the Ptolemaic-Roman Period. Some of them include: (1) jHj wr

zA Hwt-Hrw nxn nfr “Ihy the Great, son of Hathor, the perfect youth” (Sambin 1988: 70-71; Leitz 2001-I: 545); (2)
Hwn nTr pr m wrt “(Ihy) the divine youth who came forth from the Great One” (Sambin 1988: 70-71); and (3)
jHy n mjwt.f m st wrt “Ihy for his mother in the great throne” (Leitz 2001-I: 545).

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the figure of a child upon his outstretched hands” in scenes on the temple walls of Dendera. In

one case, the figure is named “Ihy the Great, the son of Hathor” (Fischer 1968b: 40-42). According

to Ranke (1935: 421.10), an Old Egyptian personal name mrj.s jHy “she (Hathor) loves Ihy” implies

his close relationship with his mother.

4.4 The Middle Kingdom

By the time of the Middle Kingdom, Ihy is more clearly described as a child deity through a few

Coffin Text spells and a handful of visual representations (Sandri 2006: 198). Among those spells,

the most elaborate account concerning the deity is found in Coffin Texts Spell 334, whose

purpose is to help the deceased identify themselves with Ihy:

T4-1. Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 179a - 183j) 157

179-a xpr m jHy

179-b j [...] Snwt HAt ra, m.Tn hA.j [n.Tn]
179-c jnk mtwt jptw tpt nt ra 179-d wtt.n.f wj m Xt mjwt jst 179-e m [rn.j pw wr n] nb wsr m pt sxm m tA
179-f sxr.j pw xr jt(j).j ra 179-g Hna mjwt.j [jst]
179-h wnn.(j) m tA pn Hna anxw 179-i j.mr.j [rn].j tp r.sn m jHy zA Hwt-Hr
179-j dwA.sn nwj, snsn.(sn) 179-k wj [n aAt nt] mrwt.j ra nb
179-l jnk nb t Hr(j)-tp H(n)ot 179-m sdm.j m(j) r.k m [r 179-n n Snw]t DfAyw DfAywt
wnmt[.j] 179-o ddt.n.sn
awj.sn n.j 179-p njs.sn r.j 179-q wn.sn aAw.sn 179-r zn.sn oA[rwt.sn] 158
179-s [soA].sn rn.j pw nfr ra nb n jHy 179-t nw m r n xrpw xnt [ … ]
180-a [jn]k zA tp(j) n ra, jnk nw mry mjwt.f 180-b [jnk] zA nbt-Hwt 180-c wrr.n.j sbo.n.j
180-d-e nj Htm.n sAmt.j m Xt jt(j).j [ra] mjwt.j [Hwt-Hr]
180-f anx.j anxt, wnn.j wnnt
180-g nD.j pat m-a nTrw, TAz pXr
180-h jnk nDt(j) [...] 180-i soA.j m rn.j pw n jHy
180-j dj.t(w) n.j hy m rn.j pw n xnzw
180-k nj sk.j m pt Hna ra Hna mjwt.j Hwt-Hr
180-l [nj sk.j] m tA Hna ra 180-m Hna mjwt.j Hwt-Hr 180-n jw rn.j m tA Hna anxw 180-o jnk jHy zA [Hwt-Hr]

157 For translations, see Allam 1963: 144-146; Faulkner 1973: 257-260.
158 For the restoration, see Faulkner 1973: 259, note 6.

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 180-p sdA pt jm(j).s m ksw 180-q mnmn tAwj [tp]-m sSd
180-r rs r.f Hr n tp(j)w nbwt.sn Hmsw Hr oAbw.sn 180-s anxw zAAw wAwt jrt ra-tm 180-t Snwt HAt nt ra
180-u rs r.f Hr n HAw-Hr nxt-wsrt zAAw Tbt ra
180-v Hr Hr.Tn, snD sdA n.j
181-a m.Tn wj j.kw m nb Snwt 181-b snD n.j jmjw-xt psDt 181-c jw SfSft.j tp-awj.j m jHy 181-d zA Hwt-Hrw
181-e jnk pw aAa.j aAat 181-f zAb.n.j zAbt jmtj mntj.s [m rn.j] pw n zAb jxx
181-g sD.n.j m swHt 181-h As.n.j m zf.s zbn.n.j Hr znfw.s
181-i jnk nb dSrw, jnk kA Xnw
181-j aAa.n wj mjwt.j jst 181-k xm.n.s Dt.s Xr Dbaw nb nTrw
181-l sD.n.f sj m hrw pw n fAw 159 tmA m [...] n HDt [...] n nb nTrw hrw pw n Xnnw
181-m nj tAzt wsrwt 181-n nj znt tpw nTrw 181-o nj mnt jtn Hr abwj, nj TAzt Hr n bAt
181-p xpr.n.j xprt, Hnmnm.n.j Hnmnmyt 181-q dbn.n.j dbnt, rd.n.j rdt
181-r oA.n.j oAyt mj jt(j).j [ra] 181-s [o]A.[j mj] oA.f
181-t HDt.j tp.j nt Ha wAD 181-u Atfw.j m wpt.j
182-a nrwtt.j m HAt.j 182-b dj.s nrw.j n nTrw SfSf.(j) n Snwt ra
182-c jnk nb nrw aA SfSft 182-d jn baHw Tz wj
182-e jn [Agb] d[d … ] zp 182-f sno.j m mjwt.j jst, dp.(j ) bnjt.s
182-g rmm.sn nwj, nj mA.n.sn wj
182-h jAkb.sn wj, nj sDm.sn xrw.j
182-i jnk nw n mjwt.f 182-j jnk nxnw zA Hwt-Hrw
182-k jnk nny jmj nw
182-l [jnk...] 182-m jw rx rn.j st.j
182-n jw.j m H(j)H(j) bw wnn.j jm m rn.j pw n HHw
182-o gm.n.(j) wj m pwnt 182-p od.n.j pr jm Hr msxnt.j 182-q jw mjwt.j Xr nhwt.s
182-r sAA.j dwA [...] nxnw nw nTr aA
182-s HwA.n.j jm, snsn.j jm 183-a m rn.j pw n snsn r(m)Tw nTrw
183-b HwAAt.j pw antjw ddw n.s mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw r tp.s
183-c sT.j pw snTrw [ddw n.s mjwt.j] Hwt-Hrw r kAp.s
183-d rDw.j pw Hknw 183-e ddw n.s mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw r jwf.s
183-f tp.j pw oAr.s ddw n.s mjwt.j r oaH.s
183-g mXtjw.j pw TAw mnjt[.s ddw n.s] mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw r xx.s
183-h drtj.j pw sSSt.s ddw n.s mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw r snnt.s jm
183-i mntj.j pw Xnkwt.s ddw n.s mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw j[r ...].s jm
183-j Xt.j [pw s[...] [ddw n.s] mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw TAz.t(w).s jm.s

179-a TRANSFORMATION INTO IHY

179-b Oh [ … ], entourage around Re, look, I will go down [to you].
179-c I am that first seed of Re; 179-d he begot me in the belly of my mother Isis
179-e in [this my great name] of Lord who is powerful in the sky and mighty on the
earth.

159 For the unusual writing of fAw, see Faulkner 1973: 259, note 18.

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 179-f That is my condition with my father Re and my mother [Isis].
179-h I will be in this world with the living,
179-i because I want my name to be at the top of their mouths as Ihy, son of Hathor.
179-j They will worship me and will fraternize 179-k with me [because of the greatness of] the
love of me every day.
179-l I am the lord of bread, one in charge of beer,
179-m because I hear “Come!” from [the mouth of the entour]age of
179-n male and female food-gods.
[My] food is 179-o what they have given.
Their arms are (extended) to me; 179-p they will call to me;
179-q they will open their doors 179-r they will pull back [their door bolts];
179-s they will exalt every day this my good name (= nickname) of Ihy,
179-t a child in the speech of those who direct music (?) [ … ]. 160
180-a I am the first-born son of Re; I am a child whom his mother loves;
180-b [I am] the son of Nephthys. 180-c As I grew up, I became more splendid. 161
180-d-e My side-lock does not perish in the body of my father [Re] and my mother [Hathor].
180-f I will indeed live; I will indeed exist.
180-g I will protect the elite from the gods, and vice versa.
180-h I am the protector of [...] 180-i I have been exalted in this my name of Ihy.
180-j Acclamation is given to me in this my name of Khonsu.
180-k I will not perish in the sky with Re, with my mother Hathor.
180-l [I will not perish] on the earth with Re, 180-m with my mother Hathor,
180-n for my name is on the earth with the living, 180-o for I am Ihy, son of Hathor.
180-p The sky trembles and the one who is in it, bowing;
180-q the Two Lands quake in advance of the flash.
180-r The face of those on their baskets, seated on their coils, will be watchful,
180-s the living ones who guard the paths of the Eye of Atum,
180-t the Entourage around Re.
180-u The face of the dangerous ones, 162 the strong of neck who guard the “Sandal of Re” 163
will be watchful.
180-v (Down) on your face. Fear and tremble at me.
181-a Look, I have come as the lord of the Entourage;
181-b those who follow after the Ennead fear me;
181-c the awe of me is before me as Ihy, 181-d son of Hathor.
181-e The one who ejaculates seed/ejaculation is I; 164

160 Cf. Allam for another possible translation: “im Munde der Anführer der Tänzerinnen (?)” (1963: 144).
161 It can be also read and translated as wr rn.j sbo n.j “My name is great and splendid for me.”
162 For the translation, see Faulkner 1973: 259, note 14.

163 The Sandal of Re is understood as a barge (H. Altenmuller 1991b: 14, note 22). Cf. CT I 267a-b: dj.j DA.k ptrtj,

DA.k S, nmj.k wAD wr Tb.tj mj jr.n.k tp tA “I will let you cross the Waterway of the Sky-Windows (literally,
“Looking Waters”), cross the lake, stride the Great Blue-Green shod (with the sandal) as you have done on
the earth.”

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 181-f I flowed flowing 165 between her thighs [in] this [my name] of Jackal of the
Sunshine;
181-g I broke out of the egg; 181-h I hastened out of her zf; I slid out on her blood;
181-i I am the lord of redness; 166 I am the bull of turbulence;
181-j my mother Isis has ejaculated me,
181-k when she was unconscious 167 under the fingers of the Lord of the Gods;
181-l he broke it (the egg) on that day of carrying the mat (?) in [...] and
of damaging the [ … ] of the Lord of the Gods on the day of chaos,
181-m before the necks were tied on; 181-m before the heads of the gods were cut off;
181-o before the sun-disk came to rest on the (two) horns, before the face of Bat was tied
on; 168

181-p I indeed came into being; I indeed crept. 181-q I indeed encircled; I indeed grew;
181-r I indeed became high like my father [Re] 181-s [becoming] high as he becomes high.
181-t My white crown of fresh body is upon me;
181-u my atef-crowns are on my brow
182-a my terrible one (= uraeus) is in front of me
182-b so that she may give the dread of me into the gods
and the awe of me to the Entourage of Re.
182-c I am the lord of dread, great of awe;
182-d and it is the inundation who carries me aloft; 182-e it is [ … ] that gives [ … ]
occasion.
182-f I suckle from my mother, Isis; I taste her sweetness.
182-g They weep (for) me, when they cannot see me;
182-h they mourn me when they cannot hear my voice.
182-i I am the child of his mother; 182-j I am the baby, son of Hathor.
182-k I am the Inert One who is in Nu.
182-l [I am ...]; 182-m my name and my place are known.
182-n I am seeking the place where I will be in this my name of Huh.
182-o When I found myself in Punt, 182-p I built a house there on my birth-place,
182-q while my mother was under her sycamores.
182-r When I linger [...] will worship the babies of the great god,
182-s for I have rotted there; I have fraternized there
183-a in this my name of the one who fraternizes men and gods.
183-b My putrefaction is myrrh, which my mother Hathor puts for herself on her head;
183-c my smell is incense, [which my mother] Hathor [puts] for herself into her censer;
183-d my efflux is sacred, 183-e which my mother Hathor puts for herself on her flesh;

164 Faulkner translates aAa as “semen,” “seed,” adding that the term is used here as the result of the injection
of semen, the new-born child (1973: 259, note 15).
165 For the meaning of zAb “to flow” see Otto 1952: 190; J. Allen 1984: 561.

166 Cf. Ranke for an Old Kingdom personal name jHjj dSr “Ihy of Red” (1935: 44.23).

167 For the translation of xm.n.s Dt.s, see Allam 1963: 145, note 4.

168 For the face of Bat, see Allam 1963: 145, note 5; Faulkner 1973: 259, note 20.

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 183-f my head is her sack, which my mother <Hathor> puts for herself on her shoulder;
183-g my intestines are beads of her menit, [which] my mother Hathor [puts for herself] on
her throat;
183-h my two hands are her sistrum, which my mother Hathor gives to herself in order to
make herself inert therewith; 169
183-i my two thighs are her Xnkt-garment, 170 which my mother Hathor gives to herself [in
order to ...] herself therewith;
183-j my bell is [her ...], [which] my mother [gives to herself] so that she may be knit
together by it.

First of all, there are many indicators showing clearly that Ihy appears as a child deity in this

Coffin Texts spell (and in others). Words that denote “child” (Feucht 1995: 503-557) are used in

the spell to express the status of Ihy: (CT IV 180a) jnk nw mry mjwt.f “I am a child whom his

mother loves”; (CT IV 182j) jnk nxnw zA Hwt-Hrw “I am the baby, son of Hathor.” 171

In addition, there is a mention of the side-lock of youth (CT IV 180d): nj Htm.n sAmt.j m Xt jt(j).j

mjwt.j “my side-lock does not perish in the body of my father and mother.” In another spell, Ihy is

also depicted as sitting on the lap of his-mother goddess, which is one of the typical poses of the

child (deity) (CT VI 61g): jHy.s Hr mntj.s “Her (Hathor’s) Ihy is on her thighs.”

The birthplace of Ihy as a child deity is mentioned as Punt in Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 182o-

q): gm.n.(j) wj m pwnt, od.n.j pr jm Hr msxnt.j jw mjwt.j Xr nhwt.s “When I found myself in Punt, I

built a house there on my birth-place, while my mother was under her sycamores.” 172 Doubtless,

169 For the meaning of snn as the causative of nnj “to be inert,” see Faulkner 1973: 260, note 31.
170 For the Xnkt-garment, see Faulkner 1973: 260, note 32.
171 It is noteworthy that Ihy is one of few child deities whose name is not incorporated with the epithet pA-Xrd

(pa-khered) “the child” after the New Kindgom (Sandri 2006: 199).
172 In Coffin Texts Spell 484, it is also said that Ihy built a mansion where he will live and celebrate the

monthly festival (CT VI 61g-62c): jHy.s Hr mntj.s, od.n.f Hwwt mm wrw.Tn, sor.n.f pAow, anx.f jm, jr.f Abd.f m wnwt.f
Hna jmjw sSr, jw mA.n.f m Hr.f “Her [Hathor’s] Ihy is on her thighs. He has built enclosures among your great
ones. He has laid down the offering-bread on which he will live. He will celebrate his monthly festival in his
time with those who are in linen, for he has looked with his face.” The spells from CT VI 61j-l are found only

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the deity’s birthplace that was considered as the God’s Land (tA nTr) is closely associated with

Hathor, who is known as “Lady of Punt” and “Lady of Incense” (Bleeker 1973: 73; B. Lesko 1999:

97). Hathor’s connection, as Lady of Foreign Lands, with Punt, one of Egypt’s exotic trading

partners from which the ancient Egyptians obtained precious products for temple rituals (Kitchen

1982: 1198-1201), 173 clearly shows her expansive personality but, except for the mother-son

relationship between Hathor and Ihy, its significance as the birthplace of Ihy remains elusive. In

connection with the moon god Khonsu, whose name means “courser” or “traveler,” however, Ihy

appears to demonstrate an aspect of the lunar deity, which is not impossible given his status as

the son of the sun-god and as a god of light (Goebs 2008: 146). 174 At the same time, the mention of

his birthplace stresses Ihy’s position as a child deity.

It seems that Ihy’s role in the pantheon is established mostly during the Middle Kingdom and his

role as the divine musician is emphasized but remains almost unchanged in the New Kingdom

and after (H. Altenmüller 1991a: 19-20). For instance, in the Karnak sanctuary of Amun, Ihy the

son of Hathor is shown to present a sistrum to the king (Thutmose III), saying the following (Urk.

IV 580, 5-6): jw n.k nTr nfr nb tAwj jr.k jhhy“(It) is for you, junior god, lord of the Two Lands, so that

you may rejoice.” He is also briefly mentioned in Chapters 103 (= Coffin Texts Spell 588) and 149

of the Book of the Dead as a divine guide and a protective deity of the deceased (see 4.6.1 and

4.6.2 below). Unlike other child deities such as Khonsu and Nefertem, he was not integrated into

a divine triad until the Ptolemaic Period and thus his role was not changed or expanded as the

in B1B0 and thus are not included in the translation. See Faulkner 1977: 129, note 5. It is apparent that the
enclosures will serve as the permanent abode for the god.
173 Kitchen points out that in the case of Queen Hatshepsut’s expedition to Punt, the royal envoy brought

Egyptian food products “officially” for Hathor, for whom a shrine was set up in Punt, but that the products
were in practice goods to be traded for items sought by Egyptians (2001: 85).
174 The relationship between Punt and the moon god Khonsu/Ihy will be discussed in CHAPTER 5.

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child-member of a triad. His relatively constant nature as a child deity will be explored in detail

next.

NATURE OF THE DEITY

According to H. Altenmüller (1991a: 19, 24), Ihy plays two important roles:

(1) the divine musician who propitiates the angered god through music; and

(2) the caring guide and protector, as described in the funerary texts, who leads the deceased

on the paths to the afterworld, thereby to life and resurrection.

So it will be appropriate to examine the above-mentioned functions as Ihy’s major traits.

4.5 The divine musician (divine acolyte)

As mentioned above, Ihy is regarded as the divine musician par excellence. It is important,

however, to note that Ihy’s role as the divine musician stems from his close relationship with his

mother-goddess Hathor. While she is propitiated by deities and her worshippers, Hathor herself

is a divine mediator who can soothe wrathful gods with her attractiveness.

As the female principle of (re)generation, the goddess appears as a female of youthful attraction,

which soothes the heart of her father, the sun-god in the Contendings of Horus and Seth: xr jr sA

jAdt aAt wn.jn Hwt-Hrt nb nhA rsj Hr jAy, jw.st Hr aHa m bAH jt(j).st nb-r-Dr, jw.st kfAw kAt.st r Hr.f aHa.n pA nTr aA

sbjA jm.st “So, after a long time, Hathor, Mistress of the Southern Sycamore, came and stood

before her father, the Lord of the Limit, and exposed her vulva to his face. Then the elder god

laughed at her” (p.Chester Beatty I = LES 41, 7-10). Here it is Hathor’s stimulating intervention

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that brings the sun-god back into relationship with the pantheon once again. 175 Regarding the

enlivening attraction of Hathor, Roberts writes (1995: 58): “In a gesture of humorous spontaneity

which only a child could bring to such a situation, she displays her genitals before him, rousing him to

laughter by her playful behavior.” 176 Besides her sexual attractiveness, Hathor plays a mediating role

through the power of music and acts as a divine intermediary between the divine and the

royal/private. In particular, the two instruments sacred to her – the sistrum and the menit – were

believed to possess the magical power of Hathor (Hart 1986: 98; S. Lesko 1999: 100). 177

By the time of the New Kingdom, the sistrum had become the instrument that could be used to

pacify any deity, male and female (Manniche 2001: 293). In particular, the instrument is used to

propitiate important Egyptian deities such as Amun, Osiris, Horus and Re-Horakhty (Ziegler

1984: 960, 962 and note 37). Therefore, Hathor (or Isis) holding the sistrum was visualized as an

effective divine intermediary. One good example is the scene on the west wall of the hypostyle

hall in the temple of Karnak, where King Sety I of the Nineteenth Dynasty is led by Isis, who

wears the horned headdress and shakes the sistrum before Amun-Re and Mut. While the

goddess reveals herself as Isis, it is clear that she takes up the attributes and the mediating role of

175 For the goddesses of healing laughter found in other cultures, such as Baubo (a minor crone figure in
Greek mythology) and Uzme (the Japanese goddess of mirth and dance), see Bolen 2001: 99-107.
176 Similarly, in Papyrus Westcar, Sneferu is advised by the chief lector priest to get his heart to “grow cool”

by the youthful beauty of the palace maidens (p.Westcar 5, 1-5): Hwj A wDA Hm.k r S n pr-aA anx(.w)-(w)DA(.w)-
s(nb.w) apr n.k bAw m nfrwt nbt nt Xnw aH.k jb n Hm.k r obb nj mAA Xnn.sn Xnt xd m xnt “If Your Incarnation would
proceed to a pool of the Big House, l.p.h., after a boat has been equipped for you with every young girl of
the interior of your palace, the heart of Your Incarnation will grow cool at seeing them row downstream and
upstream.” As regards a New Kingdom example, there is a limestone bas-relief in which the two daughters
of Amenhotep III, Iset and Sitamun, adorned with the thick side-lock of youth, are shown shaking a sistrum
in their father’s sed-festival (Ziegler 2008: 256).
177 The power of the sistrum is mentioned by a number of classical writers in late antiquity. Plutarch also

noted the instrument’s power in his De Iside et Osiride (Griffith 1970: 219): “The sistrum (seistron) also
indicates that the things which exist should be shaken (seiesthai dei) and should never stop moving, but should be
awaked and disturbed, as it were, when they are sleepy and sluggish. For they say that with the sistrum they repel and
ward off Typhon, meaning that when decay confines and restricts nature, the power of creation sets her free and
restores her by means of movement.”

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Hathor. Shaking the naos-sistrum in an act of mediation, she plays the role of an intermediary

between the solar father and the son-king, who are brought face-to-face with each other (Roberts

1995: 55-56).

However, the appeasing power of music is already found in the Middle Kingdom tale of Sinuhe,

where music and dance are performed by the royal children to pacify the king, who is identified

with the sun-god (Anderson 1995: 2557; Manniche 1991: 64-65, 2001: 293):

T4-2. The Tale of Sinuhe (B 268-279) 178

jst r.f jn.n.sn mnjwt.sn sxmw.sn B269 zSSwt.sn m a.sn

mz.jn.sn st n Hm.f <Dd.jn.sn xft Hm.f>
awj.k r B270 {r} nfrt nswt wAH Xkryt nt nbt-pt
dj nbw B271 anx r fnd.k, Xnm tw nbt sbAw
xd Smas, xnt mHs, B272 zmA tt m r n Hm.k
dj.tw wAD(t) m wpt.k, sHr B273 n.k twAw m Dwt
Htp n.k ra nb tAwj B274 hy n.k mj nbt-r-Dr
nft ab.k, sfx Ssr.k B275 jmj TAw <n> ntj m jtmw
jmj n.n xnt.tn nfrt B276 m mjtn pn zA mHyt, pDtj ms m tA-mrj
B277 jr.n.f wart n snD.k, rwj.n.f tA n B278 Hrw.k
nn Ayt Hr n mA Hr.k, B279 nn snD jrt dgt n.k

Now, they (the king’s children) had gotten their menits and their scepters,
B269 their sistra being in their hand;
so, they presented them to His Incarnation <and said before His Incarnation,>
“Your arms be to B270 something good, lasting king, the ornaments of the Mistress of the
Sky!
May the Golden One give B271 life to your nose and the Mistress of Stars join you.
Let Valley Crown go north and Delta Crown go south,
B272 united and reconciled through the mouth of your Incarnation.
Let the Wadjet be placed on your brow, that banishes B273 for you dependents from evil.
May the Sun, the Lord of the Two Lands, be content for you,

178For translations, see Brunner 1955: 6; Lichtheim 1975: 232; Parkinson 1997: 41;Westendorf 1977: 299;
Goedicke 1998: 35; Simpson 2003b: 65. For the interpretation of the quoted section above, see Brunner 1955:
5-11; Derchain 1970: 79-83; Westendorf 1977: 293-304; Goedicke 1998: 29-36.

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 B274 with acclaim to you, as to the Lady to the Limit.
Turn aside your horn, let loose your arrow, B275 give breath <to> the one who is
suffocating.
Give us our good outcome, B276 in this wayfarer, son of the north wind,
a bowman born in Canal-land.
B277 He has made flight for fear of you, and left the land for B278 terror of you.
No face of one who might see your face should pale,
B279 no eye that looks at you should fear.”

As shown in the text above, the royal children present menit and sistra to appease the king,

asking the king to be gracious. As mentioned, these instruments are offered to calm the gods and

make them more amenable to helping and protecting mankind (Gardiner 1915: 95). 179 The appeal

of the royal children is directed to the king, who is equated with the sun-god, but the epithets of

Hathor, such as nbw “Golden One,” nbt-pt “Mistress of the Sky”and nbt sbAw “Mistress of Stars,”

indicate that the ceremony is closely associated with Hathor. What merits our attention is that the

queen of King Senwosret I, who is present in the ceremony, is addressed as nbt-r-Dr “Lady to the

Limit,” one of the epithets of Hathor (Brunner 1955: 10-11; Parkinson 1997: 52, note 76), which is

also attested in Coffin Texts Spell 331 (CT IV 172h): jw.j xa.kw m Hwt-Hrw pAtt nbt-r-Dr “I have

appeared as Hathor, the Primeval One, the Lady to the Limit.” Therefore, the queen, the earthly

manifestation of Hathor (Troy 1986: 53-72; B. Lesko 1999: 121-122), plays the propitiating role of

the goddess between the king and Sinuhe, along with the royal children. 180 In this regard, the

179 In private tombs, tomb-owners are presented with these instruments in a ceremony held in their honor
while music and dance are performed (Blackman 1914: Plate 2, 1915: Plate 15; Gardiner 1915: Plates 19, 20;
Parkinson 1991: 78-81).
180 Parkinson notes that the song of the royal children has an “erotic charge” because it evokes the king’s

union with Hathor, who is embodied on the earth by the queen, to ensure his own rebirth and continual
vitality (1997: 52, note 74). In this regard, Derchain sees the ceremony as the union of the sun-god and
Hathor (1970: 80). Cf. Westendorf 1977: 296; he thinks the queen herself takes part in the ceremony.

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ceremony of the royal children can be regarded as “Besänftigung des Sonnengottes Re durch

Hathor,” as described in the Contendings of Horus and Seth above (Westendorf 1977: 293). 181

It is apparent that, with her attraction and the power of music, Hathor can act as a divine

intermediary between the two different spheres – (1) the divine and the royal (as in the case of the

above-mentioned Karnak bas-relief of Sety I) and (2) the royal and the private (as in the case of

Senwosret I and Sinuhe). In this regard, Westendorf’s observation is worth noting (1977: 295):

“Auch Brunner (1955: 6-7) geht von der Frage aus, wer mit den ‘Königskindern’ gemeint ist, wer also

diesen von Gesang begleiteten Kultakt zelebriert. Mit Brunner teile ich die Ansicht, daβ die Einengung auf

die Prinzessinnen nicht zwingend erscheint: auch Prinzen – Abbilder des Ihi – können das Sistrum

schwingen.”

Here we can see the true nature of Ihy as a divine musician, who is usually depicted as wearing a

menit around his neck and holding a sistrum in his hand, the sacred emblem in the worship of his

mother Hathor (CT IV 183h; see Sethe 1930: 23, 121; Bonnet 1952: 321-322; Hoenes 1980: 125; Hart

1986: 98; Pinch 2002: 148). 182 Like his mother, who possesses the “spontaneity and playfulness of a

daughter, blessed with considerable natural charm” (Roberts 1995: 58), 183 Ihy uses his

181 Westendorf claims that Sinuhe, whose name means “Son of the Sycamore,” is just like the king

rejuvenated through his mother Hathor (1977: 298, 303-304).

182 H. Altenmüller claims that Ihy’s extended arm holding a sistrum resembles the posture of the

outstretched hand in the defensive magic used by ancient Egyptian herdsmen to ward off crocodiles (1991:
26). However, the connection is not supported by any decisive textual evidence.
183 During the Amarna period, Akhenaten and his family worshipped the Aten, and their subjects, in turn,

worshipped them. In the absence of all diversity and the richness of the traditional religious representations,
Akhenaten and his family filled the vacuum for Egyptian people now deprived of ancestral busts and
similar protective deities that used to protect their households. In this regard, the true childlike gestures of
the royal children during the Amarna Period, found in a number of contemporary stelae and relief scenes,
might have been intended to stress the royal children’s intermediary role for private worshippers with their
spontaneity and playfulness. It should be remembered that Akhenaten sought to transform the “abstract
mystery of traditional Egyptian mythology” into the “concrete reality of everyday life” by forming a triad or
even an ennead with the living king himself and his family members (J. Allen 1996: 5; Reeves 2001: 146).

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attractiveness as a child (deity) – especially in his capacity as the sun-child who emerges from the

primeval water Nu (see 4.9 below) – when he acts as an intermediary deity. Towards this

purpose, he is filled with power emanating from the two sacred instruments. 184 In this role, Ihy is

not so much the son of the versatile goddess as he is her satellite – or more aptly put, her divine

acolyte, who accompanies his mother in temple rituals like the royal children who accompany the

queen in ceremonies, as shown in the Tale of Sinuhe.

In sum, as divine acolyte of his mother-goddess Hathor (see 4.12 below), Ihy functions in the

Egyptian pantheon as the child-intermediary of the mother-intermediary Hathor, who, like his

mother, plays a mediating role between the two different spheres, the divine and the mundane.

This explains how the king, as Horus the son of Hathor, also served as the Ihy-musician for

Hathor (as did the priests who were his delegates) (Otto 1964: 115-116; Daumas 1975: 105-106;

Ryhiner 1986: 186-187, note 67).

4.6 Ihy as the divine guide and protector

4.6.1 Ihy as the divine guide

The role of Ihy as the child-intermediary also explains his role as the guide/protector for the

deceased. First, Ihy as the son of Hathor plays the role of an intermediary who guarantees to the

deceased the proximity of Hathor, the Mistress of the West (nbt jmntt), who frequently appears as

a cow emerging from the western mountain of the Theban area in order to welcome the dead

Meanwhile, it is notable that the menit became totally absent in Amarna scenes, reflecting King Akhenaten’s
“monotheistic” drive (B. Lesko 1999: 285, note 75). Interestingly, however, the sistrum was still shaken by
the queen and the royal daughters for the sun-disk Aten.
184 Similarly, the deceased identified with Ihy seeks to become the sacred items that Hathor wears, in his

quest for eternal life in Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 183b-183j) (Otto 1952: 193).

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(Bleeker 1973: 42-45; B. Lesko 1999: 99-111). 185 This aspect of Ihy is mentioned in Coffin Texts

Spell 588 and the Book of the Dead Chapter 103:

 Coffin Texts Spell 588 (CT VI 209j-m): [N pn ...] jA[s], jHy zp 2, wnn N pn m Smsw [Hwt-Hrw]

“[This N (the deceased)] ... jAs-priest (= priest of Hathor). Ihy, Ihy. This N will be as the

follower of [Hathor].”

 Book of the Dead Chapter 103: r n wnn m Sms(w) n Hwt-Hrw, Dd.f, jnk saH wab.(w) jAs, jHy zp 2,

wnn.j m Sms(w) n Hwt-Hrw “SPELL FOR BEING AS THE FOLLOWER OF HATHOR. He says:

I am a pure dignitary, a jAs-priest. Ihy, Ihy. This N will be as the follower of Hathor.” 186

In addition, music and dance sacred to Hathor played a significant role in funerary rituals (Bell

1997: 136-137; Anderson 1995: 2564-2565; Spencer 2003: 113-116). 187 Therefore, it is not surprising

that Ihy, as the son of Hathor and the divine musician, served as the caring and protective guide

for the deceased with the magical power that he possessed on earth and in the hereafter (Allam

1963: 133; H. Altenmüller 1991a: 24-25, 1991b: 14).

As the divine guide, Ihy can see the path to the netherworld (see CT VI 162u-v below) and, with

his power in the sky and on earth, he can also fly to the sky and stay on earth as he wishes (see

CT IV 180k-o). So the deceased wishes to rise above the horizon with Ihy as the sky-god (see CT

VI 76i-j below).

185 For the concept as Hathor as Mistress of the West in association with the sun-god in his form of the aged
Atum, see B. Lesko 1999: 100-101, 109-111.
186 Note that in the text of Ca (Naville 1886a: 240), we find jnk sbj wab “I am one who passes by clean.”

187 In many Old Kingdom tomb drawings, long rows of singers, dancers and musicians are depicted at the

entrance of the tomb. They are playing, singing and dancing in order to facilitate the tomb owner’s entry
into the next world. The tradition is also found almost unchanged in many New Kingdom tombs.

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 Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180k-o): nj sk.j m pt Hna ra Hna mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw, [nj sk.j] m tA Hna ra Hna

mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw, jw rn.j m tA Hna anxw, jnk jHy zA Hwt-Hrw “I will not perish in the sky with Re, with

my mother Hathor. [I will not perish] on the earth with Re, with my mother Hathor, for my

name is on the earth with the living, for I am Ihy, son of Hathor.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 495 (CT VI 76i-j): war.n.f Hna jHy, pH.n.f Axt m bjk wr “He has fled with Ihy, he

has reached the akhet as a great falcon.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 563 (CT VI 162u-v): mAA.j wAt m jrtj.j mj jHy zA Hwt-Hrw mry.s “I will see the

path with my (two) eyes like Ihy, son of Hathor, whom she loves.”

Besides the Coffin Texts spells of the Middle Kingdom, Ihy is visualized as the protective

guide/protector in two statues of sistrum players found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (Abitz 1979:

Figure 16; H. Altenmüller 1991b: 13-14) and in two unfinished figures drawn on the wall in the

tomb of Sety II (Abitz 1979: Figures 3a-b, 16; Hornung 1990: 181). Here Ihy plays the role of

leading the deceased king to attain eternal life and resurrection. 188 According to the Egyptian

belief about the afterlife, the deceased needs to have knowledge of the path in the netherworld

and magical protection against dangerous residents and deities in the netherworld. Here Ihy is

188Abitz sees the two statues of Ihy as the rejuvenated form of the deceased king (1979: 85-86). However, H.
Altenmüller stresses the guiding role of Ihy (1991b: 14): “Ihi hat die Funktion eines Geleiters und Schützers durch
unwegsame und von Feinden besetzte Regionen.” This function justifies the identification of Ihy with Khonsu in
Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 181i-j): soA(w).j m rn.j pw n jHy, dj.t(w) n.j hy [...] m rn.j pw xnsw “I have been
exalted in this my name of Ihy. Acclamation is given to me in this my name of Khonsu”; the name Khonsu
after all means “wanderer” (Abitz 1979: 85). The two wooden statues of Ihy found in the shines of
Tutankhamun are blackened, which represents dissolution and decay after death. In this regard, Roberts
writes (1995: 31) that, as the sun-child of resurrection, Ihy emerges out of the stench and foulness as a
shining child, fragrant like Hathor, as expressed in Coffin Texts Spells 334 (CT IV 182s-183e): HwA.n.j jm,
snsn.j jm m rn.j pw n snsn r(m)Tw nTrw, HwAAt.j pw antjw ddw n.s mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw r tp.s, sT.j pw snTrw [ddw n.s mjwt.j]
Hwt-Hrw r kAp.s, rDw.j pw Hknw ddw n.s mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw r jwf.s “I have rotted there; I have fraternized there in this
my name of the one who fraternizes men and gods. My putrefaction is myrrh, which my mother Hathor
puts for herself on her head; my smell is incense, [which my mother] Hathor [puts] for herself into her
censer; my efflux is sacred oil, which my mother Hathor puts for herself on her flesh.”

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the divine guide who can cross the borderlines between this world and the next and provide

magical protection to the deceased (H. Altenmüller 1991a: 25). 189

4.6.2 Ihy as the protector 190

As the child-intermediary, Ihy is regarded as a friendly god, as in Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV

182s-183a): snsn.j jm m rn.j pw n snsn r(m)Tw nTrw “I (Ihy) have fraternized there in this my name of

the one who fraternizes men and gods.” He is also praised as the protector in other funerary

texts:

 Coffin Texts Spell 146 (CT II 199b) jHy n Hwt-Hrw m zA N pn n anx “Ihy of Hathor is the

protection of N (the deceased) for life.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180g-i) nD.j pat m-a nTrw, T(A)z pXr, jnk nDty [...], soA(w).j m rn.j pw n

jHy “I will protect the elite from the gods, and vice versa. I am the protector [...] I have been

exalted in this my name of Ihy.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 698 (CT VI 332e-f): sxt.n Tw jHy, d.n ra Hnmmt.f m sA jr.k “Ihy has driven you (a

demon of the netherworld) off; Re has placed his people in protection against you.”

 Book of the Dead Chapter 149: jn n.j jHy nb jbw sod.f osw.j, smn.f wrrt “Fetch for me Ihy, lord of

hearts, so that he may reconstruct (my) bones and affix the crown.”

In connection with the protective magic possessed by Ihy, Coffin Texts Spell 36 mentions that the

deceased “fills his body with magic” and performs his duty as a dutiful son of Osiris. Here Ihy is

189 H. Altenmüller writes that the protective magic of Ihy that guides his followers through dangerous paths
(e.g., herdsmen who guide their herd through waters infested with crocodiles) is based on the soothing
effect of music (1991a: 25). However, there is no textual evidence to support this claim.
190 Brunner says that the aspect of the child deity as a protector god is derived from Harpocrates, who has

his own magical healing power (1977b: 650). However, Ihy as the protector clearly shows that the aspect was
conceptualized earlier than, and independently of, that of Harpocrates.

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said to have the “water of life” (CT I 140f): jw jn.n.f n.k mw anxw jmjw awj jHy “He (the deceased) has

brought to you (Osiris) the living water that is in the (two) hands of Ihy.”

4.6.3 Identification with Ihy

In order to benefit from the magical power of the divine guide/intermediary, the deceased

expresses his/her wish to take the name (identity) of Ihy as the strong means of protection (see CT

IV 180i and CT V 30b-c below). In another spell, the deceased who has become Horus and

attained the power of the sun-god boasts that he will seize the power of Ihy for eternity (see CT

IV 161d-f below). The deceased also claims that he is the embodiment of Ihy (see CT VI 54f-h).

 Coffin Texts Spell 326 (CT IV 161d-f): jT wsjr N pn jHy, jnt wsjr N pn jHy nHH, smn wsjr N pn sjA r

rdwj wsjr N pn “This Osiris N (the deceased) will take possession of Ihy. This Osiris N will get

Ihy for eternity. This Osiris N will set Perception at the (two) feet of this Osiris N.” 191

 Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180i): soA(w).j m rn.j pw n jHy “I have been exalted in this my

name of Ihy.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 368 (CT V 30b-c): nj Hs js rn.k, ra rn.k jHy rn.k “Your name is not Excrement;

Re is your name, Ihy is your name.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 484 (CT VI 54f-h): jHy m Xt.j jwf wab n mjwt.f “Ihy is in my belly, the pure

flesh of his mother.” 192

Most importantly, however, the ultimate wish of the deceased is to transform himself into Ihy in

the child form as in Coffin Texts Spell 334 above (Allam 1963: 133). 193 In this regard, it should be

191 This part of the spell is found only in Sq6C. See Faulkner 1973: 253, note 8. For the relationship between
Ihy and Sia (Perception), see Otto 1952: 193.
192 See Faulkner 1977: 129, notes 3 and 4.

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noted that a child deity can symbolize rebirth after death and Ihy can appear as the primeval

child deity born from Nu (see 4.9 below). Connected with the concept of the primeval time (Nu

and Heh), the deceased identified with the divine child who is created at the time of creation can

represent himself here as a strong symbol of eternal resurrection and rejuvenation (Allam 1963:

135-136). The wish of the deceased to become a child, the embodiment of resurrection and

rejuvenation, is repeated in Coffin Texts Spell 290, where the deceased becomes a weaned child

(Otto 1952: 193):

T4-3. Coffin Texts Spell 290 (CT IV 42a-e) 194

42-a xpr m wDH

42-b jnk jr.j xpr m wDH 42-c jrw a.f, Ddw mjwt.f
42-d nnk xprw n nTr nb 195
42-e jrr z(j) xprw m nTr nb mrrw z(j) jrt xprw jm

42-a TRANSFORMATION INTO A WEANLING

42-b So I am the one who has transformed into a weanling
42-c whose document has been made; one (about) whom his mother has said:
42-d “Mine are the transformations of every god.”
42-e How a man changes into any god into which a man wishes to change.

The spell above is interesting in that the focus is on the unlimited potential of the divine child

who is able to transform into any divine form. Other spells directly mention the young god who

attained resurrection in the hereafter:

193 It is also noteworthy that the deceased is identified with Hathor in Coffin Texts Spells 331 and 332.
194 For a translation, see Faulkner 1973: 217. For the mention of the young god, see Coffin Texts Spell 46.
There is a shorter version that expresses the wish of the deceased to become a child. It is Coffin Texts Spell
291 (CT IV 42f-j): Dd-mdw xpr m Xrd, jnk jr.f xprw m Xrdw, jrrw (j)t(j).f Ddw mjwt.f, jnk pw “RECITATION.
TRANSFORMATION INTO A CHILD. Mine are the forms of a child whom his father makes and (about)
whom his mother said: “It is him” (literally, “It is I”).”
195 Cf. B1B0 reads n.f jm(y) xpry nb in B1B0.

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T4-4. Coffin Texts Spell 30 (CT I 88b-93b) 196

88/89-b jj.(w) m Htp <n> jmnt, nTr rnpw ms.n jmnt nfrt, jj.(w) mjn m tA anx.(w) 197
90/91-a dr.n.f xmw r.f 90/91-b mH.n.f Xt.f m HkAw
90/91-c Htm.n.f jbt.f jm.f 90/91-d sdA n.f wrSw.f jm.f 92/93-a mj Apd
92/93-b xrw.sn nTrw Axtjw r N pn jmj jmnt 198

88/89-b Welcome <to> the West, the young god whom the Beautiful West bore,
who has come here from earth alive,
90/91-a having removed his dust from him; 90/91-b having filled his belly with magic;
90/91-c having quenched his thirst with it;
90/91-d at whom those who watch for him tremble 92/93-a like a bird.
92/93-b So they say, the gods of the akhet regarding this N who is in the west.

By the same token, Ihy, as the first creation after the creation and as a young god who has

tremendous magical power, can lead the deceased to resurrection. Through identification,

however, the deceased no longer seeks magical protection from him. Rather, he becomes one

with this divine guide/intermediary.

IHY AS A CHILD DEITY

As shown above, the concept of Ihy as a child deity is firmly established by the Middle Kingdom.

What should be remembered here is that, as a child deity, Ihy follows the pattern of the sun-child,

rather than that of the Horus child. As the son of the sun-god, Ihy has the aspects of the sun-child

and demonstrates the common feature of Egyptian child deities, such as Khonsu and Nefertem,

who embody the nHH-element as a symbol of the periodical rejuvenation of the sun-god/creator

god (Westendorf 1974: 136-141; Brunner 1977b: 649).

196 For a translation, see Faulkner 1973: 19.

197 For the variations among the spells, see Faulkner 1973: 19, note 10.
198 Note that T1L reads: xrw.sn wrw Axtj r N pn “So say the great ones of the two akhets regarding this N.” See

Faulkner 1973: 20, note 15.

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4.7 Son of the sun-god

When it comes to the father-god of Ihy, the sun-god Re and Horus of Edfu are both mentioned.

With regard to the fatherly role of the sun-god, the close relationship between Re and Hathor

should be considered first. In fact, their relationship is attested throughout Egyptian history in a

number of funerary texts and hymns. 199 B. Lesko argues that Hathor was not one of the earliest

goddesses whose origin could be traced back to the Pre-Dynastic Period, but one who was

deliberately invented by the priests of the sun-god as their deity’s spouse, playing the role of the

universal female creative principle with a number of attributes borrowed from earlier goddesses

(1999: 83). The fact that numerous priests had titles combining the two also points to the close

association between Re and Hathor (Allam 1963: 7; Galvin 1981: 78). In addition, nbw “Golden

One,” one of the commonest epithets of Hathor, which identifies the goddess as the

personification of the solar disk (Allam 1963: 131; Bleeker 1973: 26; H. Altenmüller 1975: 134), also

attests to the complementary relationship between Re and Hathor as the male and female

elements of the solar deity (Troy 1986: 21; Hassan 1998: 103).

According to Coffin Texts Spell 334, the sun-god is regarded as the spouse of Hathor-Isis and the

father-god of Ihy (Allam 1963: 113). In the spell, Ihy is called: (CT IV 179c) mtwt jptw tpt nt ra “that

first seed of Re”; and (CT IV 180a; see also CT IV 179f) zA tp(j) n ra “the first-born son of Re.” 200 In

addition, as in the case of the sun-god and Hathor (Allam 1963: 114), Ihy, as the sun-child, is

199 The major cultic centers of the sun-god and Hathor can give a clue to understanding the close relationship
between the two deities. Allam assumes that jwnt, the ancient Egyptian name of Dendera, is probably the
female form of jwnw or Heliopolis, which is the major cultic center of the sun-god during the Old Kingdom
(1963: 113; see also Fischer 1968b: 40).
200 Later, Ihy is worshipped as the son of Hathor and Horus of Edfu in Dendera (Hoenes 1980: 125), but it

can be said that Ihy still remains the solar child because Horus of Edfu had become solarized and identified
with the sun-god.

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mentioned side by side with the sun-god in some Coffin Texts spells for the protection of the

deceased against demons and unpleasant events:

 Coffin Texts Spell 368 (CT V 30b-c): nj Hs js rn.k, ra rn.k jHy rn.k “Your name is not Excrement;

Re is your name, Ihy is your name.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 698 (CT VI 332e-f): sxt.n Tw jHy, d.n ra Hnmmt.f m sA jr.k “Ihy has driven you (a

demon of the netherworld) off; Re has placed his people in protection against you.”

There is no doubt that these spells indicate the position of Ihy as the son of the sun-god.

4.8 The sun-child

As the son of the sky-goddess and the consort of the sun-god, it is not surprising that Ihy is

closely associated with the sun-god, especially the rising sun-god, as shown in Coffin Texts Spell

334 (Bonnet 1952: 322):

 Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180c): wrr.n.j sbo.n.j “as I grew up, I became more splendid.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 181r): oA.n.j oAyt mj jt(j).j “I have become high like my father.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180k-o): nj sk.j m pt Hna ra Hna mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw, [nj sk.j] m tA Hna ra Hna

mjwt.j Hwt-Hrw, jw rn.j m tA Hna anxw, jnk jHy zA Hwt-Hrw “I will not perish in the sky with Re, with

my mother Hathor. [I will not perish] on the earth with Re, with my mother Hathor, for my

name is on the earth with the living, for I am Ihy, son of Hathor.” 201

201 For Ihy’s aspect as the sky-god, see 4.6.1 above.

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4.9 The primeval god

As the sun-child, Ihy can also appear as the primeval deity emerging from the primeval water, as

in Coffin Texts Spell 334 (Brunner 1977b: 648; Hoenes 1980: 126). Here the deceased who is

identified with Ihy emerges as the new-born child deity born from the primeval water when

mourning is over (CT IV 182i-n): jnk nw n mjwt.f, jnk nxnw zA Hwt-Hrw, jnk nny jmj nw [jnk ...] jw rx rn.j

st.j, jw.j m H(j)H(j) bw wnn.j jm m rn.j pw n HHw “I am the child of his mother; I am the baby, son of

Hathor. I am the Inert One in Nu; 202 [I am ...], my name and my place are known. I am seeking the

place where I will be in this my name of Huh.” 203

In this regard, it should be noted that a child deity can symbolize rebirth after death just as the

regular rebirth of the sun-child in the eternal cycle symbolizes the resurrection of the dead, the

renewal of the cosmos and the yearly renewal of Egypt’s fertility. 204 Moreover, like other deities,

especially the sun-child and the Horus child (CT II 209d), his appearance is depicted as awe-

inspiring to other divine beings, as mentioned in Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180p-q): sdA pt

jm(j).s m ksw mnmn tAwj [tp]-m sSd “The sky trembles and the one who is in it, bowing; the Two

Lands quake in advance of the flash.”

202 With regard to Ihy as the divine child emerging from Nu, it should be noted that Hathor can be identified
with Mehet-Weret, the primeval ocean in the form of the cow-goddess (Kákosy 1982: 4).
203 For Huh and his relationship with HjHj “to seek,” see Sethe 1929: 76; Allam 1963: 146, note 1.

204 As mentioned earlier, Hathor is visualized as the cow emerging from the western cliff to welcome the

deceased. In the Book of the Dead Chapter 186 (Ani), the hippopotamus goddess Taweret is standing in
front of the cow-goddess (Goelet et al 1998: Plate 37). Given that Taweret, along with Bes, is especially
associated with pregnancy and childbirth, the vignette indicates the (re)birth of the deceased in the embrace
of Hathor, Mistress of the West. For the cow-goddess Hathor of the western Theban cliff, see Donohue 1992:
871-885.

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4.10 The kamutef

With Ihy as the sun-child, it is especially noteworthy that he displays the characteristic of kamutef,

as cited above in Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 181e-r). Here Ihy is called zAb jxxw “Jackal of the

Sunshine.” The exact meaning remains unclear but since the jackal is an animal whose tracks can

lead travelers through difficult desert terrain, the role of this animal well befits the role of Ihy,

who guides the deceased in difficult paths of the netherworld into a new life (Roberts 1995: 30).

In this regard, it would be useful to consider the mortuary role of Anubis. Hollis sees Anubis as

the regenerator of the deceased (2008: 85), while Noblecourt considers him as the patron of the

traveler (2007: 90-98). If the jackal here is connected with Anubis, it is possible to link it to the

term jnpw “the royal child who has not yet ascended the throne” or “heir apparent to the throne”

(Feucht 1995: 503-512). Assuming that the connection is correct, the Jackal of the Sunshine can be

interpreted as the heir apparent of the sun-god, who impregnates his mother by “flowing

between her thighs” for the ultimate and eternal regeneration.

The kamutef character becomes clearer when Ihy reveals himself as kA Xnw “the bull of turbulence”

(CT IV 181i), adding (CT IV 181j): aAa.n wj mjwt.j jst “my mother Isis has ejaculated me.” Then, as

the new-born sun-child born of his consort/mother and as the primeval god who came into being

before many events mentioned in the spell, Ihy grows up to be the splendid midday sun (CT IV

181r): oA.n.j oAyt mj jt(j).j “I have indeed become high like my father.”

In sum, it is clear that Ihy possesses many characteristics that identify him as the sun-child. This

can be reinforced by (1) the close relationship between the sun-god and his mother-goddess

Hathor and (2) the mother-son relationship between Hathor and Ihy.

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4.11 Son of Hathor (= Isis)

In most cases where he shows up as a child deity, Ihy is said to be zA Hwt-Hrw “the son of Hathor,”

as mentioned in the spells above (CT IV 179i; CT 180d; CT IV 180k-o; CT IV 181c; CT IV 182i; CT

IV 183b-j). 205 His filial status as the son of Hathor is also confirmed in other Coffin Texts spells:

 Coffin Texts Spell 146 (CT II 199b): jHy n Hwt-Hrw m zA N pn n anx “Ihy of Hathor is the

protection of this N (the deceased) for life.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 563 (CT VI 162u-v): mAA.j wAt m jrtj.j mj jHy zA Hwt-Hrw mry.s “I will see the

path with my (two) eyes like Ihy, son of Hathor, whom she loves.” 206

Although the visual representation of Ihy as the youthful deity close to Hathor is very rare, the

child deity is mentioned in company with his mother-goddess already in the Old Kingdom

Palermo Stone, as mentioned above. In a Middle Kingdom relief at Serabit el-Khadim, Ihy is

depicted standing beside Hathor, extending his hand to an official (Gardiner et al 1917: Plate 47,

125a). During the New Kingdom, Ihy is shown accompanying Hatshepsut as the child deity in

her Deir el-Bahari temple sanctuary. In this scene he is wearing the side-lock of youth and the

205 Besides Hathor, Isis also plays the role of mother of Ihy (CT IV 179b; CT IV 182f) and this seems to be the
result of the ongoing syncretism of Isis with Hathor and the expanding identification of Horus with other
child deities. It can be observed in Coffin Texts Spell 51 that Horus is taking over the role of Ihy for the
deceased, who is identified with the sun-god (CT I 236h-237a): aHa Hrw zA wsjr, omA.f jHy m Hw “Stand, Horus
son of Osiris; he creates (= acts the part of) Ihy with Authoritative Annunciation.” For the interpretation of
omA “to act the part of,” see Faulkner 1973: 51, note 16. However, the interpretation of the verb remains
problematic, because the meaning is not attested in other usages found in the Coffin Texts. If it means “to
create,” the above passage presents the solarized Horus as father of Ihy. For the similarity of Ihy and Hu
(the Authoritative Annunciation), see B. Altenmüller 1975: 24; Allam 1963: 135-136. Nephthys also appears
as the mother of Ihy in Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180b). With the identification of Ihy with the Horus
child, Isis and Nephthys, the two protector-goddesses of the Horus child, can appear here as the mother of
Ihy (B. Altenmüller 1975: 24, 177).
206 Other Coffin Texts spells that show the indirect relationship of Ihy with Hathor include CT VI 54f; CT VI

61g; CT VI 139h. Moreover, an interesting mention of Ihy’s son is found in Coffin Texts Spell 939 (CT VII
151a): Hna zA jHy “... (together) with the son of Ihy.” The exact meaning of the spell remains elusive (Faulkner
1978: 79).

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menit around the neck, and shaking the sistrum before the sacred barge of his mother-goddess

Hathor (Naville 1901: Plate 104).

4.12 Genuine mother?

When it comes to the role of Hathor as the caring divine mother-goddess, however, it remains

doubtful if Hathor can be considered the “genuine” mother-goddess of Ihy. What should be

noted at this point is that Ihy does not enjoy the same status of Horus (the Elder) or the king who

is cared for and suckled by Hathor (Goedicke 1970: 262, 1975: 208; Bleeker 1973: 25; Frankfort:

1978: 173; Troy 1986: 21-22; Hollis 1994: 84-85, note 9). 207 Nor does he spend the dramatic

childhood that Horus did (Sandri 2006: 15). At this point, his role in association with Hathor can

be a clue to his nature as the divine acolyte and intermediary (see NATURE OF THE DEITY

above).

His role as the divine acolyte explains Ihy’s superficial filial relation with his mother-goddess

Hathor, which is different from that between Hathor and Horus (and the king). 208 This also

explains why Hathor and Ihy did not form part of a divine triad until the Ptolemaic Period. The

bond between Hathor as the master-goddess and Ihy as the acolyte-son was so strong that there

was no room for the father-god to complete the generational succession as in the case of the

Horus child.

207 In this regard, see Coffin Texts Spell 331 (CT IV 172b, CT IV 173e): jnk Hwt-Hrw jnt Hrw.s Hwt Hrw.s ... jnk wnnt
wTzt nfr.f jabt Axw.f “I am Hathor who got her Horus and announced her Horus. ... I [Hathor] am indeed the
one who carries his [Horus’s] perfection and unites his effectiveness.”
208 Note that Bleeker casts doubt on the aspect of Hathor as a mother-goddess and claims (1973: 38-42) that

she “jealously guarded her independence and never allowed herself to be trapped in any mythological
system that could detract from her true nature.”

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 CONCLUSION

So far, we have seen how the specific role of Ihy started to be fixed by the time of the Middle

Kingdom. In the process, it has become clear that Ihy usually follows the pattern of the sun-child.

Regarding his role, Ihy is the divine musician par excellence, who accompanies his mother-

goddess Hathor and fulfills his role as the divine acolyte and intermediary. This illustrates his

strong bond with Hathor, which does not allow the entry of the generational succession that

characterizes the pattern of the Horus child. It also explains the late development of the divine

triad.

In addition, Ihy plays his role as a child deity on three different levels. On the cosmic level, Ihy is

a form of the sun-child who embodies the primeval creative power and the nHH-element that

maintains the eternal cycle of rejuvenation and resurrection in the universe. He also projects the

personality of the kamutef.

On the kingship level, the king is identified with Ihy and serves as the Ihy-musician playing the

instruments sacred to his divine mother in order to propitiate the goddess and guarantee peace

and order in the world. The role of the king (and his delegate priests) as the devoted musician is

well described in the Eleventh Dynasty royal stela below:

T4-5. Intef Stela (MMA 13.182.3; TPPI § 15) 209

7 j srjw jpw jmntjw pt, j nTrw jpw jmntjw pt, [j] Hrjw 8 jdbw jmntjw pt

209For the text, see Winlock 1943: 258-259 and Plate 36, 1947:18-19 and Plate 4; Clère-Vandier 1948: 10 (TPPI §
15). For translations, see Wilson 1953: 221; Hermann 1959: 25-26; Allam 1963: 140-141; B. Lesko 1999: 100
(from line 12).

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 Haayw m xsfw Hwt-Hrw, mrrw mAAwt 9 oA nfr.s
dy rx.(j) s(j) Dd.(j) r-gs.s n[t]t w(j) Ha.kw m 10 mA.s
Drtj.(j) m m(j) n.j zp 2
Xt.(j) Dd.s sptj.(j) wHm.snj jHy wab 11 n Hwt-Hrw jHy HHw Hfnw
jr Dr mrr.T jHy, jw HH n jHy n kA.T r swt.T nb
12 jnk wnnt dd srs dwA jHy n Hwt-Hrw ra nb r wnwt nb mrrt.s

Htp jb.T m 13 jHy

sDA r.T nfr m Htp, Hkn.T m anx m Awt jb Hna Hrw mrr Tn
14 wSb.(j) Hna.T m Htpwt.T, wnm.(j) Hna.T m DfAw, jp.T w(j) r.s ra nb

15 Hrw wAH-anx jmAxw xr wsjr (zA-ra jn-(j)t(j).f aA)| ms nfrw

7 Oh you officials of the west of the sky,

Oh gods of the west of the sky,
Oh you on 8 the western shores of the sky,
who are excited at meeting Hathor, who love the sight of 9 how high her beauty is!
Let me know her, that I may say beside her that I am excited 10 at seeing her;
my two hands in “Come to me! Come to me!”
my body speaking, my two lips repeating pure songs 11 to Hathor,
infinite hundreds of thousands of song:
Since you love song, there shall be millions of songs for your ka in all your places.
12 I am truly the one who makes the morning awaken song to Hathor every day,
at every hour she desires.
May your heart be content with 13 the song!
So, proceed well, in peace, endowed with life and with happiness,
together with Horus, who loves you.
14 Let me feed with you from your offerings; let me eat with you from sustenance:
may you allot me to it every day.
15 Horus Wah-ankh, honored with Osiris, son of Re Intef the Great, whom Neferu bore.

Finally, in the funerary sphere, Ihy is the trusted guide/protector who can lead the deceased king

and others to eternal life, as discussed in detail above.

After the New Kingdom, Ihy’s role as divine musician is emphasized and his iconography is

fixed as the divine musician playing the sistrum and the menit for deities (H. Altenmüller 1991a:

19-20, also note 15). In later periods, Ihy also played important roles in the mammisis. In the

mammisi of Nectanebo I at Dendera, his conception, was identified with that of the king, was

Page | １１１
celebrated, and the divine play of his mysterious conception was performed (R. Wilkinson 2003:

133).

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 CHAPTER 5. KHONSU – FERTILIZING MOON

INTRODUCTION

Khonsu is an interesting case demonstrating that a deity’s character is subject to changes in the

course of time. His nature in the Old Kingdom is completely different from that in the New

Kingdom, when he was included as a divine child in a local triad. In the spells of the Pyramid

Texts and Coffin Texts, Khonsu is generally portrayed as an aggressive, bloodthirsty deity who

hunts, slaughters and devours other deities and men in order to absorb their (magical) power (R.

Wilkinson 2003: 113). As a member of the Theban Triad, however, Khonsu appears as a

benevolent child deity with great healing power, and his cult gained great popularity among

worshippers. Unlike other child deities, he had his own temple within the precincts of the great

Amun temple at Karnak, probably as the son of the state-god Amun,. Later, Khonsu was elevated

to become a creator god and identified with the great snake that fertilized the cosmic egg

according to the so-called “Khonsu Cosmology,” which is preserved on the walls of the Khonsu

temple at Karnak (Parker & Lesko 1988: 168-175; Cruz-Uribe 1994: 169-189; Mendel 2003: 74-

78). 210

As a versatile child deity, Khonsu is the subject of numerous scholarly entries, articles and

sections dedicated to his various characteristics. Apart from numerous encyclopedia entries

210Cruz-Uribe provides an interesting “hypothetical interpretation” of the growing importance of Khonsu

the Child in the Late Period and of the integration of the Osirian theme into the Amun-Re theology (1994:
185-186, 188). His work clarifies the development of the Amun-Mut-Khonsu triad in light of the extended
role of Osiris, which will be discussed in detail later.

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about the child deity, 211 Derchain devotes special attention to Khonsu as a lunar deity in his

Mythes et dieux lunaires en Égypte (1962: 40-44) and he examines Khonsu along with other lunar

deities such as Thoth, Osiris and Min. 212 Roberts also provides penetrating remarks on Khonsu as

the “fertilizing moon” (1995: 78-80). Regarded as outdated are scholarly works exploring

Khonsu’s function as the king’s placenta, including those by Blackman (1916: 235-249), van der

Leeuw (1918: 64) and Frankfort (1978: 71-72). Finally, the most comprehensive iconographic

analysis of Khonsu is an article “Khonsu,” posted by Salis on the website of the Iconography of

Deities and Demons (2009). 213

NAME AND ICONOGRAPHY

5.1 The Name of Khonsu

As regards the etymology of Khonsu’s name, there has been an attempt to interpret it as x-nsw(t)

“the placenta of the king” (Blackman 1916: 235-249). According to this interpretation, Khonsu is a

personification of the royal placenta, which is considered the twin or the double of the royal child.

Blackman claims that Khonsu’s role as the “representative of all royal placentae” explains his

“lack of individuality, his youth, his princely attributes, and his name xnzw” because “the

placenta was never, like the majority of Egyptian gods, conceived of as a person who had once

actually lived on the earth” (1916: 248). The theory was accepted by van der Leeuw, who saw

Khonsu as the moon-god who is the “twin” or the double of the sun-god (as the king par

211 Independent treatments of “Khonsu” (“Khons,” „Chons“) include Bonnet 1971: 140-144; Brunner 1975:
960-963; Hart 1986: 112-115; Houser-Wegner 2001a: 233; Pinch 2002: 155-156; and R. Wilkinson 2003: 113-114.
212 Hall and Brunner cite Posener’s articles on Khonsu in Annuaire du Collège de France 65-70. Unfortunately,
however, I did not have a chance to take a look at these articles. For the reference, see Hall 1977: 55 no. 5 and
Brunner 1975: 963.
213 See http://www.religionswissenschaft.uzh.ch/idd.

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excellence), just as the royal placenta was the twin of the royal child (1918: 64). Frankfort also

speculated, in his subsection on the royal ka, about a possible relationship between Khonsu and

the practice of worshipping the royal placenta (1978: 71-72).

However, the theory was questioned (Posener 1965: 193-195) and it is now generally agreed that,

as first suggested by Brugsch (1891: 359), 214 the name of Khonsu, or xnzw, means “the one who

travels” or “courser” and the image is that of the moon-god sailing the night sky (Bonnet 1952:

141; Derchain 1962: 40; Posener 1966: 115; B. Altenmüller 1975: 167; Brunner 1975b: 960; Houser-

Wegner 2001a: 233; R. Wilkinson 2003: 113; J. Allen 2005: 428; Salis 2009: 1). B. Altenmüller (1975:

167) interprets the name xnzw as “traveler” based on Coffin Texts Spell 806 (CT VII 11i): xnz.k m

xnzw “You will travel as Khonsu.” 215

5.2 Iconography 216

Khonsu was a marginal deity before the New Kingdom. Only one Old Kingdom depiction of

Khonsu in full human form is known, namely along with other deities such as Sobek, Sokar,

Hathor and Khnum in the funerary complex of Pepi II (Jéquier 1940: 15 and Plate 21). During the

Middle Kingdom, he remains marginal. He is not mentioned or depicted in the White Chapel of

Senwosret I, as Brunner notes (1975b: 960). Therefore, it can be said that the typical iconography

214 It is interesting that Blackman was aware of the opinion that the name xnzw might be derived from the

verb xnz “travel around,” but he says that the idea is less compelling than his theory (1916: 246-247).
215 She also cites Coffin Texts Spell 257 (CT III 369a): jnk jmAxy n xnzw n pt “I am a revered one of Khonsu/the

traveler of the sky. However, xnzw appears only in S1Ca. Also, cf. Coffin Texts Spell 279: CT IV 26j. The verb
xnz appears in association with the moon god Thoth already in Pyramid Texts Spell 210 (Pyr. § 130d): dbn
(wnjs)| pt mr ra, xnz (wnjs)| pt mr DHwtj “Unis will circumnavigate the sun like the Sun, Unis shall course the
sky like Thoth.”
216 For an exhaustive study of the iconography, see Salis 2009:1-8

(http://www.religionswissenschaft.uzh.ch/idd).

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of Khonsu as a youthful deity (with the side-lock of youth) is first attested during the New

Kingdom (Leitz 2002-V: 764).

In the New Kingdom, the following iconographic patterns can be established:

 In the archaic form, Khonsu is visualized as a youthful deity in a fully anthropomorphic

form wearing the shendyt, the long-haired wig and the divine beard (The Epigraphic Survey

1963: Plate 478, 1979: Plate 60).

 As a god of light and as a sky-god, Khonsu is also depicted as a falcon-headed god with the

lunar headdress. The falcon-headed form is especially prominent in the Khonsu Temple (The

Epigraphic Survey 1936: Plate 48A; The Epigraphic Survey 1979: Plates 8, 15, 43, 49, 57A, 102;

The Epigraphic Survey 1981: Plates 113, 117), and this iconography is also found in a royal

tomb (Guilmant 1907: Plate 48).

 Khonsu’s most typical iconography is that as child-member of the Theban Triad. Here, he

appears as a youthful god enveloped in a mummy wrapping and wearing the headdress of

the full lunar disc above a crescent new moon. In addition, the menit is placed around his

neck and his hands, almost invisible in the wrapping, hold the two royal insignia or

additional scepters (The Epigraphic Survey 1936: Plate 46F; The Epigraphic Survey 1981:

Plate 114A; also cf. Fakhry 1942: Plate XLV). Probably the most prominent example in this

pattern is the statue of Khonsu with the face of Tutankhamun (CG 38488; also see Tiradritti

1999: 197). In line with the growing popularity of Khonsu in the age of “personal piety” and

later, the typical form of Khonsu is widely represented in votive statues (Legrain 1909: Plate

27; Borchardt 1934: 9/no. 971; Wiese 2001: 165/ no. 115), stelae (Černý 1958: Bankes Stela 8;

Tosi 1972: 87-88, 283/Turin 50052), amulets (Andrews 1998: 17 and Figs. 11d, 13e, 20c, 24a,

24c, 26d, 98c) and bronze statuettes (Read 1917: 121).

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Khonsu can also appear in theriomorphic forms as a falcon, a crocodile or a baboon (due to his

association with Thoth) (Leitz 2002-V: 761). However, he is rarely depicted in animal form before

the Late Period (Salis 2009: 2-3). Likewise, the deity does not appear in a pure child form (or

conflated with Harpocrates) – a chubby boy with one hand in his mouth and a huge side-lock of

youth – until the Late Period (for examples of the Twentieth Dynasty, however, see Černý 1958:

Bankes Stela 10; Daressy 1905: Plate XII, 1906: 65-66; see also Hall 1977: 56 and Plate XXIV-1;

Fakhry 1942: Figs. 32, 106 and Plate XXV), when the importance of the child deity increased

substantially. Details about the deity’s iconography will be discussed in association with his

nature as the god of the fertilizing moon.

HISTORIC OVERVIEW

5.3 Before the New Kingdom

Khonsu is mentioned only once in the Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts (Pyramid Texts Spell 273: Pyr.

§§ 402a-c): jn xnzw mds nbw DAd.f sn n wnjs, mHd.f n.f jmt Xt.sn, wp(w)t(j) pw hAbw.f r xsf “Khonsu, the

lords’ knife-bearer, is the one who will slit their throats for Unis and take out for him what is in

their belly – he is the messenger he sends to confront.” 217 Here Khonsu reveals a demonic streak

as he catches gods for the deceased king (Zandee 1960: 213).

There is little documentary evidence about the deity during the Middle Kingdom (Brunner 1975b:

960). Most of the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts depict Khonsu as a cruel god, as in Coffin Texts

Spell 310 (CT IV 65f-66q):

217For a detailed discussion about Pyramid Texts Spell 273, see Eyre 2002: 89-91. The same spell was later
integrated into the Coffin Texts and it mentions about Khonsu as the dreadful messenger of the deceased
(Coffin Texts Spell 573: VI 179g): wp(w)t(j).j pw xnzw hAbw r xsfw “Khonsu is my messenger who is sent
against the one who opposes.”

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T5-1. Coffin Texts Spell 310 (CT IV 65f-66q; also cf. BD Chapter 83) 218

65-f Dd mdw Ax m pt, Ax m pt

65-g janw n.Tn nTrw jm(j)w pt 65-h Axw Axt
65-i jnk js zA Szmtt
65-j jnk xnzw zb Dnd bxxw HAtjw
65-k ao.n.j m Dba sAH n wsjr, Xt wsjr 65-l m xpS m mAst m DADA
66-a rd.n.j m rdwt, ST.n.j m STw, 66-b aA.n.j m arwt, xpr.n.j m xprw
66-c jnk wa dorw nTrw
66-d jnk sfxnw n sfxt jptw jarwt nHmt m a.s
66-e wr sxm m Dt.f 66-f nTr pw jwt(j) mjn.n.f hrw pw n zrw
66-g m nHm sTt m-a Ax pw 66-h m wp.f xnt (j)t(j).f Hna jnw 66-i m wpt.f Hrw Hna stS
66-j j(w) t jmt.snj hrw pw xa.n.f jm 66-k m nTr pw Sps jr(j) wpw
66-l Smsw nTrw Hr.tjwnj jr.j wrt 66-m jnk xnzw Dnd nb nbw 66-n jnk bxxw nb HAtjw
66-o jnk mds jmj.Tn 66-p jnk Hnz<k>tj tpt fAkw 66-q jnk Hwt nwH jmj tpw wSb, wSb.sn

65-f RECITATION Becoming akh in the sky; becoming akh in the sky
65-g Woe to you, gods who are in the sky, 65-h akhs of the akhet,
65-i for I am the son of Shezmetet, 219
65-j for I am Khonsu who sends out rage, the burner of hearts,
65-k I have entered into the finger and toe of Osiris and the belly of Osiris,
65-l into the forearm, into the knee and into the head.
66-a I have grown as what grows, I have covered myself (?) as tortoises, 220
66-b I have become big in anuses, I have come into being in forms
66-c I am a unique one of those who press the gods.
66-d I am the seventh of those seven cobras from which it is taken away,
66-e the great one who has control over his body,

218 For translations, see Zandee 1953: 109; Derchain 1962: 41; Faulkner 1973: 227-228.
219 Shezmetet is one of the ancient Egyptian leonine goddesses. She might in origin have been as an
independent deity but later she was generally believed to be a form of Sekhmet or Bastet (Wilkinson 2003:
183). In the spell, Shezmetet is closely associated with the redness of the sun-rise or birth, signaling the
identification of the deceased (and Khonsu) with the sun.
220 For the translation of the text, it should be noted that the turtle Stw was sometimes written as though it

meant StA “mysterious one” (Fischer 1966: 195). In ancient Egypt, the tortoise and the Nile turtle were
regarded as an animal of darkness. They are nocturnal and prefer darkness, keeping themselves out of sight
most of time. Their furtive and shadowy existence brought them into opposition with the sun-god and thus
they were later called as an enemy of Re, as in the Book of the Dead Chapter 161 (Fischer 1966: 195, 1968a: 7):
anx ra, m(w)t Stw “May the sun-god Re live and my the turtle die.” In addition, their carapace can represent
the dark hemisphere that the sun god had to sail through during his nocturnal journey. As such, the tortoise
and the turtle stand in opposition to the rising sun and thus they are depicted being ritually harpooned by
the king in the temple reliefs of the Ptolemaic-Roman Period. However, it might be equally valid to assume
that their round carapace represents the full moon as indicated in Coffin Texts Spell 310 above. In this
regard, Roberts mentions that the deceased covered with the tortoise shell represents an incarnation of the
moon (1995: 78). For details about Egyptian turtles, see Fischer 1966: 193-200, 1968a: 5-20.

Page | １１８
 66-f that god who does not die on the day of rams, 221
66-g when seed was taken from that akh,
66-h when he was judged in front of his father with Heliopolis,
66-i when he parted Horus and Seth,
66-j Thoth being between them on that day when he appeared
66-k as that august god pertaining to missions.
66-l Followers of the gods, be very far from me,
66-m I am Khonsu, the raging one of the lord of lords,
66-n I am the burner, the lord of hearts.
66-o I am a slayer among you,
66-p I am the double-lock of hair atop shorn ones,
66-q I am the enclosure of the cord that is upon the heads of the bulls,
their bull.

In the spell, Khonsu is considered a cruel god, as in Pyramid Texts Spell 273 mentioned above

(CT IV 65j; see also NOTE 6 above): jnk xnzw zb Dnd bxxw HAtjw “I am Khonsu who sends out the

rage that burns hearts.” Žabkar (1985: 379) understands Khonsu as a violent and angry god who

asserts his power over enemies in the netherworld as the deity penetrates the main parts of the

body of Osiris for a complete identification with Osiris, the ruler of the afterlife (CT IV 65k-l):

ao.n.j m Dba sAH n wsjr Xt wsjr m xpS m mAst m DADA “I have entered into the finger and toe of Osiris

and the body of Osiris, into the forearm, into the knee and into the head.”

In Coffin Texts Spell 311, Khonsu is portrayed as a cannibalistic deity who eats people alive (CT

IV 67o-t): jw t n N pn m r(m)T, Htp-nTr n.j m Xrdw, snD n N pn dj n.f nTrw jAw, xay m Xnzw anx m HAwt pw N

pn, <jrt> xprw m xnzw m Xrj-nTr “The bread of this N is (made) of people; the god’s offering for me

is (made) of children. There is fear of this N, the gods make homage to him, apparent as as

Khonsu. This N is the one who lives on hearts. CHANGING INTO KHONSU IN THE

In many translations, the phrase hrw pw n nzrw is translated as “on the day of flame,” as in the comment of
221

Faulkner regarding his translation (1973: 228, note 6). However, I followed the translations of Zandee (1953:
109) and Derchain (1962: 41). The reason is given in the section on Khonsu’s function as a moon god below.

Page | １１９
NECROPOLIS.” In Coffin Texts Spell 994, Khonsu lives on the body of gods (CT VII 209b-c): anx.j

m tpw, jnk xnzw “I will live on heads as I am Khonsu.”

As depicted in the spells mentioned above, Khonsu is a bloodthirsty deity who devours his

victims in order to appropriate their magical powers. Therefore, he becomes a god with great

power, as in Coffin Texts Spell 945, in which the deceased’s body parts are identified with

various deities (CT VII 161i): At.(j) xnzw “My striking-power is Khonsu.”

5.4 The New Kingdom

As mentioned above, the name of Khonus refers to his nightly journey across the sky in a boat

and thus “exprime tout un programme lunaire” (Derchain 1962: 40). 222 For this reason, Khonsu

figures as a moon god in the ancient Egyptian pantheon. It is during the New Kingdom that

Khonsu began to be considered as such, integrating various features from the well-known mood

gods (Bonnet 1952: 141).

Khonsu’s most prominent iconographical feature as a moon god is the headdress consisting of

the full lunar disc above a crescent new moon. Khonsu is usually visualized as a young man

enveloped in a mummy wrapping. Derchain maintains that the mummiform appearance

suggests the deity’s antiquity, as in the case of Ptah and Min (1962: 40). 223 The form may also

222 In this regard, note Helck (1982: 192): “Dieser Vorgang führte zur Benennung verschiedener lokaler
Mondgottheiten, so etwa des ‘wandelnden’ Chons oder des ‘schreitenden’ Nmtj.” Nemty is an ancient falcon deity
who squats on a curved, stylized boat resembling a lunar crescent. He is also believed to supervise the henu
boat of the falcon deity Sokar and serves as a ferry man transporting the sun-god Re and other deities (R.
Wilkinson 2003: 204-205).
223 For the representational similarities and difficulties between Ptah and Khonsu, see Teeter 1989: 145-153.

Hassan sees the mummiform (or the form of a cloaked body with the arms straight on both sides of the body
and the legs drawn together in an erect posture) found in deities such as Min, Ptah and Osiris, as the
“phallic symbolism,” noting (1992: 317-318): “The portrayal of Osiris as a body wrapped in a rigid and mummy-
like form may also be identified with a phallic iconography marking the transitivity between death and birth through

Page | １２０
indicate his association with night and rebirth/rejuvenation (Osiris) as a moon god. 224 While he is

wrapped in mummy bandages or a tightly fitting garment, his arms remain unstrained, holding

the crook and flail associated with Osiris and Horus, as well as a was-scepter or a djed-headed

staff. As an ever-rejuvenating moon god and as a divine child of the Theban Triad, Khonsu is

depicted as wearing the side-lock of youth and the menit-necklace around his neck with the

counterpoise on his back (especially as xnsw-m-wAst “Khonsu in Thebes,” see Leitz 2002-V: 764).

Despite the juvenile features, he also sports the curved beard of the gods, showing that he ranks

among the important deities of the Egyptian pantheon.

As a god of light and as a sky-god, Khonsu is also depicted as a falcon-headed god who is

differentiated from Horus and Re by the lunar headdress (see 5.2 above). 225 As in the case of

Thoth, the baboon is the sacred animal of Khonsu, but Khonsu himself does not appear in this

form as frequently as Thoth (R. Wilkinson 2003: 114). In this form, he was feared as the Keeper of

the Books of the End of Year, in which the gods wrote the names of those who were going to die

during the year (Pinch 2002: 155).

In order to understand his nature as a moon god, it is necessary to take a look at the role and

status of the moon in Egyptian religious thought, as well as those of moon gods in the Egyptian

pantheon.

the act of procreation.” In fact, the deities represented in the “phallic symbolism” are usually or sometimes
portrayed as an ithyphallic god. Even though Khonsu is never depicted as an ithyphallic god, his
mummiform appearance (or possible “phallic symbolism”) may have some connection with his role as a
fertility god and his association with semen (see 5.7.4 below).
224 Osiris is believed to have been killed at night and special rituals were performed in order to protect the

deity from his nightly enemies (Hornung 1982b: 291). For the mixed iconographic attributes of Khonsu, see
Griffiths 1976: 155-156.
225 Grieshammer notes that divine brilliance is visualized by ancient Egyptians in the form of the falcon, as

well as the two eyes of the sky god (1980: 1033). R. Wilkinson writes that the falcon represents the greatest
cosmic power and its two eyes are seen as the sun and the moon, with its speckled plumage as stars (2003:
200).

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 NATURE OF THE DEITY

5.5 The moon in Egyptian religious thought

Along with the sun, the moon is one of the most apparent celestial bodies and the most

changeable of astronomical phenomena. Personified as a male or female deity and often paired

with the sun as father, son, wife, sister or daughter, the moon plays various roles in religion and

mythology. Sometimes the moon and the sun are regarded as twins. 226 As a male god, the moon

can appear as the strong bull of heaven caring for cows that represent the stars (Bram 1987: 84).

The waxing and waning of the moon symbolizes death and rebirth and the phases of the moon

are believed to reflect the life cycle of men and women. 227 The moon has served as the most

obvious natural measure of time from early times (Eliade 1963: 154-156). The important qualities

of the moon include fertility, moisture, change, darkness and magic.

In ancient Egyptian religious thought, the moon was considered as a nightly replacement of the

sun – that is, the sun of the night or the vizier of the sun-god (Helck 1982: 194; Derchain 1962: 36-

37, 39; Säve-Söderberg 1977: 688) 228 and its role remained modest, whereas the role of the sun was

always paramount (Kaper 2001: 480). The sacred animal to the moon, or the Egyptian “man in the

226 In this case, the moon is usually considered as a weaker one doomed to live in the underworld, while the
other rises high in the sky (Bram 1987: 84). Note van der Leeuw’s comment that the moon can only be
considered as twin to the sun (1918: 64).
227 To quote Eliade (1963: 154): “The moon, on the other hand, is a body which waxes, wanes and disappears, a body

whose existence is subject to the universal law of becoming, of birth and death. ... This perpetual return to its beginning,
and this ever recurring cycle make the moon the heavenly body above all others concerned with the rhythms of life.”
With regard to the lifecycle of women, the moon is connected with the Triple Goddess who presides over
the three important phases of life: birth, initiation and death. When it comes to ancient Egyptian religious
thought, Isis manifests the triple aspects of the moon goddess by turning herself into a virgin, a mother and
a crone in the Contendings of Horus and Seth (Roberts 1995: 102).
228 For the status of the moon in parallelism with the sun, note Pyramid Texts Spell 210 (Pyr. § 310): dbn

(wnjs)| pt mr ra, xnz (wnjs)| pt mr DHwtj “Unis will circumnavigate the sun like the Sun, Unis shall course the
sky like Thoth.”

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moon,” was a great white baboon (Pinch 2002: 166). 229 The moon was also thought of as the left

eye of Horus and the heavenly falcon (Helck 1982: 193-194; Kaper 2001: 480). 230

As a symbol of fecundity, the moon is compared to a bull based on the similarity in shape of the

crescent moon and horns of a bull (Derchain 1962: 33; Helck 1982: 194; Kaper 2001: 481; Labrique

2003: 197). In the waxing phase, the moon is identified with the great bull, as in the following

Coffin Texts spells:

 Coffin Texts Spell 824 (CT VII 25h-k): wbn jaH r Srt StAyt dHwtj kA wr mA[A] Hnmmwt shdd jr(j)w

dwAt awj.f Aw.(w), wD <n> spwt sxr Awy anwt m(w)tw “The moon rises at the nose of the

mysterious one: Thoth the Great Bull, who sees humans, who attacks those who belong

to the netherworld with his arms outstretched; who gives commands to the lips and

who overthrows the long-nailed dead.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 833 (CT VII 35a-d): N pn DA(j).k kA wr r jwn wADt, r sxwt kA wr, jr mrrt.f

“This N, may you ferry the Great Bull to the Pillar of Greenness, to the fields of the

Great Bull; do what he wishes.” 231

In the waning phase, the moon is viewed as a castrated ox (Bonnet 1952: 471-472; Bram 1987: 84).

229 For the difference between the solar and lunar baboons, note R. Wilkinson (2003: 216-217): “Unlike solar
apes which are often depicted standing with their arms raised in adoration, Thoth as a baboon is usually shown as a
seated animal, heavily maned, resting on its rear with its legs drawn up against its body and with its paws resting on
its knees.”
230 The concept of the solar eye and the lunar eye gave rise to specialized forms of Horus such as Khenty-

Khety of Letopolis and Hor-Merty of Horbeit. For the mythologies surrounding the divine eyes, see Kaper
2001: 480-481.
231 For the moon-god Thoth as the bull, see also an inscription of a New Kingdom stele (Berlin 2293): zXAw-

nswt jmj-r pr Xrw.f Dd.f, jj.n.j xr.k kA m sbAw DHwtj jaH jmj pt, jw.k m pt, Axw.k m tA stwt.k sHD.sn tAwj jn zXAw-nswt Xrw.f
“Royal scribe, steward Kheruef, says: I have come before you, the Bull in stars, Thoth-Moon, who is in the
sky. You are in the sky; your brightness is on earth; your rays have brightened the Two Lands. By royal
scribe Kheruef.” For the text, see Turajeff 1895: 124-125; Roeder 1924: 40.

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The ancient Egyptian belief that the waxing and waning cycle of the moon represented different

stages of fertility and growth aptly fits the kamutef concept (see CHAPTER 2 above). 232 To the

Egyptians, the moon seemed to have the capability of rejuvenating itself each month, so it was

regarded as kamutef and called “Bull of the Ennead,” a concept derived from its new moon form

(Jacobsohn 1980: 308). In the tripartite lunar cycle, (1) the full moon symbolizes fertility; (2) the

new moon, its conception for a new month; and (3) the waning moon, the decline that is equal to

the castration of the bull (Jacobsohn 1939: 22-24; Derchain 1962: 27, 33).

When the moon is bright during the waxing phase, it is a heated bull provoking growth and

fertility, stimulating the protective power of men and impregnating women like the light of the

sun. 233 When it is waning, it is a castrated bull deprived of its generative power and thus needs to

rejuvenate itself. In connection with the eternal cycle, the king and the moon are considered to be

the incarnation of the creator-god in the form of kamutef, the bull of his mother, and the “Bull of

the Ennead” (Derchain 1962: 33). In this aspect, the moon probably plays a role similar to that of

Amun, who appears as a divine consort in the divine birth of the New Kingdom kings (Jacobsohn

1939: 24). Therefore, the moon can be equated with the royal ka, the bull (ka) and Amun in

disguise, and this may explain the meaning of the birth names of the New Kingdom kings,

including (1) Kamose (= the one whom the bull gave birth to); (2) Ahmose (= the one whom the

moon gave birth to); and (3) Thutmose (= the one whom (the moon-god) Thoth gave birth to). 234

232 For a detailed study of kamutef as the moon, see Jacobsohn 1939: 22-27. Also, cf. Troy 1986: 27-32, 45-48.
233 With regard to the moon’s influence on the inundation of the Nile and the moon as a symbol of fecundity,
see Derchain 1962: 33-34. Most of the texts cited are from Ptolemaic temples. For the connection of the moon
with water, see Eliade 1963: 159-161.
234 The concept of the king as kamutef goes back to as early as Montuhotep II, who is depicted as Amun-

kamutef in certain reliefs (Traunecker 2001: 221). Redford connects the moon cult of the early New Kingdom
with the Nubian origin of the Seventeenth Dynasty (1967: 68-69).

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In those names, the moon should be understood as kamutef, whose essence can be cyclically

returned to the new-born king.

Because of its monthly disappearance and return, the moon is also connected with the concept of

death and renewal. 235 As a symbol of renewal and rejuvenation, the moon is represented as a

youth (Bonnet 1952: 471) – especially as Khonsu, who symbolizes the new moon (Pinch 2002:

166). 236 In the Ptolemaic temple of Edfu the adult Horus (Harsiese) was regarded as a lunar deity

who was born on the second lunar day and matured into an adult in the full moon (Kaper 2001:

481). On the kingship level, the lunar cycle is linked with the renewal of royal powers, as

Amenhotep III identified himself as the moon in his temple at Soleb (Kozloff et al 1992: 108 and

Fig IV.28). On the funerary level, the deceased was identified with the moon on the basis of the

interpretation of the lunar cycle as the cycle of rejuvenation and resurrection, as in Book of the

Dead Chapter 131: jnk ra pwj psd m grH, jr z(j) nb ntj m Sms.f, jw.f anx.(w) m Sms n DHwtj, dj.f xaw n Hrw

pn m grH, Aw jb n wsjr N Dr ntt wn.f m wa mm nw, jw xftjw.f dr.(w) m Snyt “I am that Re who shines in

the night. As for any man who is in his following, he is alive in the following of Thoth. He will

permit the appearance of this Horus in the night. The heart of Osiris N becomes happy because

he is as one of those while his enemies are driven off from the entourage.”

While presenting no textual evidence, Kaper writes that, as in many other ancient cultures, the

Egyptians believed that the moon had influence on the growth of plants and that sowing was

235 Cf. Eliade (1963: 171): “Death belongs to another kind of ‘life.’ And because what happens to the moon, and to the
earth (for as people discovered the agricultural cycle they came to see the Earth as related to the Moon) proves that
there is a ‘life in death’ and give the idea meaning, the dead either go to the moon or return to the underworld to be
regenerated and to absorb the forces needed to start a new existence. That is why so many lunar divinities are in
addition chthonian and funereal divinities (Min, Persephone, probably Hermes, and so on).”
236 Griffiths notes that the side-lock of youth is a distinctive feature of Khonsu among Egyptian moon gods

(1970: 453, note 3, 1976: 156 and note 2).

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best done at the time of full moon (2001: 481). 237 In accordance with this belief, they also thought

that minerals in the desert came into being under the influence of the moon.

5.6 Egyptian moon gods

In ancient Egypt the moon is personified by many deities, including Iah, Thoth, Khonsu, Osiris

and Min. Iah, the divine personification of the moon itself, never gained great importance in cult

and myth (Bonnet 1952: 471). In his association with water and vegetation (Griffiths 1966: 96-114),

Osiris was also identified with the moon in the New Kingdom and his murder and resurrection

was recognized in the lunar cycle. 238 Min, as a god of sexual procreativity and protective deity of

the mining regions in the eastern desert (Gundlach 1982: 137-138), also exhibited features of the

moon-god (Bonnet 1952: 465-466; Derchain 1962: 46-48). It is beyond the scope of this dissertation,

however, to present a comprehensive study of ancient Egyptian deities associated with the moon,

a task already done in part by Derchain (1962: 17-68). In the current study, it will be appropriate

to take a look at the important properties of Thoth as a moon-god, since Khonsu’s role as moon

god seems to have been expanded after he was integrated into the Theban Traid (Bonnet 1952:

142), in the process absorbing a number of aspects as a moon god from Thoth (Derchain 1962: 42).

In ancient Egyptian religious thought, Thoth is the moon god par excellence. 239 As a moon god he

appears as the moon itself and, at the same time, as the protector of the moon (Boylan 1922: 62-75;

Derchain 1962: 36-37; B. Altenmüller 1975: 237; Kurth 1986: 504-505 and note 92), as in Coffin

Texts Spell 156 (CT II 322c-324b): jw.j rx.kw bAw xmnw, Srt m Abd pw, aAt m mDdjnt, DHwtj pw “I KNOW

237 For the association of the moon with vegetation and fertility, see Eliade 1963: 161-167.
238 For Osiris as the moon god, see Frazer 1913: 129-150; Derchain 1962: 11-25; Griffiths 1976: 153-159, 1979:
174-175; Graefe 1979: 171-173; Labrique 2003: 195-196.
239 For comprehensive studies of Thoth, see Boylan 1922: 1-172; Bleeker 1973: 106-157; Kurth 1986: 497-523.

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THE BAS OF KHEMENU. WHAT IS SMALL IN LUNAR DAY 2 AND GREAT IN LUNAR DAY

15. IT IS THOTH.” 240

Thoth usually appears in two important manifestations – as an ibis (or an ibis-headed man) and

as a baboon. 241 The sacred animals made their appearance by the First Dynasty (Hart 1986: 214).

In the light of frequent comments about the deity in the Pyramid Texts, it can be assumed that

Thoth was an important deity in the Old Kingdom. During the same period, however, Thoth was

incorporated into the solar theology along with Osiris (R. Wilkinson 2003: 215). As a result, Thoth

was often placed in juxtaposition to the sun-god Re (Boylan 1922: 63-64), as in Pyramid Texts

Spell 210 (Pyr. § 130d): dbn (wnjs)| pt mr ra, xnz (wnjs)| pt mr DHwtj “Unis will circumnavigate the

sun like the Sun, Unis shall course the sky like Thoth.” In his role as nightly manifestation of the

sun, Thoth was also considered to be the vizier of the sun-god, who appears as the king and the

most powerful of natural phenomena (Boylan 1922: 81-82; Derchain 1962: 37; Bleeker 1973: 119-

121; B. Altenmüller 1975: 237).

From the very early period of Egyptian history, the moon god Thoth was thought to be the chief

measurer of time (Boylan 1922: 83; Bleeker 1973: 115). 242 As the master of time and counter of

years, Thoth was believed to inscribe the length of a king’s long reign on the leaves of the ished-

240 Faulkner quotes Sethe’s allocation of the half-month and the full month to the fifteenth and the second
days of the month in the 360-day calendar, respectively (1973: 135, note 8). For detailed discussion of this
passage regarding the movement of the moon, see Depuydt 1998: 71. See also the Book of the Dead Chapter
114 (114, 7-8).
241 For the explanation regarding the selection of the ibis and the baboon as the animals sacred to Thoth, see

Bleeker 1973: 110-111; Griffiths 1970: 559.

242 Kurth sees the moon god Thoth as the reckoner of time (1986: 505): “Andererseits ist Thot in weit stärkerem

Maβe als Iah und Chons für einen speziellen Aspekt des Mondes zuständig; Thot der Rechner par excellence,
verkörpert den Mond, der monatlich als Himmelskörper Subtraktion und Addition vorexerziert – also den
dynamischen Aspekt des Mondes. In den Götterverbindungen Iah-Thot und Chons-Thot ist es Thot, der das Wesen der
beiden jeweils erstgenannten Götter bereichert, im aufgezeigten Sinne, jedoch auch darüber hinausgehend; aber keiner
der drei Götter verliert in solchen Verbindungen seinen eigenen Charakter.”

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tree. In the Ptolemaic Period, the deity’s role of determining the length of a pharaoh’s reign was

expanded and he became a “reckoner of time for gods and men” generally and thus a god of fate

(Boylan 1922: 85). In connection with his closely associated with astronomy and counting and his

status as the vizier of the Egyptian pantheon, Thoth was also believed to be the god of writing

and wisdom (Kurth 1986: 506).

In his capacity as the god of writing and recording, Thoth is depicted as the scribe of the Ennead

of Heliopolis who writes letters on behalf of the Ennead, as in the Contendings of Horus and Seth

(p.Chester Beatty I, 39, 4-6): wn.jn tA psDt Hr Dd n DHwtj m bAH nb-r-Dr: jx jry.k wxA n nt wr mjwt-nTr Hr rn

n nb-Dr kA Hrj jb jwnw, wn.jn DHwtj Hr Dd: jry.j m.k jry.(j) zp 2, wn.jn.f Hms r jrt pA wxA “Then the Ennead

said to Thoth before the Lord to the Limit: ‘So, you should make a letter to Neith the great,

mother of the god, in the name of the Lord to the Limit, the bull at home in Heliopolis.’ Then

Thoth said: ‘I will do it. Look, I will do it, I will do it.’ Then he sat down to make the letter.” 243 In

the funerary sphere, it was the duty of Thoth, as divine scribe, to stand in front of the scale in

which the heart of the deceased was weighed against the feather of ma’at and to write down the

result of the examination, as shown in the famous vignette of the Book of the Dead Chapter 125.

In this regard, Thoth appears as the judge and the guardian of justice, which is one of the duties

of the vizier as well (Derchain 1962: 39).

Owing to his close association with writing and wisdom, Thoth was regarded as a god endowed

with great magical power (Boylan 1922: 124-135). 244 The deity’s wisdom and knowledge seem to

243 See also the following to see Thoth’s role as the divine scribe in the Contendings of Horus and Seth
(p.Chester Beatty I, 40, 8-9): jw.tw djt pA wxA m Drt DHwtj, aHa.n DHwtj aS.f m bAH nb-r-Dr Hna tA psd r Dr.st “... and the
letter was put in Thoth’s hand. Then Thoth read it before the Lord to the Limit and the entire Ennead.”
244 Thoth was one of many Egyptian deities who were called wr/wrt HkAw “great of magic” (Boylan 1922: 125).

In this role, this deity was also called the “Heart of the sun-god Re,” which is comparable to the roles of Hu

Page | １２８
have been transmitted to selected initiates, as indicated in the story of the magician Djedi in the

Papyrus Westcar (p.Berlin 3033: 7, 5-6): jw.f rx.(w) tnw jpAwt nt wnt nt DHwtj “He (Djedi) knows the

number of private rooms of the sanctuary of Thoth.” As a divine source of great magic, Thoth

was believed to author funerary spells 245 and especially during the New Kingdom the authorship

of some spells in the Book of the Dead was claimed to be divine in order to reinforce their

authority, as in the postscript of the Book of the Dead Chapter 30 (Kemp 2008: 15-16): gm.n.tw r pn

m xmnw Xr rdwj n Hm n nTr pn, [zXA.w] Hr dbt n bjA Smaw m zXAw nTr Ds.f m hAw Hm n nswt-bjt (mn-kAw-ra)|

mAa-Xrw, jn zA-nswt Hrw-dd.f gm sw m wA.f r jrt sjpt m rw-prw “This spell has been found in

Hermopolis, under the feet of the incarnation of this god. It was written on a brick of metal of the

Upper Egypt in the writing of the god himself, in the time of the Incarnation of the Dual King

Menkaure, justified. It was the king’s son Hardedef who found it when he started conducting an

inventory of the temples.”

The deity was eventually regarded as the patron of all areas of knowledge and credited with

having written the Book of Thoth that contains all the wisdom of the world (Boylan 1922: 94-95;

Morenz 1973: 219-221). 246 So in the Demotic Story of Setne and the Magical Scroll (p.Cairo 30646,

3, 12-14): [j].jr.k wxA aS sX, jm n.j, tw.j TAj.w v.k r pA mAa ntj jw pAy Dma n-jm.f, jw DHwtj pA j.jr sX.f n Drv.f Ha.f,

jw.f naj r Xrj m-sA nA ntrw, hp 2 n sX nA ntj Hr Avj.f, jr.k [aS pA hp mH 1, jw.k r] pXr tA pt pA tA tA dwAt nA tww nA

ymw ... jr.k aS pA hp mH 2, jw.f xpr jr.k Xn jmntj jr.k n pAy.k gj Hr pA tA an, jw.k r nw r pA ra, jw.f xa n tA pt jrm

tAy.f psDt jrm pA jaH n pAy.f gj n wbn “[If] you (Naneferkaptah) want to read writing, come to me and

(Annunciation), Sia (Perception) and Heka (Magic), the deities who are depicted as accompanying the sun-
god in the solar barque (Kurth 1986: 499, 506; also cf. Boylan 1922: 103-106).
245 In the same context, Thoth was also credited with establishing sacred rituals (Boylan 1922: 88-91; B.

Altenmüller 1975: 235)

246 For Thoth as the writer of the sacred books and the purpose and significance of these sacred books, see

Gardiner 1938: 167-168. In the Ptolemaic Period, Thoth was identified with Hermes Trismegistos (Boylan
1922: 140, note 3). The epithet Trismegistos “thrice great” may have been derived from the Egyptian epithet
pA aA aA aA (Doxey 2001: 398; cf. Boylan 1922: 129, note 2). Boylan cites a Coptic epithet of Thoth, pio pio
psabe, from the Magical Papyrus of Paris (1922: 129).

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I will take you to the place where this scroll is, Thoth being the one who wrote it with his own

hand when he was going down after the gods. Two formulae of writing are what are on it. If you

[recite the first formula, you will] go around the sky, the earth, the duat, the mountains, and the

seas. ... If you recite the second formula, whether you happen to be in the west or in your body on

earth, you will see that the sun has risen in the sky with his Ennead, along with the moon in his

manner of rising.”

Given that medicine and magic remained complementary throughout ancient Egyptian history

(Pinch 1994: 133; J. Allen 2005b: 9), it is not surprising that Thoth, whose magical power was

rivaled only by Isis, 247 was deemed as a healer during the New Kingdom and Late Period (Boylan

1922: 133), as mentioned in the following texts:

 Papyrus Ebers Chapter 1 (1, 7-10): n(j) wj ra Dd.n.f, jnk nD.j sw m-a xftjw.f, sSmw.f pw DHwtj, jw.f dj.f

mdw dr.f, jr.f dmDt, dj.f Ax n rxw xt n zwnw jmjw-xt.f r wHa, mrr nTr sanx.f sw “I belong to Re, and he

has said, ‘I am the one who will save him from his enemies, and Thoth is his guide. He gives

the speech of his writing and makes the compendium, gives effectiveness to the

knowledgeable and physicians who are in his following in order to solve; the one whom the

god loves, he will enliven him”

 Book of the Dead Chapter 71 (71, 6): DHwtj swDA.k wj mj swDA.k tw ds.f “Thoth, may you make

me sound like you make yourself sound.”

According to the Osirian cycle, Thoth was the one who taught Isis the spell for restoring the procreative
247

ability of Osiris and helped her to reassemble the dismembered body of Osiris (Bleeker 1973: 132-133;
Zandee 1966: 60-61).

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As a healing deity, Thoth restored the head of Isis in the Contendings of Horus and Seth and also

renewed the damaged Eye of Horus, as in Coffin Texts Spell 335 (CT IV 232a-238a): jw mH.n.j jrt m-

xt Xos.s hrw pw n aHA rHwj, ptr r.f sw aHA rHwj, hrw pw aHA.n Hrw jm.f Hna stS m-xt wdt.f stAw m Hr.f m-xt jTt

Hrw Xrwj stS, jn DHwtj jr nn m Dbaw.f “I filled the Eye after it had shrunken on that day when the Two

Companions fought. What is the fighting of the Two Companions? It means the day in which Horus

fought with Seth after his (Seth) inflicting a wound on the face of Horus and after Horus took the testicles

of Seth. It was Thoth who did this with his fingers.” 248 In this role, Thoth also appears as the mediator

of the conflict (as he restores order) 249 and thus as the protector of the cosmic and social order or

ma’at (Bleeker 1973: 118, 136-143). 250

5.7 Khonsu as the moon god

It has been mentioned that Khonsu’s features as a moon god were expanded when Khonsu

assumed functions of Thoth after he became the child-member of the Theban Triad (Bonnet 1952:

142; Derchain 1962: 42). However, Egyptologists seem to disagree on (1) the origin of Khonsu as

moon god and (2) the exact relationship between Thoth and Khonsu as moon god. 251

 Boylan (1922: 205-206): (1) Khonsu was a moon god whose worship was well attested in

Thebes during the Middle Kingdom; (2) as both gods possessed lunar aspects, Thoth and

Khonsu were inevitably associated and gradually identified with each other until the

248 Pinch writes that Thoth’s offering of the restored Eye became the precedent for all offerings, along with
the offering of Horus to Osiris (2002: 210).
249 For the reconciliatory role of Thoth, who separates Horus and Seth, see Griffiths 1960: 82; te Velde 1967:

60-61.
250 From the Middle Kingdom, Thoth was connected with ma’at as the personification of rightness and order

(B. Altenmüller 1975: 237; Kurth 1986: 504). For the relationship between ma’at and Thoth as the divine
scribe of the sun-god Re, see Bleeker 1973: 121-123.
251 In this regard, Bonnet asks the following questions: (1) whether Khonsu was originally a moon god; or (2)

whether those aspects were added to him through contact with Thoth (1971: 141).

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 complete identification of the two during the New Kingdom; and (3) while Khonsu lost his

non-lunar elements in the process, Thoth retained much of his local and non-lunar traits.

 Derchain (1962: 40, 42-43): (1) while Khonsu’s mummiform appearance indicates that he

existed from very primitive times, the assimilation of Thoth and Khonsu was in progress

before the Middle Kingdom and the assimilation was accelerated in the course of time; and

(2) Khonsu, as a moon god, took a number of traits from Thoth, which include his identity as

a counter of time and dispenser of life-span, a divine vizier and judge, and a magical

counselor and healer.

 Bleeker (1973: 116-117): (1) Khonsu may once have been an important moon god but he was

gradually eclipsed by Thoth: “Khonsu held his place as moon-god alongside of Thoth, but was

greatly overshadowed by this mighty and so much more talented god”; and (2) Khonsu was

originally the god of chronology but later his role was expanded to that of counselor and

healer.

I contend that Khonsu was originally a moon god, or at least possessed some characteristics of a

lunar deity, but his role expanded through assimilation, and later identification, with a number of

moon gods, especially Thoth. In addition, being a god of light may have played a certain role in

his integration into the Theban Triad as a child-member. My assumption is based on the

following observations regarding the properties of Khonsu as a moon god.

5.7.1 Traveler

It has been mentioned that the name of Khonsu, xnzw, means “the one who travels” or “courser”

and refers to the fact that he completes his course in the nightly sky as a moon god, as in Coffin

Texts Spell 806 (CT VII 11i-j): xnz.k m xnzw “You will travel as Khonsu.” This image of the moon

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god sailing in his barque is also already attested in Pyramid Texts Spell 210 (Pyr. § 130d): dbn

(wnjs)| pt mr ra, xnz (wnjs)| pt mr DHwtj “Unis will circumnavigate the sun like the Sun, Unis shall

course the sky like Thoth.” It is also noteworthy that, as a traveler, Khonsu serves as a messenger,

as in Pyramid Texts Spell 273 (Pyr. §§ 402c): wp(w)t(j) pw hAbw.f r xsf “he (Khonsu) is the

messenger he (the deceased king) sends to confront.” As such, the deity’s name, which denotes

the movement of the moon, suggests that Khonsu was originally a moon god.

Regarding the aspect of the moon god Khonsu as a “traveler,” some Coffin Texts spells draw our

attention. In the following two spells, the deceased finds Khonsu on his way to or from Punt:

 Coffin Texts Spell 187 (CT III 90b-91e): jj.n.j mjn r-gs ptH, jw jr.n.f wj m sSm aHAw.sn, jw jr.n.f Hms.j

Hr DbAt tw Hrt pgAw Axt nt pt, gm.n.j xnzw Hr wAt hA.n.f pwnt, rdj.n.f aHa n.j xAw Hms n.j Swt m sn m snt

m anxw m anxwt m r(m)T m Abt.j m njwtjw.j m njwtjwt.j ... Hw swr.k xr.sn Axtjw r.j anx.k m anxt.n jm,

wnm.k m wnmt.n jm, swr.k m swrt.n jm “I have come today beside Ptah, and he has made me as

the whip of their fighters, he has made my seat on that mound (?) that is upon the openings

of the akhet of the sky. I found Khonsu on the way. When he descended on Punt, he made

thousands stand up for me and hundreds sit down for me, as brother and sister, as male

living and female living, as people, as my family, as my male villagers and my female

villagers. ... ‘Would that you drink,’ say they, those of the akhet about me. ‘You will live on

what we live on, you will eat of what we eat of, you will drink of what we drink of.’”

 Coffin Texts Spell 195 (CT III 114a-l): jj.n N pn mjn xr ptH jr.n.f N pn sSm Hw Hww.sn, Hms N pn Hr

nst m xnt Axt, gm.n N pn xnzw aHa.(w) m wAt.f m hAt.f m pwnt, jw rdj.n.f aHa n N pn m xAw Hms n N pn m

Swt m snw snwt m njwtjw njwtjwt, smS jj.(w) xr.sn Axtjw r N pn, anx.f m anxt.n jm, wn(m).k m wnmt.n

jm, swr.k m swrt.n jm “This N has come today to Ptah, he has made this N a whip that beats

their beaters. This N sits on a throne in front of the akhet; this N has found Khonsu standing

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 in his path when he descended on from Punt, and he has caused standing for this N in

thousands and sitting for this N in hundreds, as male and female siblings and as male and

female villagers. ‘The Follower has come,’ say they, those of the akhet about this N. ‘He will

live on what we live on, you will eat of what we eat of, you will drink of what we drink of.’”

In those spells, it is apparent that the deceased is elevated to membership in the celestial bodies

who sit on the seat in front of the akhet and thus he does not have to eat feces. Here the deceased-

celestial body finds Khonsu in his way to or from Punt. It makes clear that Khonsu is the celestial

body, most likely a moon god. Those spells remind us of Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180o-q):

gm.n.(j) wj m pwnt, od.n.j pr jm Hr msxnt.j jw mjwt.j Xr nhwt.s “I found myself in Punt; I built a house

there in my birth-place, while my mother was under her sycamores.” In the preceding section of

the same spell, Ihy is identified with Khonsu (CT IV 180i-j): soA(w).j m rn.j pw n jHy, dj.t(w) n.j hy m

rn.j pw n xnzw “I have been exalted in this my name of Ihy. Acclamation is given to me in this my

name of Khonsu.” Because Ihy is regarded as the son of the sun-god and thus appears as a god of

light, it can be said that the two deities are depicted traveling to and from Punt, which was

regarded as the far-away God’s Land by ancient Egyptians (Goebs 2008: 148). 252 In addition, this

aspect of Khonsu as a moon god is significant, in that it is independent of traits that he borrowed

from Thoth.

5.7.2 “Schlächter” or violent god

Another indicator that points to Khonsu’s lunar character may be the fact that the deity is

portrayed as a violent god already in Pyramid Texts Spell 273 and Coffin Texts Spells 310, 311

B. Altenmüller cites Coffin Texts Spells 181 and 195 to explain the relationship between Ihy-Khonsu and
252

Hathor, who was said to be the “Lady of Punt” (1975: 168). In the Ptolemaic-Roman Period, Khonsu was
addressed as nb-antjw “Lord of Myrrh” in a ritual scene (Leitz 2002-III: 602), but this does not seem to have
any special relationship with the Coffin Text spells mentioned above.

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and 994, cited above. This same aspect is also attested in Coffin Texts Spell 573 (CT VI 179g):

wp(w)t(j).j pw xnzw hAbw r xfsw “Khonsu is my messenger who is sent against the one who

opposes.”

In relation to Khonsu’s close relationship with Thoth, it should be noted that Thoth also appears

as a cruel deity, bearing a knife to slaughter the enemies of the sun-god, or of the deceased

identified with the sun-god or of Osiris, as in the following funerary spells:

 Pyramid Texts Spell 367 (Pyr. § 635c-d): nDr.n n.k DHwtj xftj.k, Hsq.(j) Hna jmjw-xt.f, nj xAtb.n.f jm.f

“Thoth has seized your opponent for you, beheaded along with his retinue; he cannot be

merciful to him.”

 Pyramid Texts Spell 477 (Pyr. §§ 962a-963d): dm ds.k DHwtj, nSm mds dr tpw Hso HAtjw, j.dr.f tpw

Hsq.f HAtjw nw DAtj.sn sn m (pjpj)| pn sDA.f xr.k wjsr, nw xsftj.sn sn m (pjpj)| pn sDA.f xr.k wsjr “Knap

your flint-knife, Thoth. File the bronze-knife that removes heads and severs hearts so that it

will remove the heads and sever the hearts of those who will oppose themselves to this Pepi

when he goes to you, Osiris, and of those who will make themselves a barrier to this Pepi

when he goes to you, Osiris.”

 Pyramid Texts Spell 674 (Pyr. § 1999c): DHwtj mds pr m stS “Thoth, the knife-bearer who came

forth as Seth”

 Coffin Texts Spell 47 (CT I 208b-d): DHwtj dj a.k r.sn ds.k jm.sn, Sna.k sn Hr wAwt aftt mm nbw Awwt,

jw.sn n Htm jmt dwAt mm jrw Dwt “Thoth, set your hand against them and your knife into them,

confine them upon the narrow paths among the owners of gifts. They are for the annihilation

of that which is in the duat among the evil-doers.”

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 Coffin Texts Spell 246 (CT III 337b-g): jnk sfg jrw pw Hr(j)-jb jAxw, ao.j m sDt, pr.j m sDt, nj dm wj

jAxw, nj ns wj gmmw wr, jnk ds mds jmj a DHwtj “I am this mysterious of form in the midst of the

sunshine; I enter into the fire, I come forth from the fire; the sunshine has not pierced me,

those who find the Great One have not burnt me; I am the flint-knife and the bronze-knife in

the hand of Thoth.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 555 (CT VI 155h-156c): wnn r-gs DHwtj, jnk d(j) nrw m nSn(j), ssAA wr xryt, jw

Hw.n.j m ds, jw sobb.j nAS, jr.n.j zA wrt xryt, srwD.n.j ds mds jmj a DHwtj m nSn(j) “To exist beside

Thoth. I am the one who has given dread by raging, who satisfies the one who is great of

enmity. I have struck with the flint-knife; I cool off the one who is proscribed (?); I have made

a protection of the one who is great of enmity; I have made firm the flint-knife that is in the

hand of Thoth in raging.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 995 (CT VII 211b): jj wr ds.f m a.f wp.f bosw ... jj wbn Hnwt.f m a.f Sd.f HAtj ... “The

Great One comes with his knife in his hand so that he can sever the spine of ... The Rising

One comes with his horn in his hand so that he can remove the heart of ...”

 Book of the Dead Chapter 134: DAyw nb DAwt nbt xm.t(j).sn m wsjr hA.tj.f(j) m pt pr.t(j).f(j) m tA,

jw.t(j).sn Hr mw SAs.t(j).sn m ab sbAw, Hso st DHwtj zA jnr pr m jnrtj “Every male and female enemy

who will harm Osiris, whether he will descend from the sky or come forth from the earth,

whether they will come upon the water or travel among the stars, Thoth, the son of stone

(eggshell), who came forth from the two stones (eggshells), will cut them off.”

In this regard, Bleeker suggests that Thoth shows cruel or demonic traits because the moon, as a

mysterious and exceptional celestial body that has stirred man’s fantasy since the beginning of

time, possessed malicious and sinister features (1973: 117). It is necessary to consider, however,

that Thoth appears merciless only when he needs to defend the sun-god or the deceased from his

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enemies and restore harmony in the cosmos, or when he plays the role of defender of light

against darkness (Boylan 1922: 71). 253 The merciless nature of Thoth as a staunch supporter of

ma’at can be glimpsed from a speech of the Eloquent Peasant (p. Berlin 3023, 179-181): jn jw jwsw

tnm.f, jn jw mxAt Hr rdjt Hr gs, jn jw r.f DHwtj zfn.f, jx jr.k jyt “Does the crossbar waver? Does the scale

show partiality? Is Thoth then merciful? Then you may do wrong.” The fearful nature of Khonsu

mentioned above should be understood in the light of his role as a god of light who slays

opponents of the sun-god or the deceased and dispels the force of darkness. Pinch points out that

Khonsu, in this role, acts as a lunar equivalent of the merciless Eye of Re (2002: 166). 254

It is apparent that Thoth and Khonsu, as moon gods, are typically associated with the knife and

act as knife-bearers, as the crescent moon was equated by the ancient Egyptians with a knife

blade (Kees 1925: 2-3, 5). In this regard, Brunner suggested that Khonsu was primarily a

bloodthirsty demon and his quality as a moon is only secondary (1975: 960). However, this

suggestion should be questioned because (1) their violent nature may be the remnant of certain

archaic attributes of the moon (Derchain 1962: 40); and (2) Thoth shows the same violent traits

already in the Pyramid Texts as a defender of the cosmic and social order (Zandee 1953: 111;

Goebs 2008: 151, 244).

253 In Pyramid Texts Spell 534 (Pyr. § 1271a-c), Thoth appears as a god hostile against the deceased king: jw
jwt DHwtj m jwt.f jtw Dwt, m wn.k awj.k n.f, kw j.Dd.t(j) n.f rn.f n nj mjwt.k, j.zj xsf jr jn(r)tj.k, j.zj jr p jr Xrj DHwtj “If
Thoth tries to come in that bad coming of his, you do not open your arms to him, but let there be said to him
his name of You Have No Mother, (and say): “Go, you who have been barred from your testicles! Go to Pe,
to the abode of Thoth!’” However, Thoth is not unique in the matter, given that names of other deities are
also listed in the same spell. Rather it reflects the fact that ancient Egyptians saw their gods as a
personification of powers in nature, who can be either benevolent or malicious to them (Bleeker 1973: 117).
254 Note the comment of Goebs about the role of Khonsu in Pyramid Texts Spell 273 (2008: 244): “Demons

and gods like the ones enumerated in this spell occur in contexts where the enemies of the sungod are
punished in much later descriptions of the solar journey.” With regard to the aspect of Khonsu as the god of
light in the astronomical context, see Krauss 1997: 282.

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5.7.3 Divine healer

Khonsu’s violent streak befits him as a moon god. As the crescent moon can be seen as a knife, it

was believed that the moon and the violent moon god can cause diseases (Bonnet 1952: 144;

Grapow et al 1956: 34; Ghalioungui 1963: 79, 1973: 62; Brunner 1975b: 960 and 962, note 4). In

regard to his role as a deity who causes diseases, it is necessary to take a look at Papyrus Ebers

Chapters 873, 874 and 877, which refer to the so-called “Khonsu-swelling”: 255

 p.Ebers 873 (108, 9-17): sSAw aAt nt mtw ... jm.k wdj a r mjtt, nw pw jAt at m a.f, jr.xr.k snDm mtw m awt

nbt nt z(j), ddwt m HkAw.s m wn mAa Sp.k, mt Stjw Stjw wj ftft m jmjtw nj at jptn, nj zmA.k m zmAw xnsw,

jr wp.k aAt nt xnsw mAa nDm nho wj dj.k mz.j mAat n ra THnt m nhpw, Dd mdw zp 4 dwA zp 2 “Practices

for a swelling of vessels ... You should not lay a hand on the like: that would be to injure a

limb of his. You have to make comfortable the vessels in every limb of a man. What is

spoken as its real magic: ‘You shall flow out, Stjw-vessel that laces me and leaps between

those limbs. You have not joined with the joining of Khonsu.’ And when you lance the

swelling of Khonsu properly and easily: ‘You who damage (?) me, let me bring ma’at to the

sun-god Re, the faience at dawn.’ Recite four times very early in the morning.” 256

 p.Ebers 874 (108, 17-109, 2): SsAw n aAt nt xnzw jr wp.k aAt nt xnsw aAt m awt nb nt z(j), jw.s nHA.tj,

jr.n.s aAwt aSAwt, jw.(w) xpr jm.f xt jm mj ntt TAw jm, jw.s jr.s jAtw aAt, jw.s Sn.tj m Hr.k ... Dd.jn.k r.s aAt

255 The Khonsu-swelling is also mentioned in the title of the Papyrus Berlin 3038 Chapter 52 (5, 1): pXrt nt sdt
awt r-pw xnsw bsw nbt xprw r z(j) “Prescription of the fracture or Khonsu-swelling or any bs-swelling that
happens to a man.” For the treatise of tumors in the Papyrus Ebers, see Grapow 1956: 56-58; Ghalioungui
1963: 84-91; Bardinet 1995: 196-197; Veiga 2009: 28-41. The swellings mentioned in the texts above appear to
be related to Khonsu’s role as a knife-bearer, because, in Papyrus Ebers Chapter 875, a series of knives used
to excise a tumor are mentioned. However, there is no direct connection between the roles of Khonsu and
the knives mentioned in the medical text.
256 Ebbell thinks that the swelling in p.Ebers 873 probably refers to aneurysma arterioso-venosum (1937: 126).

Grapow remarks that the statement in the magic spell nj zmA.k m zmAw xnsw “You have not joined with the
joining of Khonsu,” may be a wish that the swelling of the vessels will not develop into the swelling of
Khonsu mentioned in p.Ebers 874 (1958b: 177). Ghalioungui believes the swelling that forms externally and
is recognizable as the “joining of Khonsu” may be lymphariasis, which was treated with both medicine and
magic (1987: 248-249).

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 pw nt xnsw, jm.k jr xt nbt r.s “Practices for a swelling of Khonsu. If you lance a large swelling

of Khonsu in any limbs of a man, and it is bumpy, having made many swellings and having

come in him with something developing there like that which air is in, and causing a large

injury, and noticeable to you … then you say concerning it: ‘It is the swelling of Khonsu.’

You should not do anything against it.” 257

 p.Ebers 877 (109, 18-110, 3): SsAw anwt nt Sat xnsw jr wp.k anwt nt Sat xnsw m awt nb nt zj, gmm.k tp.s

spd.(w), kfA.s mAa.(w) jrtj.fj wAD Ssm.tj, jw jwf.f SmA.(w) Xr.f aHA.tw r.<f> pw, jr Hm gm.k m HTtj.fj m

gbAwj.fj m npHw.fj m mntj.fj, ryt jm, jm.k jr xt r.s “Practices for an anwt-swelling of the cut of

Khonsu. If you lance an anwt -swelling of the cut of Khonsu in any limbs of a man, and you

find its head pointed and its base (?) straight, his two eyes red and bloodshot, and his flesh

hot with it, it means that one fights against. If, however, you find in his shoulders, in his

upper arms, in his loins, in his thighs, pus there, you should not do anything against it.” 258

Some Egyptologists cite those chapters to demonstrate Khonsu’s unfavorable trait as a god who

causes diseases. It should be noted, however, that those texts do not speak of the deity’s role in

the spread of diseases. Rather, they should be seen as medical descriptions of pure physical

symptoms about the swellings and knots named “Khonsu” for reasons that we cannot know

257 Ebbell considers the swelling in p.Ebers 874 to be tubercular leprosy (1937: 126, see also Grapow 1958a:

128). In his article about dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease), however, Miller notes that if there is any
connection between p.Ebers 874 and 875, the swelling described in p.Ebers 874 may be a blister
accompanying the emergence of the guinea worm (1989: 251). Nunn puts those two symptoms in the
category of leprosy (1996: 74-75).
258 Ebbell notes that the swelling in p.Ebers 877 may refer to lepra mutilans (anesthetic leprosy), a disfiguring

disease (1937: 127). While putting the swelling under the same category of leprosy, Nunn doubts Ebbell’s
interpretation and adds that the swelling may equally relate to cancer, bubonic plague or neurofibromatosis
(1996: 75). Veiga sees the swelling as a symptom of a bubonic plague, where the eyes of a patient turn
yellow because of jaundice caused by liver failure (2008: 41). But the observation is based on the word wAD
that usually means “green.” However, it can also mean “raw” and thus “red,” as translated above. The
translation is also supported by the following word Ssm.tj “bloodshot.”

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(perhaps because its shape that looks like the moon). The connection between Khonsu and the

swellings may refer to his role as a waxing moon-child, which will be discussed below.

While his role as a deity who spreads diseases remains doubtful, it is apparent that Khonsu was

believed to cure diseases. One example is a Nineteenth Dynasty limestone stela found in Deir el-

Medina, in which the owner of the stela beseeches Khonsu to cure his blindness or loss of light:

T5-2. Stela Turin 50052 (Catalogue No. 1553) 259

Title facing left before the seated Khonsu

xnsw m wAst nfr-Htp

Upper registers before and above the male prayer

(1) Szp b(w) nfr nb nTrw xnsw nfr-Htp, (2) DHwtj nb jwnw-Sma, Hrw Hrj mabAy
(3) Htp zp 2 pA an Htp.(w) (4) mtw.k mr Htpw (5) jn zXAw-od(wt) (6) n jmn pAy mAa-xrw

Lower registers before and above the female prayer

(1) rdjt jAw n xnsw m wAst nfr-Htp, Hrw nb Awt-jb
dj.j (2) n.f jAwt sHtp.j kA.f Htp.f n.j ra nb
(3) mk dj.k mA.j kk(w) n jrr.k, Htp.k n.j sDd.(j) (4) sw nDmwj Htp.k xnsw n nmH (5) n njwt.k
n kA n nbt pr wADt-rnpt jn zA.s jr wD pn (6) Hr rn n nb.f xnsw zXAw-od(wt) pAy mAa-xrw
(7) Dd.f, jm(j) (8) Hr.k, (9) jr Htp, sDm n.j jw[.j ...]

Title facing left before the seated Khonsu

Khonsu in Thebes Neferhotep

Upper registers before and above the male prayer

(1) Receive goodness, lord of the gods Khonsu Neferhotep,
(2) Thoth, lord of Southern Heliopolis, Horus who is upon the Court of Thirty;
(3) Be content, be content, you who are beautiful of contentment, (4) and desire the
offerings.
(5) By the outline-scribe (6) of Amun Pay, justified.

Lower registers before and above the female prayer

(1) Giving praise to Khonsu in Thebes Neferhotep, Horus Lord of Happiness.
I give (2) to him praises so that I may pacify his ka and he may be content with me every

For the text, see Tosi 1972: 87-88, 283. For translations, see Gunn 1916: 90; Tosi 1972: 87-88; Assmann 1999:
259

379-381 (ÄHG 152); Galán 1999: 26-27.

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 day.
(3) Look, you made me see darkness by your doing. May you be content with me
so that (I) relate (4) it: How sweet your grace, Khonsu, to the orphan (5) of your village.
For ka of Lady of House Wadjet-renepet, justified.
By her son who made this stela (6) in the name of his lord Khonsu,
outline-scribe Pay, justified, (7) saying: Pay (8) attention; (9) be merciful; listen to me
when [I ...]

In ancient Egypt, blindness represented a life-threatening situation, not just because it is a serious

physical disability that can affect the afflicted person’s daily life, 260 but also because it is closely

connected with the concept of darkness and “Gottesferne/Gottverlassenheit” (i.e. abandonment by

the gods) (Brunner 1975a: 830; Reinhard 1980: 1033). During the late Nineteenth Dynasty, when

expressions of “personal piety” were numerous, blindness was usually attributed to divine action

as punishment for sin (Borghouts 1982: 9; Assmann 2001: 226-227). 261

Brunner points out that Egyptians implored especially Khonsu to cure blindness (1975b: 960).

While Egyptologists are divided in their opinions about whether the statement – dj.k mA.j kk(w) n

260 For eye diseases in ancient Egyptian medical texts, see Nunn 1996: 197-202. Especially, the term kkw

“darkness” is mentioned in the title of p.Ebers 415 (62, 18-19) (Ebell 1937: 75; Grapow 1958: 47, 52; Nunn
1996: 200): kt nt dr HAtj kkw Haw swt-a xpr m jrtj “Another (prescription) of expelling obfuscation, darkness, dim
sight (amblyopia) and impacts that happens in the eyes.”
261 For instance, see the reverse side of the Nineteenth Dynasty Stela of Neferabu (Stela British Museum 589):

(1) HAt m sDdwt bAw n ptH rsj-jnb.f jn sDm-aS m st-mAat Hr jmntt wAst (2) nfr-abw mAa-xrw Dd.f, jnk z(j) aroy m aDA n ptH
(3) nb mAat, dj.f ptr.(j) kkw m hrw, jw.j r Dd bAw.f n xm (4) sw rx sw n Srjw aAw, zAw.tn r ptH nb mAat, m.k b(w) wAH.f (5)
zp n r(m)t nb, Hry.tn r dm rn n ptH m aDA, m.k dm (6) sw m aDA, m.k whn.f, dj.f wnn.j mj jwjw n (7) jwyt, jw.j m Drt.f, dj.f
ptr r(m)t nTrw jm.j, jw.j (8) mj z(j) jry.f bwt r nb.f, mAatj ptH nb mAat jr.j, jr.n.f n.j sbAy, (9) Htp n.j, mAA n.j, Htp.k jn sDm-aS
m st-mAat (10) Hr jmntt wAst nfr-abw mAa-xrw xr nTr aA “(1) Beginning of the recitation of the impressiveness of
Ptah, South of His Wall, by the tomb-worker on the west of Thebes, (2) Neferabu, saying, ‘I am a man who
swore falsely in the name of Ptah, (3) the lord of ma’at. He made me see darkness by day. I will recite his
impressiveness to the one who does not know (4) him and the one who knows him, to young and old.
Beware of Ptah, the lord of ma’at! Look, he does not leave alone (5) the misdeed of anyone. Be far from
pronouncing the name of Ptah falsely: look, he who speaks (6) it falsely – look, he will topple. He made me
exist like a dog of (7) the street, and I am in his hand. He made people and gods see in me when I was (8)
like a man who does what is abominable to his lord. Ptah, the lord of ma’at, is just against me, for he has
made an instruction for me. (9) Be merciful to me. Look at me and be content!’ By the tomb-worker (10) on
the west of Thebes, Neferabu justified under the great god.” For other examples of diseases inflicted upon a
person in act of punishment, see Gunn 1916: 86-87, 92; Assmann 1999: 375-376 (ÄHG 149), 384-385 (ÄHG
157), 387 (ÄHG 160); Galán 1999: 21-27. Most of the stelae containing the statement of “seeing the darkness”
are found in Deir el-Medina.

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jrr.k “You made me see darkness by your doing” – in the Stela Turin 50052 refers to physical or

spiritual blindness, 262 I think that the darkness in this case mean actual blindness, considering

that (1) Egypt was well known for a high incidence of infectious eye diseases; and (2) cramped

and dusty working conditions in royal tombs might have caused irritation and ulceration of the

eyes (Miller 1991: 19-21). 263 In addition, blinding is mentioned as a type of punishment in the

divine sphere, as in the Blinding of Truth by Falsehood (p.Chester Beatty II, 2, 1-4): wn.jn grg Hr Dd

n tA psDt, jm [jn.tw mAat] mtw.tw kAmn.f tAy.f jrt 2, mtw.tw djt.f r jrj Aa n pAy.j pr, wn.[jn tA] psDt [Hr] jrt mj

j.Dd.f nbt “Then the Falsehood said to the Ennead, ‘Cause that the [Tru]th [be brought] and

blinded <in> his two eyes and assigned to be doorkeeper of my house.’ [The] Ennead then did

according to all that he said.” 264

Regardless of the nature of the blindness (or lack of light) described in the stela, however,

Khonsu appears here as a healing deity who can offer either spiritual redemption or miraculous

cure to the owner of the stela. The fact that the prayer was directed to Khonsu may refer to the

deity’s aspect as the Moon Eye. 265 It is equally important to keep in mind that Khonsu is a god of

light and, like other child deities, can expel darkness and thus blindness. 266 This is also supported

262 Pinch remains ambivalent about the real significance of the statement (1993: 257). Some scholars think

that the expression of “seeing the darkness (by day)” refers to real blindness (Gunn 1916: 88-89; Černý 1958:
Bankes Stela No. 6; Janssen 1980: 136) while others think it is a metaphor alluding to spiritual blindness
(Brunner 1975a: 830-831; Manniche 1978: 17; Galán 1999: 29-30). Assmann sees physical blindness as a
metaphor itself (1994: 26).
263 Manniche claims that the depiction of normal eyes in images on the stelae suggests that the “darkness” is

just a metaphor (1978: 17), but it can also indicate that the blindness was not permanent but temporary.
264 The theme is reminiscent of a scene in the Contendings of Horus and Seth, in which Re-Horakhty and the

Ennead decide to “make a great instruction for him.” It should be noted, however, that Horus is punished
by Seth, who removes his two eyes and buries them on the mountain but hides the fact from Re-Horakhty.
265 In his role as an “Augengott,” Horus is said to cure the eye disease of Khenty-irty in the Late Period

(Brunner 1977: 646, see also Brunner 1975a: 831-832). For the injury of the divine eye, see Meeks 1996: 72-73.
266 The sensitivity of the human eye to light forms the basis of the belief that the blindness can

metaphorically symbolize the alienation from the gods, and a deity’s effectiveness as a healing deity can be
stressed with his treatment of the human eye (Otto 1964: 47-49). In the stela of Deir el-Medina, Khonsu,
shedding his image as a violent god, appears as a benevolent god who hears the prayer of the owner of the
stela. Also note Brunner (1975a: 831): “‚Licht sehen lassen’ ist dementsprechend ein Bild für ‚gnädig sein.’”

Page | １４２
by the fact that Khonsu is identified with Horus, as well as Thoth, in the stela of Deir el-Medina

above. 267 Horus himself is a god of light who usually appears in the form of falcon and, according

to Reinhard, the divine brilliance is especially visualized as a falcon (1980: 1033). 268

The moon god Thoth was also believed to possess great magical and healing powers. Both Thoth

and Khonsu are thus healing deities. Thoth appears as a healing god who uses his skills and

proven methods to cure a disease, as in Coffin Texts Spell 335 (CT IV 238a): jn DHwtj jr nn m Dbaw.f

“It was Thoth who did this (filled the shrunken Eye) with his fingers.” Khonsu, however, is

usually credited with miraculous cures based on exorcism (Derchain 1962: 43). 269 The most

famous account of his miraculous cure is recorded in the so-called Bentresh Stela, dating to the

Twenty-fifth Dynasty or later (Lichtheim 1980: 90; Ritner 2003: 361). The text relates how a statue

of Khonsu was sent to help a foreign princess who was possessed by a spirit:

T5-3. The Bentresh Stela (Louvre C 284) 270

spr nTr pn r bxtn n km rnpt jbd 5

aHa.n jj.n wr n bxtn Hna mSa.f wr.f HAt n xnsw pA jr sxr
rdj.n.f sw (18) Hr X(t).f m Dd, jw.k n.n, Htp.k n.n m wDt n nsw-bjt wsr-mAat-ra stp.n-ra
aHa.n Sm.n nTr pn r bt ntj jw bnT-rS jm
aHa jr.n.f zA n zAt n pA wr n bxtn nfr.s (19) Hr a
aHa.n Dd.n Axt pn ntj Hna.s m bAH xnsw pA jr sxr m wAst jj.T m Htp nTr aA sHr SmA
dmj.k pw bxtn, Hm.k pw rmT.f, jnk pw Hm.k, (20) jw.j r Sm r bt jw.j jm r rdjt Htp jb.k Hr jw.k Hr.s,
jw mj wDt Hm.k r jr hrw nfr Hna.j Hna p(A) wr n bxtn

267 The deities addressed by the troubled worshippers include Amun-Re (Cairo 12202), Ptah (Stela British
Museum 589), Iah-Thoth (Bankes Stela No. 6; Stela Turin 50046), Sobek (Stela Turin 50051) and Meretseger
(British Museum Stela 374). Kings (Nebkheperure: a stela of Huy) and queens (Ahmose Nefertari: Stela
Turin 50050) are also mentioned. Except for Meretseger, most of the deities and royal figures mentioned
above can be regarded as a god of light in the Egyptian religious thought. For Ptah as a god of light, see
Holmberg 1946: 105-107, 150-154.
268 Khonsu also appears as a falcon or a falcon-headed man (Leitz 2002-V: 761, 764, 766, 767; Salis 2009: 2, 3),

like the sun god.

269 While admitting the aspect of Khonsu who can expel demons as a healing deity, Grapow thinks that

Khonsu as the divine exorcist may not be identical with Khonsu as the moon god of Thebes (1956: 139).
270 For the text, see de Buck 1948: 108-109; Kitchen 1971: II, 286. For the translation, see Lichtheim 1980: 92;

Ritner 2003: 365.

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 aHa.n nhn.n nTr pn r pA.f Hm-nTr m Dd
(21) mj jr pA wr n bxtn aAbt aAt m bAH Axt pw
jr wnn nn, jr xnsw pA jr sxr m wAst Hna p(A) Axt, jw p(A) wr n bxtn aHa Hna mSa.f, jw.f snD r aA wr
aHa.n (22) {aHa.nn} jr.n.f aAbt aAt m bAH xnsw pA jr sxr m wAst Hna p(A) Axt (n zAt) n p(A) wr n bxtn
Hr jr hrw nfr Hr.w
aHa Sm n.f pA Axt m Htp r bt mr.f m wDt xnsw pA jr sxr m wAst
(23) wn pA wr n bxtn Hr nhm r aA wr Hna z(j) nb ntj m bxtn

This god (the statue of Khonsu) arrived at Bekhten in the completion of a year and five
months.
Then the king of Bekhten came with his army and officials to the front of Khonsu the
plan-maker,
and he put himself (18) on his belly, saying, “Now that you have come to us, may you be
content for us, by command of the Dual King Usermaatre-Stepenre.”
Then this god went to the place that Bentresh was in.
Then he made protection for the daughter of the king of Bekhten, and she got well (19)
immediately.
Then that spirit who was with her said before Khonsu the plan-maker in Thebes,
“Welcome in peace, great god who drives off indigents.
Bekhten is your town, its people are your servants, I am your servant. (20) I will go to the
place I came from, to cause your heart to be content with what you came for, and let
Your Incarnation command to make a holiday with me and the king of Bekhten.”
Then this god indicated to his priest, saying, (21)
“Have the king of Bekhten make a big celebration before this spirit.”
When that was, Khonsu the plan-maker in Thebes was with the spirit, while the king of
Bekhten was standing with his army, being very afraid.
Then (22) he made a big oblation before Khonsu the plan-maker in Thebes and the spirit
(of the daughter) of the king of Bekhten, making a holiday about them.
Then the spirit went away in peace to the place he wanted by command of Khonsu the
plan-maker in Thebes.
(23) The king of Bekhten was celebrating very much along with every man who was in
Bekhten.

Khonsu’s power as a healing deity expeling evil spirits and curing patients gained importance in

the course of time and his popularity as a healing deity increased substantially in the Late Period.

His fame as an effective healing god continued into the Ptolemaic Period, and Ptolemy IV

Philadelphus claimed that he was healed of an unknown illness through an intervention of

Khonsu (Grapow 1956: 139; Houser-Wegner 2001a: 233). Khonsu himself was regarded as a

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violent and bloodthirsty deity, so it was believed that he could also ward off threats from evil

ones. Given that exorcism is a religious practice of casting out shadowy spiritual entities from a

possessed person or place through the command or presence of a more powerful being, Khonsu’s

ability to conduct a miraculous cure through exorcism points to his role as a god of light, who

drives the dark force with his divine brilliance.

Roberts sees an association of Khonsu, as a healing deity, with Sekhmet in Coffin Texts Spell

311. 271 Because both of them can bring diseases and cure them at the same time, their connection

does not seem impossible, as Roberts notes (1995: 80): “Raging Sekhmet and violent Khons, powers of

blood and semen, 272 reveal in their own ways the destructive sides of sun and moon. Both are propitiated in

their cults by blood offerings of slaughtering animals. And just as the priests of Sekhmet were renowned in

Egypt as great healers, especially of diseases connected with the blood, so too Khons was able to expel

demons, being venerated as a great healer in the New Kingdom and later.” 273

5.7.4 Fertility god

It has been mentioned above that the changing cycles of the moon correspond to different stages

of fertility and growth. Khonsu, as a moon god, therefore, functions as a fertility god, who is born

and grows in accordance with the moon’s waxing and waning cycle. 274 In this function, he is

equated with a bull that brings growth and fertility in the waxing stage and with a castrated ox of

271 In Coffin Texts Spell 311, Khonsu is said to be the son of Shezemetet (CT IV 65i): jnk js zA Szmtt “For I am
the son of Shezmetet.” According to B. Altenmüller (1975: 167), (1) Shezmetet is closely associated with
Sekhmet, as in Pyramid Texts Spell 248 (PT § 262b): jwr (wnjs)| jn sxmt jn Szmtt mst (wnjs)|“Unis has been
conceived by Sekhmet, and Shezmetet is the one who gave birth to Unis”; and (2) his association with
Sekhmet plays a critical role in explaining his role in Pyramid Texts Spell 273 (Pyr. § 402a-b).
272 For the association of the male semen with the moon god Khonsu, see the section below on Khonsu as a

fertility god.
273 In this regard, Roberts also observes that the menit-necklace around Khonsu’s neck may symbolize the

appeased aspect of the turbulent moon god.

274 Ancient Egyptians believed that the moon’s waxing and waning phases also affect a mother’s milk

production (Brunner-Traut 1970: 158-159).

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darkness in the waning stage. The identification of Khonsu as the lunar bull/ox is found only in a

text of the Ptolemaic Period, when the deity had already firmly established his status as the

powerful moon god within the Theban Triad:

T5-4. Urk. VIII 74 (= 89b) 275

xnsw m wAst nfr-Htp, nb mAat, Hrj st wrt, jaH m grH, snnw n Sww
mH wDAt, DbA jAbt, nxx ra nb r tr n mr.f, rnp r nw Szp jb.f
bAo.tw.f m psDntjw, bX.tw.f m jbd, tnj n.f m-xt smdt
jdn.n.f ra sxr.f r Hbt, bd.f tA ra nb Hr nHm.f, xr nwt.f Hna (j)t.f m-xt tm
Dd.w ms.w Hr tA-wr, snsn.sn js m snsn kAwj, HAytj kA.tw r rnwj.sn
jw.f m nxn tp wAH.(w), StA.(w) xr.tw m wHm oj.f
jaH aH.(w) m jrw.f Dr sXrd.f, kA ps m kHkH.f
sab pw Hr jr n.f snk, wAH oj.f Hr jn(t) anD
sTs kAw sbAo kt, srwD swHt m Xt
nSp Xnmtj m TAw jm(j).f sro.n.f Htyt gA.t(j)

Khonsu in Thebes Neferhotep, Lord of ma’at, the one who is upon the great place,
the moon at night, the second of the sun-light,
who fills the Wadjet-Eye, the one who restores the left eye,
who becomes old everyday at the time that he desires,
who becomes young at the time his heart seizes.
He is conceived on the day of the new moon,
born on the second day of the month, and becomes old (for himself) after the fifteenth
day.
He has replaced the sun when he goes down to the Hall of Judgment,
he illuminates the land everyday with his protection (?),
he divides his time with his father after Atum.
They say that they are born in the east, they unite on the Day of Union of Two Bulls.
Two lights, one will call them.
He comes as a child with the head bent; mysterious, they say, as the one who repeats his
form.
The moon is captured in his form as he rejuvenates (himself).
He is a germinating bull when he is old; he is an ox, making darkness for himself.
His waxing moon, however, brings light,
the one who makes bulls fertile and cows pregnant, who makes the egg strong in the
womb;
the one, from the air which is in him nostrils breathe

275 For the translation, see Derchain 1962: 43.

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 as he has caused to breathe the needy throat.

The text clearly describes the development of the moon god Khonsu in accordance with the lunar

cycle. More importantly, however, the reference to semen may be evidence of Khonsu as fertility

god. In various cultures, male seed is believed to belong to the essence of the moon. 276 As regards

the castration of Seth, te Velde makes an interesting comment that the loss of semen takes place

when the moon begins to wane and lose its virile powers (1967: 43) 277 and refers to Coffin Texts

Spell 310 (CT IV 65j, 66c, 66f-j) above.

With regard to hrw pw n zrw or the “day of rams” in Coffin Texts Spell 310 (CT IV 66f), Derchain

thinks of it as the fifteenth day of the month, when the moon begins to wane, which leads to the

loss of semen and the decline of virility (1962: 41). However, Khonsu is the “god who does not

die” on that day and, as a symbol of the ever-renewing moon, he survives the waning period and

reappears as the tumescent and swelling moon. His aspect as the ever-renewing/waxing moon is,

according to Roberts, his most differentiating factor in relation to the moon god Thoth (1995: 78):

“Khons is not the moon then in the sense of time-reckoner, reconciler, restorer, all of which are functions of

the ibis-headed wise moon god, Thoth of Hermopolis. Nor is he the celestial Moon Eye which fragments into

pieces each month so that its shattered parts have to be reunited and made whole during the first quarter, a

fragmentation that belongs to the struggle of Horus with Seth.”

276 Cf. Eliade 1970: 239. See also in the Contendings of Horus and Seth, the semen of Seth appears from the

forehead of Seth as the moon-disk (54, 4-8): wn.jn DHwtj Hr Dd n.s, mj r bnr m wpt.f, wn.jn.s pry m wa n jtnw n nbw
Hr tpj n stH, wn.jn stH qndt r jqr zp 2, jw.f Awj Drt.f r mH m pA jtnw n nbw, wn.jn DHwtj Hr nHm.f m-drt.f, jw.f dj.twf m xaw
Hr tpj.f “So Thoth said to it [the semen of Seth]: ‘Come out from his forehead.’ So it came out as a disk of gold
on the head of Seth. So Seth got very very angry, and he stretched out his hand to take hold of the disk of
gold. So Thoth took it from him and put it on his head as a crown.”
277 For the connection between light (“eye”) and sexuality (“testicles”), see Griffiths 1960: 51-52.

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Interestingly, his aspect as a waxing moon god who promotes growth of plants and animals is

most prominently displayed in the aforementioned medical texts, where the swellings in a

person’s body are referred to as the “Khonsu-swelling.” The tumor in those texts seems to have

no direct or apparent connection with the moon god Khonsu from the medical point of view.

While there is no textual evidence to support it, it is equally enlightening to note that the tortoise

shell in Coffin Texts Spell 310 (CT IV 66a), which the deceased identified with Khonsu uses as his

shell, may also refer to Khonsu’s role as a waxing/full moon because of its round shape,

reminiscent of the full moon.

5.7.5 Other important aspects: vizier, judge, time-reckoner/dispenser

In the course of time, the moon god Khonsu assumed a number of traits of the moon god Thoth

and, at the end of the conflation between the two deities, they became one god most frequently

called Khonsu-Thoth (Derchain 1962: 42). In the process, the roles of Thoth, such as vizier of the

sun, judge and time-reckoner/dispenser, were transferred to Khonsu.

The assimilation of Thoth and Khonsu is already seen in the Middle Kingdom text known as the

Debate Between a Man and His Soul, in which the two gods show up side by side (p. Berlin 3024,

23-25): wDa wj DHwtj Htp nTrw, xsf xnzw Hr.j zXA m mAat “May Thoth judge me so that the gods might

become content; May Khonsu defend me – he who writes correctly.” The role of Khonsu in the

text is that of recorder of the judgment, which points to the assimilation between Thoth and

Khonsu (J. Allen 2011: 41). 278 During the New Kingdom, the conflation of the two deities became

more apparent. For example, on a wooden statuette of the Nineteenth Dynasty, around whose

278For a composition of the divine judges that is different from the quartet of gods specified in the Book of
the Dead, see J. Allen 2011: 142-143.

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pedestal a hymn to Amun is carved, Khonsu is praised as vizier of the sun, judge and time-

reckoner/dispenser:

T5-5. Statuette of Amenemopet and Hathor (Berlin Museum No. 6910) 279

Top of the pedestal in front of the two statuettes

(1) Szp-anx pr m-bAH m Hwt-nTr nt jmn m jpt-swt, jw.k (2) Xr Hzwt jw Szp.k snw, xnm.n Haw.k snTr,
(3) n kA n zXAw-nswt n HD nbw (j)m(j)-r jzwt m st-mAat jmn-m-jpt mAa-[xrw]

First register around the pedestal: Titles of and a prayer to Amun

(a) Htp-dj-(n)swt jmn-ra nb nswt tAwj, nTr Spsj Htp.(w) Hr mAat, pAwt(j) xpr m HAt (b) wa jwtj snnw.f,
jr pt, smn jdbwj, omA nTrw, (c) jr r(m)T, nb Sft, wr mrt, aA pHtj m Xnw psDt, (d) dj.f ors nfrt <m>-xt
jAw Hr jmntt wrt nt wAst

Second register around the pedestal: Titles of and a prayer to Mut

(a) Htp-dj-(n)swt mjwt wrt, nbt jSrw, nbt pt, ant tHnt, (b) m rn.s pw n wrt HkAw, Hnwt tAw nbw, wat m
tA pt jwtj (c) snnwt.s, Hnwt jdbwj Hrw, xnmt st m wjA n HH, Hnwt (d) pr-jmn, dj.s rn.j mn.(w) m st-
mAat mj mAatj nb

Third register around the pedestal: Titles of and a prayer to Khonsu

(a) Htp-dj-(n)swt xnsw m wAst nfr-Htp, DHwtj nb jwnw Sma, (b) T(A)tj wpw mAat, Hsb mAat, mr mAat, dd
mAat n jr mAat, dj.f aHa oA (c) n jr mAat rnpwt nn Hsbt.sn, jw jrtj.j Hr mAA, anxwj.(j) (d) Hr sDm, jb.(j)
Htp.(w) Hr mAat ra nb mj jrrt n Hzj

Top of the pedestal in front of the two statuettes

(1) Receive garlands that come forth into the presence in the god’s enclosure of Amun in
Karnak. You will (2) have blessings when you have received offerings and your limbs
have smelled incense. (3) To the ka of the royal scribe of silver and gold, the overseer of
the tomb-crew Amenemopet, justified.

First register around the pedestal: Titles of and a prayer to Amun

(a) A royal offering of Amun-Re, lord of thrones of the Two Lands, the august god who is
content with ma’at, the primeval one who came into being in the beginning, (b) the sole
one without his equal, the one who created the sky, established the Two Banks, created
gods, (c) created people, lord of awe, great of love, great of strength inside the Ennead,
(d) giving a good burial after old age on the great west of Thebes.

Second register around the pedestal: Titles of and a prayer to Mut

(a) A royal offering of Mut the Great, lady of Isheru, lady of the sky, beautiful and

279 For the text, see Günther 1924: 64-65.

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 glittering (b) in this name of hers of “Great of Magic,” lady of all lands, the unique one in
the sky without (c) her equal, lady of the Two Banks of Horus, the one who takes a place
in the barque of Millions, lady (d) of the House of Amun, making my name established in
the place of ma’at like every righteous man.

Third register around the pedestal: Titles of and a prayer to Khonsu

(a) A royal offering of Khonsu in Thebes Neferhotep, Thoth of the Southern Heliopolis,
(b) the vizier who separates ma’at, the one who counts ma’at, loves ma’at, and gives ma’at
to the one who does ma’at, giving a long lifetime (c) to the one who does ma’at, and
countless years, my eyes seeing, (my) ears hearing, (my) heart content with ma’at every
day like that which is done for a blessed one.

Here, Khonsu is identified with DHwtj nb jwnw Sma “Thoth of the Southern Heliopolis” (as in the

Stela Turin 50052), and his roles include (1) the vizier and judge: T(A)t(j) wpw mAat “the vizier who

separates ma’at”; and (2) the time-reckoner/dispenser: dj.f aHa oA n jr mAat rnpw nn Hsbt.sn “giving a

long lifetime to the one who does ma’at, and countless years.” 280

In a limestone stela of the Nineteenth Dynasty, Thoth and Khonsu are so completely identified

that they share the traits of a moon god (Montet 1952: 65-66; Derchain 1962: 42; Leclant 1965: 250,

notes 2 and 3; Quaegebeur 1975: 103):

T5-6. Bankes Stela No. 8 281

Title facing left above the falcon head of Khonsu

(1) xnzw (2) m wAst (3) nfr-Htp Hrw [ … ]

Title facing left above the falcon head of Khonsu

(1) Htp-dj-(n)swt xnzw m wAst nfr-Htp, (2) DHwtj nb jwnw Sma zXAw mAa n psDt (3) dj jAt n mr.n.f aHa
m Xnw.f TAw (4) m xfa.f, SAy rnnt xr.f, wADwj ntj (5) m Hzt.f, nn pH.n sw Dwt, dj.f anx wDA snb nDm-jb
(6) jAwt nfrt r wDA, nn jnt zp.f r pHt st n mAatj, (7) n kA n TAj-mDAt m st nHH pjyAy wHm anx, TAj-mDAt n
jmn pjyAy

For an example of Khonsu-Thoth as a divine judge in the Late Period, see Labrique 2003: 211-216.
280

For the text, see Černý 1958: Bankes Stela No. 8. For translations, see Černý 1958: Bankes Stela No. 8;
281

Assmann 1999: 388 (ÄHG 162).

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 Title facing left above the falcon head of Khonsu
(1) Khonsu (2) in Thebes (3) Neferhotep, Horus [ … ]

Title facing left above the falcon head of Khonsu

(1) A royal offering of Khonsu in Thebes Neferhotep, (2) Thoth of the Southern
Heliopolis, the true scribe of the Ennead, (3) who gives the office to whom he wanted and
a lifetime in it. Air is (4) in his grip; fate and nursing are with him. How happy is the one
who is (5) in his blessing. No evil can reach him, giving life, soundness, health, joy, (6)
good old age soundly without his misdeed being brought to reach the place of the
judgement (i.e. the Hall of Two Truths). (7) To the ka of the chisel-bearer in the Place of
Eternity, Piyay, repeating life, and (to) the chisel-bearer of Amun, Piyay.

Khonsu acquired a number of syncretistic features during the late New Kingdom and Third

Intermediate Period, as well as many identities and epithets. Ultimately, the deity was elevated to

the position of creator god. According to the so-called Khonsu Cosmology, composed during the

Ptolemaic-Roman Period, 282 the creator god (Ptah), who came into being from Nun through the

cycle mentioned in the creation account, comes to Thebes in his name/identity of Khonsu and

creates Hathor. Then he has intercourse with the goddess, and this leads to the formation of the

Ogdoad (Parker & Lesko 1988: 174-175; Cruz-Uribe 1994: 188; Mendel 2003: 74-78). Along with

the waning influence of Amun-Re amid the political turmoil after the New Kingdom, Khonsu

finally became the creator god whose importance even overshadowed that of Amun-Re (Cruz-

Uribe 1994: 186-189).

Finally, it needs to be briefly mentioned that Khonsu’s personality tends to split into several

Khonsu-deities during the late New Kingdom (Hart 1986: 113-114; Brunner 1975b: 961): Khonsu-

the-Child (Khonsupakhered), Khonsu-in-Thebes Neferhotep, Khonsu-who-is-always young

(Khonsuwennekhu), Khonsu the plan maker (Khonsupairskher) and Khonsu the reckoner of

For the study of the Khonsu Cosmogony, see Lesko et al 1988:168-175; Cruz-Uribe 1994: 169-189; Mendel
282

2003: 29-177.

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lifetime (Khonsuhesebahau). Those forms of Khonsu became very popular in the Late Period and

most of the forms were transmitted almost unchanged to the Ptolemaic-Roman Period. What

attracts our attention is the fact that the “Götterspaltung,”or the personality-splitting of a god

(Hornung 1982a: 86-91; Jankuhn 1977: 709-711), is also observed in the case of the Horus child,

who splits into more than ten forms. Some of them, such as Harsiese, Harpocrates, Harendotes

and Harsomtus, become independent child deities in the Ptolemaic-Roman Period. As in the case

of Horus, the “Götterspaltung” of Khonsu derives from the different traits of the deity, but I do not

believe that the traits each represent a different god. Rather, they are specialized traists of a

versatile god. Each of the Khonsu-deities retains specific aspects of Khonsu as the moon god.

KHONSU AS A CHILD DEITY

In her analysis of the Ptolemaic registrations inscribed on the Propylon of Khonsu at Karnak,

Labrique writes that there are two reasons why Khonsu appears as a child-deity in the Theban

region (2003: 198-203): (1) the new moon’s rejuvenated form in the beginning of the lunar month

is closely associated with Khonsu the Child, who constantly changes his form and repeats the

cycle of rejuvenation; and (2) Khonsu is regarded as the child-son in the Theban Triad and, in this

role, the deity is the moon-son/heir to the sun-god/creator and thus merges with the royal child

who finally succeeds the ruling king. Our present concern is, however, how Khonsu was

integrated into the Theban Triad as a third member of the divine family.

Though Sandri writes that Khonsu was one of the deities depicted as a child deity from earliest

times (2006: 198), the typical iconography of Khonsu as a youthful deity with a side-lock of youth

is first attested during the New Kingdom (Leitz 2002-V: 764) and the earliest record of Khonsu-

Page | １５２
Thoth as a child is found in a Theban stele dated to the early Twentieth Dynasty (Černý 1958:

Bankes Stela No. 10). Here, Khonsu-Thoth is depicted as a naked child sitting on the shrine

behind two deified royal figures (Amenhotep I and Ahmes-Nefertari), sporting a side-lock and

holding his right index finger to his mouth. Over the child deity is inscribed an epithet reading:

[xn]zw-DHwtj nTr nfr “Khonsu-Thoth the youthful god.” Like Harpocrates, Khonsu also bore the

epithet pA Xrd “the child” in the later New Kingdom. According to Leitz (2002-V: 769-770), eleven

sources are dated to the 21st-24th Dynasties. The earliest evidence, however, is the inscription on

the sarcophagus that belongs to Queen Mutnodjeme, the queen of Psusennes I, dating to the

Third Intermediate Period (Sandri 2006: 198, note 1218). The inscription reads (Montet 1951: 164):

wsjr Hm-nTr snnw n jmn-ra (n)swt-nTrw Hmt-(n)sw(t) wrt tpt n Hm.f wrt xnrt tpt n jmn-ra (n)swt-nTrw aA n pr n

mwt wrt nb(t) jSrw Hm-nTr n mwt wrt nbt-jSrw Hm-nTr n xnsw m wAst nfr-Htp mwt nTr n xnsw pA Xrd tp n jmn

zAt-(n)sw(t) snt-(n)sw(t) Hmt-(n)sw(t) nbt tAwj (mwt nDmt)| mAa xrw xr wjsr “Osiris the God’s Second

Servant of Amun-Re, king of gods; the First Great Royal Wife of His Incarnation, the elder of the

private apartment of Amun-Re, king of the gods, the great one of the House of Mut the Great,

Lady of Isheru; the god’s servant of Mut the Great, lady of Isheru; the god’s servant of Khonsu in

Thebes Neferhotep, the god’s mother of Khonsu-the-Child and First Born of Amun-Re; the king’s

daughter, the king’s sister and the king’s wife, lady of the Two Lands Mutnodjeme, justified

before Osiris.”

5.8 Parent deities

Khonsu’s father Amun was promoted to the position of supreme god in the Egyptian pantheon at

the ascendance of the Theban kings in the Middle and New Kingdom. While his role as a

mysterious and hidden god was primary to his nature, his divinity was enhanced during the

New Kingdom through an interpretation of his nature as a mysterious manifestation of the

Page | １５３
ancient sun-god of Heliopolis, which resulted in a fusion of the hidden deity with the visible sun.

Accordingly, the deity attained the status of cosmic creator god known as jmn-ra nswt-nTrw

“Amun-Re, King of the Gods,” which the Greeks rendered as “Amonrasonther.” Moreover,

Amun was also visualized in an ithyphallic from as Amun-kamutef from the Twelfth Dynasty and,

in this role, he was related to the fertility god Min and sometimes called Amun-Min (Sethe 1929:

19-22/§22-30; Otto 1975: 243). His aspects as the solar god and fertility god are the key to

understanding the father-son relationship between Amun and Khonsu, who appear as the

luminating and fertilizing moon god.

Mut made a relatively late appearance in the history of Egyptian religion. The goddess may have

had a longer history than is attested in Lower Egypt in her relationship with Ptah (te Velde 1988:

397; B. Lesko 1999: 134). Her emergence into great prominence coincides with the ascendance of

Amun as the supreme state god during the New Kingdom. As a companion of Amun-Re who

overshadowed Amaunet, the original consort of Amun, Mut appears as the wife of Amun and

mother of Khonsu. It should be noted, however, that (1) it is Isis and not Mut who usually

appears when Amun is portrayed as an ithyphallic god; and (2) Mut remained prominent on the

east bank of Thebes – therefore, the realm of the living — while Hathor was relegated to the west

side of the region, playing one of her prime roles in welcoming the deceased into the hereafter (B.

Lesko 1999: 135-138). With regard to the downplayed sexual nature of the goddess, Sethe states

that Mut was not just Amun’s spouse but also his mother and daughter in the sense of a female

counterpart of kamutef (1929: 29-30/§§45-48). 283 His comment is very revealing in that (1) one of

283In this regard, te Velde notes that the femininity of Mut has something to do with the femininity of the
old wise woman, which can be contrasted with that of Hathor or the femininity of sexual excitement (1979-
1980: 8-9, 1982a: 247). Also note B. Lesko (1999: 143): “Again it is this wise, older woman who best conveys the role
and personality of Mut. She is not the nubile fertile girl, at the height of her sexual powers, embodied in Hathor, or the

Page | １５４
Amun’s aspects was the ithyphallic kamutef; and (2) his son Khonsu was also regarded as

fertilizing moon-god.

As the mother-goddess of Khonsu, Mut is called as mwt-xnsw “mother of Khonsu” in a New

Kingdom stela (Leitz 2002-VIII: 269). 284 In this role, she appears as an adopted mother in the

theologically (or more likely politically) created divine triad. In that (1) she was generally

regarded as a mother goddess; and (2) the New Kingdom queens were identified with the deity,

the role of Mut in the Theban Triad seems to be that of the mother-intermediary who binds the

state god-king (the sun) and his heir (the moon and the king). With this in mind, Roberts points

out that the goddess binds together the great luminaries of the sky – Amun-Re, the sun, and

Khonsu, the moon (1995: 75).

Meanwhile, Khonsu’s afore-mentioned association with Shezmetet and Sekhmet can be explained

by the fact that, at least in the New Kingdom, Mut was often visualized as a lioness, like many

other goddesses who appear as the Eye of Re, 285 and closely associated with Sekhmet (B. Lesko

1999: 141). In addition, it is also noteworthy that Mut was most frequently called nbt jSrw “lady of

Isheru” and the name Isheru is given to a crescent-shaped lake in several places of Egypt, where

lion-goddesses such as Bastet, Sekhmet and Shezmetet were appeased (te Velde 1982a: 247).

5.9 Child-member of the Theban Triad

Regarding the historical background of Khonsu’s integration into the Theban Triad, Cruz-Uribe

observes that Khonsu became the child-deity of the Theban Triad during the early New Kingdom

devoted young wife and mother personified by Isis. Mut may be regarded as the mature, wise, and public-spirited
woman of middle age.”
284 Isis is also mentioned as the mother-goddess of Khonsu like ms.n-jst “born of Isis” (Leitz 2002-III: 400).

285 For Mut as the Eye of Re, see te Velde 1988: 395-403; B. Lesko 1999: 144-146.

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period when Amun-Re was elevated to a universal deity, absorbing many aspects of the Osirian

tradition and, as a result, the Amun-Mut-Khonsu triad was created in parallel with the Osirian

triad (1994: 186). The earliest representation of the Theban Triad seems to be either on the north

side of the east half of the Eighth Pylon in the Karnak temple or in the reliefs of the bark of Amun

at Queen Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri (te Velde 1979-1980: 5, 1982a: 247 and

note 14). Unfortunately, however, there is no lengthy New Kingdom text that can elaborate the

familial relationship in the Theban Triad. The image of the Theban divine family is inscribed on

the wall of the temples, stelae and statue bases, but comments about their relationship cannot be

found in any texts. Interestingly, Amun-Re is not mentioned as the “father of Khonsu” but some

of the epithets that belonged to Khonsu-the-Child show the father-son relationship between the

two deities: (1) aA-wr-tpj-n-jmn “the Great and First Born of Amun” (Edwards 1960a: 73; Montet

1951: 164; Leitz 2002-V: 17-18) and (2) aA-wr-tpj-n-jmn-ra “the Great and First Born of Amun-

Re”(Montet 1960: Plate LIV, 1-3; Leitz 2002-V: 18). 286

With regard to the aspect of Khonsu as the son of Amun(-Re), it should be noted that Khonsu was

identified with Shu already in the New Kingdom, because (1) Amun was syncretized with the

sun-god Re and thus functioned as a sun-god; and (2) according to the Heliopolitan Cosmology,

Shu is the first-born son of the sun-god (Bonnet 1971: 142; Leitz 2005-V: 768, 770-771). 287 In

addition, Sethe notes that (1) the identification of Khonsu with Shu is associated with Amun as

air-god (1929: 102/§ 217); and (2) Shu, as the son of the sun-god, is also the god of sunlight, which

286 The sun-god Re is sometimes mentioned as the father of Khonsu, as in (1) jmA-jb-n-jt(j).f-ra “the one who is
well-disposed to his father Re” (Leitz 2002-I: 300) and (2) pr-m-ra “the one who came forth from Re” (2002-III:
71). Khonsu is also called zA-wsjr “the son of Osiris” (2002-VI: 76-78).
287 Khonsu-Shu inherited the characters of Shu as (1) the god of air and (2) the bearer of the sky. This

explains why Khonsu was identified with Heracles during the Ptolemaic-Roman Period, because (1)
Heracles, like Khonsu-Shu, held up the sky for Atlas in his Eleventh Labor; and (2) his father was Zeus, who
was worshipped as Amun (the father of Khonsu) in Egypt (Bonnet 1961: 142; also cf. Redford 1979: 34).

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corresponds to Khonsu as god of light in his capacity of moon-god (or the sun of night) (ibid. 113-

114/§ 242). In the funerary sphere, Khonsu-Shu appears as divine helper of the deceased, like

other child deities, as he (1) guides the deceased to the sky as god of the sky and (2) imparts air to

the deceased as god of air (Bonnet 1971: 142). Khonsu’s role as a god of light is very important in

an attempt to explain his filial relationship with Amun(-Re). As mentioned earlier, the moon was

believed to replace the sun after sunset and, in this regard, the sun-god could frequently appear

as father of the moon. That explains why the moon-god Khonsu is the son of Amun(-Re) in the

New Kingdom Theban Triad. Here he plays the role of kamutef (Jacobsohn 1939: 23; Labrique

2003: 204), as confirmed by the double “father-daughter” relationship of Amun-Re and Mut

mentioned above.

The role of Khonsu as a god of light became apparent in the Ptolemaic-Roman Period, as

described in the Khonsu Cosmogony:

T5-7. Text on the East Wall of the Second Hypostyle Hall of the Khonsu Temple (KM 583) 288

(4) Dd mdw n xnsw [m] wAst nfr-Htp Hrw nb Awt-jb m jpt swt
jtn wr sHD tAwj, (5) ra pw n Smaw [mHw], sn.f jrw.f wHm.n.f xprw.f,
pr.f Hr nxb (6) m S, sw mj Sw, zA jSS.n tm
wbn n nxb m S (7) pn pw, r[dj] nxb Xr.f, xa.w m sSm.f m TAr(w)
(8) sw m Haw anx m zA n (j)t(j).f pr Hr nxb mj [...]

(4) Recitation of Khonsu [in] Thebes Neferhotep, Horus, the lord of happiness in Karnak,
the great disk that illuminates the Two Lands.
(5) He is Re in Upper and Lower Egypt.
passing (i.e. rejuvenating) his form, after repeating his evolution,
coming forth from the lotus flower (6) in the pool.
He is like Shu, the son whom Atum spat out.
He is the rising one of the lotus flower from this (7) pool,

For the text, see Cruz-Uribe 1994: 172; Mendel 2003: Plate 11. For the translation, see Lesko et al 1988:172;
288

Cruz-Uribe 1994: 174; Mendel 2003: 105-109.

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 under whom the lotus flower was placed when he had appeared in his image in Tjaru.
(8) He is the living body as the son of his father, who appears on the lotus flower like [...]

As a god of light, Khonsu was eventually identified with the sun-god Re (Leitz 2005-V: 769). As

was shown above, especially in the Ptolemaic-Roman Period Khonsu was believed to follow the

course of the sun. In a hymn on the wall of the propylon of the Khonsu temple at Karnak, Khonsu

and the sun-god merge together. On the second day of the month, after an absence of two days,

the moon reappears in the east once the sun goes down in the west. The phenomenon was

interpreted as the union of the two stars in the underworld (Depuydt 1998: 76-85). In addition,

the concept of kamutef is applied to explain the phenomenon, stressing the role of the mother-

goddess in the daily rebirth of the sun (in this case, the moon combined with the sun). Here, we

witness anew the kamutef pattern – that is, the Mut-Khonsu cycle (Labrique 2003: 204-205).

Most importantly, however, Khonsu became identified with Horus, another god of light, who

symbolized the waxing moon always recovering its youth and thus the renewal of royal power

(Goyon 1983: 2-7; Fazzini 1988: 19). 289 The evidence of the identification between the two deities is

attested in a Nineteenth Dynasty sculpture of a life-size child who wears a side-lock of youth and

the moon on his head and crouches at the feet of Horus the Elder (Hall 1977: 56). At any rate,

Khonsu as a god of light and the fertilizing moon stands face-to-face with his hidden but also

revealed father deity Amun-Re (Sethe 1929: 31/§51). 290 The father-son relationship between the

two gods of light is also seen in the fact that Khonsu appears as the child of the solarized

For the iconographic details in the syncretism of Khonsu and Horus (Harpocrates), see Salis 2009: 2.
289

In the Ptolemaic-Roman Period, Horus-child deities possessing the solar aspect (such as Har-pa-Re-pa-
290

khered and Harpocrates) appear side by side with those with the lunar aspect (such as Khonsu the Child
and Khonsu-Thoth). In a text, the two deities are named together, showing their special relationship as
deities who can stand on an equal footing (Sandri 2006: 204-206; see also Budde 2003: 37 and notes 86, 44):
mrj xnzw-pA-Xrd aA wr tpj n jmn Hrw-pA-Xrd “beloved by Khonsu the Child, the great and first born of Amun and
Harpocrates.”

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crocodile deity Sobek and the goddess Hathor in the Ptolemaic-Roman temple of Kom Ombo (B.

Altenmüller 1975: 167; Brunner 1975b: 961; Hart 1986: 114). 291

Another facet of the father-son relationship between Amun(-Re) and Khonsu is the fact that, in

the Late Period, Khonsu’s name was reinterpreted as x-nsw(t) “the child of the king” (Blackman

1916: 238; Posener 1996: 118-119). Especially, Posener notes Khonsu’s status in the Theban Triad

as follows (1996: 119): “Il ne semble pas que Khonsou ait eu des relations particulières avec la royauté

terrestre et c’est un «roi» divin qu’il faut lui supposer pour père; ce ne peut être qu’Amon. Il est à peine

nécessaire de rappeler la place que tient l’idée de souveraineté dans la religion du dieu thébain. Il est le «roi

des dieux» et Imn-Ra-nsw.t-nTr.w est une de ses désignations courantes depuis la XVIIIe dynastie juqu’à la

fin du paganisme.”

In an example of the Ptolemaic-Roman Period (from the reign of Cleopatra VII), Khonsu the

Child bears the epithet xnsw-pA-Xrd aA wr tpj n jmn nsw n Xrdw nb “Khonsu the Child, the great and

first-born of Amun, king of all children.” Khonsu is the bodily son of Amun, which legitimizes

his status as the heir of the king of all gods. As such, Khonsu appears as an heir/ruler who has

dominating power over all other child-deities (Sandri 2006: 205 and note 1264). Needless to say,

the prominent status of Khonsu is determined by the status of his father Amun, who is the king

of all gods.

291Khonsu himself is sometimes represented in the form of a crocodile, an amphibian creature that serves as
a symbol of the sun. For Khonsu as a crocodile, see Cruz-Uribe 1994: 178; Salis 2009: 2.

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 CONCLUSION

As demonstrated in this chapter, the basis of understanding Khonsu as a child deity should be

that he functions as a god of light. Therefore, it would not be entirely wrong to say that traits of

Khonsu as the child deity stem from his fundamental status as a moon god. It should be also

noted that, as the child-member of the Theban Triad, Khonsu is mainly depicted as a youthful

deity rather than a little child, with a side-lock of youth but also with the god’s beard and holding

ankh- and was-staffs.

First of all, Khonsu was imagined as the perpetually rejuvenating moon in the cosmic sphere. In

his role as a youthful god of light, Khonsu became the child of Amun and Mut in Thebes. He

represents the moon who acts as the deputy of the sun-god by illuminating the world with his

light at night and, in particular, as heir of the solarized Amun-Re. When the importance of

Khonsu the Child grew, the emphasis shifted to his role of a rejuvenated moon-child acting as an

heir and savior of the world (Cruz-Uribe 1994: 189): “The child Khonsu is presented as the creator.

Khonsu the child serves as the energetic and rejuvenated leader of today, as well as the hope for the future.

This last is tied to the role that Khonsu derives from the Osirian program for the death and rebirth of the

godhead. ... The rejuvenation is simply a closing of the cycle of creation, death and recreation. Khonsu the

moon parallels Khonsu the falcon, the sun and the moon, aspects of day and night.”

On the kingship level, Khonsu plays a Horus-like role from the New Kingdom and the king is

often identified with the youthful Khonsu moon-god, as in the case of the granite statue of

Tutankhamen found in the Khonsu Temple at Karnak. As a symbol of the ever-rejuvenating

moon and the powerful and legitimate heir of the throne, Khonsu is depicted as receiving

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offerings from the king. In the Late Period, Khonsu, mostly identified with Horus, blesses and

protects the pharaoh after the victory in the divine tribunal. Here, Khonsu-Horus is equated with

the waxing moon that can always recover its youth and, at the same time, perpetuate the validity

of kingship (Goyon 1983: 2-7; Fazzini 1988: 19). One good example is King Osorkon, who

portrays himself in the form of “Horian” Khonsu (Redford 1979: 35-36).

There are few texts mentioning Khonsu’s role in the funerary sphere. In the Pyramid Texts,

Khonsu is depicted as a violent deity who helps the deceased king gain magical power from the

gods. As a powerful and dreadful deity, Khonsu is frequently identified with the deceased who

wish to transform themselves into the deity, namely in the following Coffin Texts spells:

 Coffin Texts Spell 310 (CT IV 65j, 66m): jnk xnzw zb Dnd bxxw HAtjw ... jnk xnzw dnd nb nbw “for I

am Khonsu who sends out rage, the burner of hearts ... I am Khonsu, the raging one of the

lord of lords.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 311 (CT IV 67q–r): snD n N pn dj n.f nTrw jA, xa.y m Xnzw “There is fear of this

N, the gods make homage to him, apparent as as Khonsu.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180j): dj.t(w) n.j hy m rn.j pw n xnzw “Acclamation is given to me

in this my name of Khonsu.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 943 (CT VII 158b): anx.j m xnzw, jnk nHb-kAw “I will live as Khonsu; I am

Nehebkau.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 945 (CT VII 161i): At.(j) xnzw “My striking-power is Khonsu.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 994 (CT VII 209b-c): anx.j m tpw, jnk xnzw “I will live on heads as I am

Khonsu.”

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In addition, Khonsu, when identified with Shu, appears as a divine helper of the deceased,

playing a guiding and reviving role (Bonnet 1971: 142). He is also the lord of provision, like other

child deities, as in Coffin Texts Spell 563 (CT VI 162t) (Posener 1966: 118, note 38): snn.j TAw m fnD.j

mj xnzw HoA DfAw “I will sniff air with my nose like Khonsu, the ruler of sustenance.”

The living also sought help from Khonsu, especially in the age of “personal piety.” In the sphere

of personal contact with the divine, Khonsu is depicted on numerous private stelae, receiving

offerings from non-royal individuals or being adored by his worshippers alone or along with the

other members of the Theban Triad. Here Khonsu is considered a friendly deity and a god of

light who protects his followers by curing diseases and driving away evil spirits. This can be

demonstrated by the fact that the most frequently used epithet of the deity during the New

Kingdom was Neferhotep, which means “perfect of grace” and was widely used in a personal

name since the Middle Kingdom (Ranke 1935: 198). In addition, in the Twentieth Dynasty

Khonsu, in the form of Khonsu the plan maker (Khonsupairskher), became the most popular

oracular deity, whose oracles were obtained at the time of a child’s birth (Brunner 1975b: 961).

Khonsu clearly became a very popular protective deity during the New Kingdom Period. What

was behind his growing popularity and importance, as well as the elaboration of his forms and

iconography? I think that the answer should be found in his role as a divine intermediary – i.e., as

the god of light (the moon god) who stands face to face with his father Amun-Re (the sun), the

supreme state god. It is true that Mut also played the role of a divine intermediary between the

cosmic and kingship spheres. However, it was Khonsu who was sought most by the deceased

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and living to mediate between the divine and the human, on the basis of his status as the ever-

rejuvenating child/heir, coupled with mysteries of the moon. 292

In this regard, it is noteworthy that Khonsu was identified with Bes in the Late Period (Meeks 1992: 425-
292

427).

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 CHAPTER 6. NEFERTEM – MEDIATOR WITH FRAGRANT SCENT

INTRODUCTION

Nefertem is one of the ancient gods who are already attested in the Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts.

He is usually depicted as a youthful god wearing a lotus headdress composed of a lotus blossom

flanked by two tall plumes. However, he is probably the least attested child deity in the Egyptian

pantheon during the period that spans the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom. He is mentioned

in only a few spells from important funerary documents, such as the Pyramid Texts, the Coffin

Texts and the Book of the Dead – and mostly in a passing manner. As a result, his true nature

remains unclear and scholars have filled the gap with their own assumptions and theories.

Nefertem has been generally identified with the primeval water-lily (conventionally, “lotus

blossom”) or the newborn sun-god standing on it. However, scholars do not agree about the

exact nature of the child deity. 293 The most comprehensive work regarding this child deity is Der

Gott auf der Blume, co-authored by Morenz and Schubert. A section of the first chapter deals with

the roles of Nefertem and the primeval lotus (“Urlotos”) in detail (1954: 14-22). While many

scholars associate Nefertem with the sun-child, Morenz regarded Nefertem as perfume and

distinguished him from the primeval lotus. Morenz also notes that Harpocrates as the young sun-

god was usually depicted as a child deity crowned with the sun-disk in the lotus blossom. In this

regard, Meeks points out that the relationship between the sun and the lotus-Nefertem is well

attested in the Pyramid Texts but the birth of the sun-god in the lotus blossom is known only

Independent treatments of “Nefertem” (“Nefertum”) include Bonnet 1971: 508-510; Schlögl 1982: 378-380;
293

Hart 1986: 130; Houser-Wegner 2001b: 2:514-516; Pinch 2002: 169, 158; and R. Wilkinson 2003: 133-135.

Page | １６４
after the Amarna period (1977b: 1004). Considering that Nefertem is referred to as zSSn r Srt ra “the

lotus blossom at the nose of (the sun-god) Re” (Pyr. § 266a), Harer’s pharmaceutical and

toxicological analysis of the blue lotus (Nymphaea cerula), with which the deity is often identified,

also provides interesting clues regarding his role in the Egyptian pantheon (1985: 49-54, 2001:

304-305). It is less easy to find scholarly interpretation of Nefertem’s violent and warlike features

as the son of Sekhmet, as far as descriptions from primary sources such as the Book of the Dead

are concerned (Bonnet 1971: 510; Schlögl 1982: 379).

NAME AND ICONOGRAPHY

6.1 Name of Nefertem

Along with his manifestation as the blue lotus blossom, 294 Nefertem’s name may reveal his

connection with the sun-god. There have been many attempts to penetrate the meaning of the

deity’s name Nefertem (nfr-tm), which many scholars believe includes Atum (tm), the creator-god

of the Heliopolitan cosmogony.

Spiegel interprets Nefertem as “Gut ist Atum” and regards Nefertem as (1) the lotus blossom that

emerged from the primeval waters; and (2) the embodiment of the life-force of ka that flows from

Atum to Re and into the world through the two deities (“Symbol der von Atum zu Re und über ihn

in die Welt einströmenden göttlichen Kraft des Ka”). In this regard, he notes that Pyramid Texts Spell

249 (Pyr. § 266a): xa (wnjs)| m nfr-tm m zSSn r Srt ra “Unis will appear as Nefertem, as the lotus at the

sun-god’s nose” corresponds to the image of the Egyptian deities giving life (anx) to the nose of

294As the embodiment of the lotus blossom, Nefertem has a few epithets related to the plant, such as (1) nxb-
wr “Great Lotus-blossom” (Leitz 2002-IV: 298); (2) xA-aA “Great Lotus” (Leitz 2002-V: 624); (3) zSn “Lotus”
(Leitz 2002-VI: 642-643); (4) zSn-nfr “Beautiful Lotus” (Leitz 2002-VI: 643). The epithet nxb-wr “Great Lotus-
blossom” is attested in the New Kingdom and the others are all from the Ptolemaic-Roman Period.

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the king and thus the life-force of the creator god Atum is transmitted to the sun-god Re through

Nefertem (1953: 216-223). As such, Nefertem is a mediator that connects the two great gods. 295

Spiegel further observes that when the sun-god Re holds the lotus flower to his nose, the deity

can be identified with Atum at that moment and the image serves as an illustration of divine self-

development. In either case, Nefertem plays a role as the embodiment of the creator’s ka through

the visual manifestation of the sun-god. 296 His view of Nefertem as the embodiment of the life-

force corresponds to the generally accepted view that Nefertem gives life-giving forces to the

sun-god Re. He goes on to say that, in the Late Period, the king was identified with Nefertem

because he, as the embodiment of divine essence on the earth and the mediator between gods

and humans, shared the same characteristics with that deity. To support this claim, Spiegel

quotes Pyramid Texts Spell 307 (Pyr. §§ 482a-483c, see T6-2 below) and the Third Dynasty royal

name of Neferkare, which he translates as “Gut is der Ka des Re,” a name similar in meaning to

Nefertem’s “Gut is Atum.” 297 His understanding of Nefertem as a mediator between Atum and Re

is interesting in connection with the king’s role as a mediator between the two worlds and the

child deity’s aspect as a mediator of his parent deities. Unfortunately, however, there is no textual

or representational evidence to substantiate his claim.

295 Without giving any textual or representational source, Spiegel also mentions that Atum, Nefertem and Re
form a trinity (“Dreieinigkeit”), in which Atum is the original creator, Re his visual manifestation, and
Nefertem the embodiment/nature (“Wesenhaft”) of ka that binds up the two deities. He also says that the
altered Hermopolitan concept about the emergence of the creator on the primeval hill gave a deeper
spiritual significance to the Heliopolitan Theology through the combination with the concept of the ancient
Lower Egyptian idea of the self-developing god and the divine creative power of ka (1953, 217).
296 However, Spiegel also points out that Nefertem may not be a deliverer of ka but an emblem of the sun-

god Re – that is, the life-force ka that comes from the sun-god Re (“von Re ausgehende Kraft des Ka”).
297 Spiegel notes, however, that the two names are not contemporary but come from the Turin Canon and

the king list of the Nineteenth Dynasty cult temple of Seti I at Abydos (1953: 620, note 32).

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Meanwhile, Anthes suggests that Nefertem may mean (1) “Atum ist in neuer Form erschienen”

(1955: 87); or (2) “der neu Erschienene ist eine vollzählige Gesamtheit” (1958: 2). According to his

hypothesis of the Egyptian theology of the early Old Kingdom period (1955: 87, 1958: 1-6, 1959:

169-212, 1961: 33-50), there were three stages in the development of the Heliopolitan Theology:

 First Stage: Different concepts about the creation coexisted in the prehistoric period. There

were different primeval beings such as beetles, snakes, frogs and water-lilies that came out of

the primeval flood and the sun is also associated with them.

 Second Stage: A new theology was developed to justify the divine kingship after the

unification of Egypt. In the newly developed theology, the earthly king was the manifestation

of the supreme sky god Horus. At the same time, all the previous primeval beings were

incorporated into a new form of god named Atum that meant “Vollendet,” or “Erfüllt.” 298

According to this theology, Atum and the Horus-king were two primeval deities, as stated in

Pyramid Texts Spell 571: 299

T6-1. Pyramid Texts Spell 571 (Pyr. § 1466) 300

1466-a Dd-mdw j(w)r mwt nt (pjpj)| jm.f jm(j) njwt

1466-b ms (pjpj)| pn jn jt.f tm
1466-c nj xprt pt, nj xprt tA
1466-d nj xprt r(m)T, nj mst nTrw, nj xprt m(w)t

1466-a RECITATION. The mother of Pepi became pregnant with him,

298 So Anthes interprets his name “the completed one who absorbed all the other first living beings” (1958, 2;
1959, 177). He compares the name of Atum and that of Nefertem to explain the parallel development of the
two deities. See below for the detail. Also note J. Allen for the concept of the Atum as “lord of totality” (nb
tm) – the monad from whom all the elements and forces in the world derived, and the “Finisher” (j.tmw) –
the one who both “brings to completion” and “finishes” in the [creative] process (1988: 9-10).
299 Finally, for the evidence of the king as the primeval existence, Anthes also cites Pyr. § 1040 and Pyr. §

1063.
300 For translations, see Faulkner 1969: 226; J. Allen 2005: 179.

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 he who is in the undersky,
1466-b this Pepi was given birth to by his father Atum,
1466-c when the sky had not yet come into being, when the earth had not yet come into
being,
1466-d when people had not yet come into being, when the gods had not yet come into
being,
when death had not yet come into being.

 Third Stage: The importance of the sun-god Re as primeval god began to increase during the

Fourth and Fifth Dynasties. This made it necessary to harmonize his primeval existence with

the existing theologies, especially the Heliopolitan Theology of Atum and Horus. 301

Considering the supreme position of the sun-god Re, it was impossible to subjugate him into

the existing cult system as a secondary deity. For this reason, (1) Egyptian theologians

combined Re with Atum into Re-Atum and Horus with Re into Re-Horakhthy; and (2) the

early concept of the king and Atum as the primeval being was replaced by a parallel one

introducing Re. This means that “according to the old concept, the king and Atum existed in

the primeval beginning and, according to the new concept, Re and Nefertem” (1959, 177), as

stated in Pyramid Texts Spell 307: 302

T6-2. Pyramid Texts Spell 307 (Pyr. §§ 482a-483c) 303

482-a Dd-mdw jwnw(j) m (wnjs)| nTr jwnw(j).k m (wnjs)| nTr

482-b jwnw(j) m (wnjs)| ra jwnw(j).k m (wnjs)| ra
482-c mwt nt (wnjs)| jwnw(t) (j)t(j) n (wnjs)| jwnw(j)
483-a (wnjs)| Ds.f jwnw(j) msjj m jwnw
483-b sk ra Hr(j)-tp psDtj Hr(j)-tp rxwt nfr-tm
483-c jwtj snw.f jwaw (j)t(j).f gbb

301 For the sun-god Re as the primeval deity, Anthes quotes Pyr. § 264.
302 For the reason why Nefertem was selected as the old parallel of Atum, Anthes cites Pyramid Texts Spell
249 (1958: 1): m nfr-tm m r Srt ra “as Nefertem, as the lotus at Re’s nose,” cited above.
303 For translations, see Faulkner 1969: 95; J. Allen 2005: 58.

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 482-a RECITATION. There is a Heliopolitan in Unis, god: your Heliopolitan is in Unis, god.
482-b There is a Heliopolitan in Unis, Sun: your Heliopolitan is in Unis, Sun.
482-c The mother of Unis is a Heliopolitan, the father of Unis is a Heliopolitan,
483-a and Unis himself is a Heliopolitan, born in Heliopolis
483-b when Re was above the Dual Ennead and above the subjects, Nefertem
483-c without peer, heir of his father Geb.

In the text above, the earthly king is neither Re nor a member of the Ennead, so he should be

Nefertem, who is the ruler of the subjects and the heir of Geb. 304 Here Anthes reflects on “the

meaning of their complements, Atum beside the divine king, and Nefertem beside Re” (1959:

177):

Both names, Atum and Nefertem, can be translated. … The verb which is common to
both names is tm which is closely related to the Semitic tmm. Its two meanings appear
contradictory. They are best evidenced as “to become non-existent” and “to be completed
in number.” Choosing the second meaning we must translate the names as followings:
“Atum” is “he that is completed in number,” and “Nefertem” is “the Nefer is completed
in number.” Nefer (nfr) means something like “the new one,” “the youthful one,” “the
regenerate one,” and later on, it occurs as “lotus flower.” 305 Thus the regenerate primeval
lotus flower is called a unit which was completed by absorbing a number of individuals.
Seeing that Nefertem is the primeval living being, the primeval lotus flower, it is a good
guess that the various forms of appearance of the first living being, which had been
conceived from prehistoric times, were absorbed and regenerated in the one primeval
lotus flower, Nefertem.

304 According to Anthes, unlike Atum and Horus who were heavenly and earthly king at the same time, the

sun-god Re was exclusively sun and heavenly god. Moreover, the king became his successor – that is the
Son of Re and earthly king. He states: (1) the introduction of Re eventually led to an “unexpected”
separation of the heavenly and earthly kingship; and (2) that is why Nefertem features kingly attributes,
such as the double-feather crown, and the epithet “der die beiden Länder schützt” (1958: 3-4). In addition,
Anthes believes that Nefertem can be identified with the Osiris-king because of the following facts: (1)
Nefertem’s sprouting blossom reflects the vegetation character of Osiris expressed in Pyr. §264 and § 483;
and (2) the deceased king identified with Nefertem is called heir of Geb in Pyramid Texts Spell 307: jwaw
(j)t(j).f gbb “heir of his father Geb” (1955: 83, note 3).
305 The word nfr came to mean “lotus” or more precisely, “die Blume des Nefertem” (as in WB II 262) during

the New Kingdom. However, the new meaning might stem from the already-established association
between Nefertem and lotus, and not the other way around. It was pointed out by Anthes that the meaning
of nfr as “die Blume des Nefertem” can be explained because of this association (1958: 2). See also Ryhiner: 1986
6-7.

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In sum, Atum and Nefertem were created in exactly the same way. Atum is the eldest deity in the

divine genealogy reaching down to the living king. He passes life-force on to Horus, who

symbolizes both heavenly and earthly kingship. Nefertem, on the other hand, represents a deity

who embodies the primeval time, giving life, in the form of the lotus fragrance, to the sun-god Re

(Anthes 1958: 4-5). In one role comparable to that of Atum, Nefertem reveals his true nature. As

the partner of Re, Nefertem is the primeval lotus that emerged from the primeval waters and

whose fragrance bestows life on the sun-god Re every morning. However, the fragrance of the

primeval lotus flower was not just a pleasant scent but also a life-force (Anthes 1955: 82): “Der

dem Re durch die Nase eingehende Duft ist dabei gewiβ nicht nur eine Liebkosung, sondern durch die Nase

geht das Leben ein: der Duft der Lotosblume gibt dem im Horizonte aufsteigenden Re das Leben für seinen

Tageslauf,“ and therefore Nefertem was “der Urlotus, der der Sonne Lebens- und Schöpferkraft gab.” 306

The problem with the views of Spiegel and Anthes is that, while they try to base their arguments

on a handful of relevant texts, there is no conclusive textual and representational evidence to

substantiate the relationship between Atum and Nefertem. Anthes himself admits this (1958: 5):

“Ich habe diese Darlegungen einen Versuch genannt, und sie müssen klärlich hypothetisch bleiben, da

unsere Quellen für das behandelte Thema niemals einen endgültig schlüssigen Beweis liefern können.”

Therefore, the only fact that can be derived from the textual evidence presented by the two

scholars is that Nefertem is a god of lotus blossom whose fragrance has the creative power to

awaken and enliven the creator/sun-god.

306Regarding Nefertem’s live-giving power, Anthes assumes that it might have originated from a kind of
temple ceremony of offering flowers to the sun-god Re every morning. For a parallel example, the offering
of ma’at, see Anthes: 1955: 82, note 3.

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Morenz, who consistently argues that Nefertem should be distinguished from the primeval lotus,

interprets the name of Nefertem “völlig Schöne” and sees the deity as the god of fragrance (for a

detailed discussion about the nature of Nefertem as the god of fragrance, see 6.6 below). At any

rate, the name of Nefertem seems to indicate the two aspects of the deity: (1) his close connection

with the creator/sun-god who receives the creative power from him; and (2) his nature as the god

of fragrance.

6.2 Iconography

Nefertem is rarely attested before the New Kingdom and his iconography seems to have been

firmly taken shape during the New Kingdom (Leitz 2004-IV: 221). According to Schlögl (1982:

379), Nefertem can appear in one of three forms:

(1) the blue lotus (Nymphaea cerulea) with the two tall plumes on the top of the blossom;

(2) a pure anthropomorphic form as a youthful male god wearing a headdress composed of

a lotus blossom also flanked by the two tall plumes; and

(3) a lion-headed male god or a god in a pure leonine form who is usually depicted as

destroying his enemies.

First, as the primeval water-lily, Nefertem can appear as the blue lotus blossom. Schlögl cites an

example of the plant in the so-called Horbeit stela (Naville 1910: Plate II), but Barta identifies the

plant in question not as lotus blossom but as the anx-jmj plant, an aromatic herb that was used as

a medicine and also offered to the dead for its life-giving fragrance (1973a: 86; for the details

about the plant emblem see EXCURSUS 6-1). I think that it is a combined image of the bulbous

root that has powerful scent and the emblem of Nefertem (see 6.6.3 below). Meanwhile, it is

interesting to note that the blue lotus emblem is often attested in the top register of cippi, where

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the lotus-plant emblem with the two menit counterpoises is shown flanking the Horus child at his

left (Seele 1947: 44 and Plates I-III; Scott 1951: 202, 206; J. Allen 2005b: 50, 51, 63, 64). The emblem

is identified with Nefertem in a label saying nfr-tm xw tAwj “Nefertem, Protector of the Two

Lands” in a cippus (British Museum No. 362150: see also Seele 1947: 44). Given that a Horus-

falcon with the plume crown sitting on the papyrus stalk and blossom stands at the right of the

Horus child in the same register, it seems apparent that the two must have been regarded as a

standard of the infant deity.

Second, Nefertem is normally anthropomorphic, wearing a headdress of the above-mentioned

lotus-plant emblem (that is, the lotus blossom embellished with the two tall plumes and the two

menit counterpoises hanging at its sides). 307 The lotiform emblem on the top of his head

symbolizes his nature as the god of fragrance as well as the role of the lotus flower in ancient

Egyptian cosmogony (R. Wilkinson 2003: 134). The most prominent depiction of the god is the

one carved on a wall in the royal tomb of Horemheb in the Valley of the Kings (Hornung 1971:

Plates 20b and 21a). In the Late Period, the typical iconography of Nefertem is widely

represented in bronze statues (Daressy 1905: Plate VII, 1906: 28-34; Hayes 1938: 182-184 and Figs.

1 and 2; Hornemann 1975a: Plates 212, 213) and amulets (Andrews 1998: 18-19 and Fig. 12c; for

Nefertem in the Memphite Triad, see Figs. 13b and 13d).

Third, as the child-member of the Memphite Triad, Nefertem is also depicted as a lion-headed

god in his close relation with the lioness mother-goddess Sekhmet (see 6.8 below). In a few cases,

he is shown standing on the back of a lion (Hornemann 1975b: Plate 1334; also cf. Seton-Williams

1965: 14); as a lion that attacks his enemy (Naville 1888: Plate 3-3; Piankoff 1933: 99-105 and Fig.

307 For Nefertem as mummiform, see Mariette 1869: Plate 38a.

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1) 308 or as a crouching lion (Andrews 1998: 21d). In these examples, a falcon wearing the plume-

crown is perched on the top of the deity’s head. The images of the lion-headed Nefertem are

frequently found in his chapel in the mortuary temple of Seti I at Abydos, where he is

accompanied with other Memphite deities such as Ptah-Sokar, Sekhmet and Tatjenen (Mariette

1869: Plates 37a, 38c, 39c; also see David 1981: 97-108).

Like Khonsu, Nefertem appears in pure child form only in the Late Period. In this case, the deity

is represented often in bronze and sometimes in silver, sitting on the lotus blossom and wearing

the lotus-emblem or the triple atef-crown (Hall 1977: 55 and Plate XXIV-2).

HISTORIC OVERVIEW

6.3 Before the New Kingdom

Nefertem is a very ancient god attested already in the Old Kingdom, as in Pyramid Texts Spell

249 (Pyr. § 266a-b; for the full text, see T6-3 below), which may well be the source quoted most

frequently to explain his nature. The deity is visualized as the lotus bud at the nose of the sun-

god and this indicates that the deity was viewed as the “Duftgott,” or the god of fragrance,

already in the Old Kingdom (see 6.6 below). Pyramid Texts Spell 307 also reveals his relationship

with Atum in Heliopolis, as mentioned in 6.2 above.

308Piankoff’s article is about the identification of Nefertem with Mahes (or Miysis). Mahes is a lion god who
appears as the son of Bastet or Sekhmet from the New Kingdom and whose role is to help the sun-god in the
fight against Apophis. He is associated with war-like gods such as Horhekenu, Horus-Montu and Horus of
Hebenu, and is sometimes depicted wearing the lotus emblem of Nefertem (Piankoff 1934: 103; Žabkar 1982:
163).

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Nefertem also appears in the Coffin Texts but the passages in question fail to give any decisive

clue to the deity’s true nature or role in the ancient Egyptian pantheon. Unfortunately, the

significance of the spells listed below remains elusive, except for Coffin Texts Spell 355, which

shows that the deity’s filial relationship with Sekhmet was established already in the Middle

Kingdom (see 6.8 below).

 Coffin Texts Spell 295 (CT IV 47f-48a): jnk Hms zA tm, jw zXA.j m sxt-Htpw n Hwt-Hrw, jw dmD.n.j m

wADw, jhmsw zA nfr-tm zXAw wDHw n sxt-Htpw n Hwt-Hrw “I am the sitter, Atum’s son. I write in the

Field of Offering for Hathor, and I have assembed (some) papyri, jhmsw, son of Nefertem,

scribe of the altars of the Field of Offering for Hathor.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 335 (CT IV 302d): nfr-tm zA sxmt aAt “Nefertem (is) son of Sekhmet the

Great.” 309

 Coffin Texts Spell 563 (CT VI 162s): jrr.j Smwt Hr rdwj.j mj nfr-tm “I will make marches on my

feet like Nefertem.” 310

 Coffin Texts Spell 571 (CT VI 173r-174c): jr Hwwt jptn jmt mw pt tA, nj rdj.t(w) jb p[n n] N pn jwt r.s

hb.kA pt tA, hb.kA.t(w) Hbnnt xntt pr nfr-tm, hb.kA Drtj nDt zAt xa-k(A)w.s, hb.kA.t(w) xbt nt “As for these

enclosures in the water of the sky and earth, this desire of this N to go to it has not been

allowed. Then the sky will plow down the earth, the Hbnnt (the name of an offering cake) that

is in front of the house of Nefertem will be plowed down, the hands of Spindle will plow

down the daughter of Khakaues, the ... of Neith will be plowed down.”

309Note that the phrase is attested only in M57C.

310For the full text, see T1-1 above. In the spell, Nefertem seems to play the role of guide of the deceased like
Ihy (see NOTE 330 below) but there may also be reference to his role as moon god, in light of his epithet Hpty
nTrw “runner of the gods,” mentioned in the mortuary temple of Seti I at Abydos (for the text, see Mariette
1869: Plate 37b). In this regard, it is worth noting that the attribute of free movement is particularly stressed
for some of the Egyptian moon gods. For instance, the names Khonsu and Nemty mean “courser” and
“strider,” respectively. For the details, see SECTION 5.4 of CHAPTER 3 above.

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 Coffin Texts Spell 653 (CT VI 274l-y): (the list of gods after the spell) zj.f pw pw mAa-xrw rn.f

Hwt-Hrw, Szmtt, bAstt, jrt-Hrw, jrt-ra, wADt, sxmt, wDAt, xnzw, Hw, sjA, nfr-tm, DHwtj “He is this

justified man of his, whose name is Hathor, Shezmetet, Bastet, Eye of Horus, Eye of Re,

Wadjet, Sekhmet, the wedjat-eye, Khonsu, Hu, Sia, Nefertem, Thoth.”

6.4 From the New Kingdom onward

In the New Kingdom, Nefertem’s image as the embodiment of the blue lotus mentioned in

Pyramid Texts Spell 249 is reiterated and emphasized in the Book of the Dead Chapters 81 and

174 (see 6.6.3 below). In the Chapter 125, Nefertem appears as the judge of the deceased, who

punishes those who committed evil during their lifetime; this attribute may stem from his

connection with his mother-goddess Sekhmet (Schlögl 1982: 379).

 Book of the Dead Chapter 81: jrt xprw m zSn jnk zSn wab pr m jAxw jrj Srt ra, jry.j hAy, wxA.j sw n

Hrw nTr aA mrytj, jnk zSn wab pr m sxt “Changing into a lotus. I am the pure lotus which came

forth from the light and is at the nose of the sun-god. I will make jubilation and seek it for

Horus, the great and beloved god. I am the pure lotus which came forth from the field.” 311

 Book of the Dead Chapter 125: j nfr-tm pr m Hwt-kA-ptH, nj jr.j jwyt r r(m)T / nj jr.j bjn “O

Nefertem who came from Memphis, I have not done any wrong against people / I have done

no evil.

 Book of the Dead Chapter 174: xa{w}.n.j m nfr-tm zSS<n> r Srt ra pr.f m Axt ra nb wab.n nTrw jrt.<f>

“I have appeared as Nefertem, the lotus at the sun-god’s nose when he emerges from the

akhet every day, whose eye the gods have purified.”

311Chapter 81B in the Papyrus of Paqerer (Leiden T6) contains the following phrases (Naville 1886a: Plate
XCIII; Carrier 2009: 295-296): r n jrt xprw m zSnw ... j zSnw pn tw(t) pn n nfr-tmw, jnk z(j) {jw.j <rx>.kw r(w) n} jw.j
rx.kw r nt(j)w m nA nTrw nbw Xrt-nTr, jnk wa jm.sn “Spell for changing into a lotus. ... O lotus, this form of
Nefertem, I am a man. I know the spell of those who are all the gods of the necropolis. I am one of them.”

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As mentioned in the Hymn to Nefertem found in the mortuary temple of Seti I at Abydos (for

details, see T6-4 in 6.6.3 below), however, the most prominent aspect of Nefertem is that he is the

god of fragrance and this aspect will be discussed detail in 6.6 below. 312 In sum, it can be said

that: (1) the basic concept of Nefertem as the embodiment of the blue lotus and as the mediator

with the creative power of fragrant scent is already attested in the Old Kingdom; and (2) later his

image of the primeval lotus comes to the surface again in some of the Book of the Dead Chapters

and his aspect is further intensified as the god of scented oil/ointment during the New Kingdom.

NATURE OF THE DEITY

One obvious fact is that Nefertem is a god who embodies the blue lotus – more precisely, the blue

water-lily. 313 As mentioned in CHAPTER 2, a blue lotus rising above the surface of the primeval

ocean is one of the symbols depicting the first sunrise, as is a naked child sitting on the lotus

blossom (Pinch 2002: 59-61). Therefore, it can be said that Nefertem is a solar deity (Houser-

Wegner 2001b: 514; Wilkinson 2003: 133). It remains to be seen, however, if he can appear as the

solar child like Ihy in his manifestation as the blue lotus.

312 It is noteworthy that the phrase that Nefertem is “at the nose of Re” can be seen from a different
perspective: lotuses have a yellow, sun-like center, which those “smelling” the lotus could be contemplating.
I am grateful to Professor J. Allen for the comment.
313 Two water-lilies are known to ancient Egyptians: blue water-lily (Nymphaea cerulea) and white water-lily

(Nymphaea albicans), which were both native to the Nile River in antiquity. The term “lotus” can be
botanically applicable only to the pink lotus (Nelumbo), which probably entered Egypt in the wake of the
Persian conquest c. 525 BCE (Harer 2001: 304). As mentioned in CHAPTER 2, the misnomer “lotus” is so
entrenched in Egyptology that terms such as “blue lotus,” “white lotus” and “lotus-blossom” will be
retained here (Harer 1985: 49-51; 2001: 304-305). For the detailed description of the blue lotus flower, see Tait
1963: 96. For the general discussion about the plants, ancient Egyptian terms and mythological motifs, see
Ryhiner 1986: 1-10. For the comprehensive studies on the motif of gods on the plant, see Morenz & Schubert
1954: 13-82; Schlögl 1977: 11-61.

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With his identity as the lotus blossom, Nefertem seems to possess two significant traits, as

follows:

(1) the primeval lotus (“Urlotos”) that emerged from Nun or the primeval ocean at the time

of the creation; and

(2) the god of fragrance who delivers creative power to the creator/sun-god.

Therefore, the focus should be on determining his nature based on the two traits mentioned

above.

6.5 Nefertem as blue lotus blossom

First of all, it is necessary to take a look at Nefertem’s attribute as the embodiment of the blue

lotus blossom, as mentioned in Pyramid Texts Spell 249:

T6-3. Pyramid Texts Spell 249 (Pyr. §§ 264a-266b) 314

264-a Dd-mdw j jAAw(j), Dd m(j) n Spsj m rn.f pw 264-b (wnjs)| pj nw n zSzS wbn m tA 264-c wab.(w)
Szp (wnjs)| jn jr st.f 265-a (wnjs)| pj (j)r(j) Srt sxm wr
265-b jj.n (wnjs)| pn m jw nsjsj 265-c d.n (wnjs)| mAat jm.f jm st jzft
265-d (wnjs)| pj (j)r(j) Ssrw zAA jarwt 265-e grH pw n Agbjw wr pr m wrt
266-a xa (wnjs)| m nfr-tm m zSSn r Srt ra 266-b pr.f m Axt ra nb wabw nTrw n mA.f

264-a RECITATION. Oh you two combatants, please tell the noble one, of whatever name,
264-b Unis is that lotus that rises clean from the earth.
264-c Unis has been received by the one who made his seat;
265-a Unis is the one at the Great Controlling Power’s nose.
265-b This Unis has come from the Isle of Flame,
265-c Unis having put ma’at in it in place of disorder.
265-d Unis is the one to whom belongs the red linen that the uraei guard
265-e during that night of the great flood that comes forth from the great goddess.
266-a Unis will appear as Nefertem, as the lotus at the sun-god’s nose

314 For translations, see Faulkner 1969: 60-61; J. Allen 2005: 42.

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 266-b when he emerges from the akhet every day,
the one at the sight of whom the gods become clean.

In the spell, King Unis is identified with (1) the sun-god who rises on the east horizon; and (2) the

lotus flower that rises clean from the earth as Nefertem, who is at the nose of the sun-god Re. As

such, the spell clearly shows that Nefertem is an embodiment of the lotus flower and, at the same

time, indicates the close relationship between the sun-god and the lotus flower.

The blue lotus flower closes during the night and opens at the time of sunrise. The ancient

Egyptians thought that the plant’s habit mimics the daily course of the sun. In this regard, the

lotus blossom mentioned in the spell above can be considered as the primeval lotus, whose

conventional image is summarized as follows: (1) it emerged from Nun or the primeval ocean;

and (2) in association with the daily rebirth of the sun, the creator/sun-god appears standing or

squatting on the primeval lotus blossom. 315 However, it does not mean that Nefertem, as the

embodiment of the blue lotus blossom, can manifest himself as the sun-child who is usually

associated with the motif of a god on a plant or blossom (Schlögl 1977: 33). First, it should be

noted that (1) the image of the sun-child on the lotus flower is attested only after the Amarna

period, and notably during the Twenty-first Dynasty; and (2) the image and role of the youthful

sun-god became associated predominantly with Harpocrates (Tait 1963: 134; El-Khachab 1971:

132-145; Schlögl 1977: 33; Ryhiner 1986: 19-20, 22; Meeks 1997b: 1004). 316 As mentioned in

315 For the definition of the primeval lotus, see Morenz: 1954, 15-17. Regarding the primeval lotus that
emerges from the primeval ocean, he presents phrases from the Temple of Dendera. Building on the motif of
emerging from the primeval ocean, the primeval lotus is also said to have sprouted from the land as
mentioned in Pyramid Texts Spell 249 (Pyr. § 264b): (wnjs)| pj nw n zSzS wbn m tA “Unis is that lotus that rises
clean from the earth.” The motif of the creator god in the form of a child deity will be discussed later.
316
After a careful review of the motif of an ancient Egyptian deity standing on plants, which is frequently
attested in important funerary texts such as the Pyramid Texts and the Coffin Texts, Schlögl concludes that
such a motif, while serving as a definite attribute for the god in question, provided the image (“das Bild”) but
did not deliver content for the cosmogony of the late periods (1977: 16). Ryhiner writes that while the image

Page | １７８
CHAPTER 2, the first textual evidence for the sun-child on the lotus blossom is found in a private

hymn to the rising sun dating to the Nineteenth Dynasty (Schlögl 1977: 20-22; Ryhiner 1986: 19;

Assmann 1995: 5-6, 45): j.nD Hr.<k> nxn jmy mn[yt].f wbn m zSn, Hwnw nfr pr m Axt sHD [tAwj m] Szp.f

“Hail to you, youth who is in his [root] who ascends in the lotus flower. Beautiful youth, who

comes from the akhet and illuminates the [Two Lands] with his light.”

Prominent examples that visually realized the idea include the famed vignette of the Book of the

Dead Chapter 81, which depicts the deceased’s head on the lotus flower, and the head of King

Tutankhamum bursting forth from the lotus flower (Munro 1981: 40-41). As such, the sun-child

on the lotus flower appeared at a relatively later stage in the development of ancient Egyptian

religious thought. Moreover, though Nefertem is closely linked to the solar realm, there is no

textual evidence whatsoever that identifies Nefertem with the sun-god or the sun-child. Schlögl

observes that Nefertem is depicted wearing the lotus headdress on the top of his head, but he is

never shown as a god sitting on the lotus blossom (1977: 31). Therefore, the widespread concept

that Nefertem manifests himself as a god on the blossom is not proven, 317 and even though the

lotus plays a significant part in the Egyptian cosmogony, this cannot justify identifying Nefertem

as the creator god or the sun-child in attribute of the embodiment of the blue lotus blossom

(Schlögl: 1977: 30-33; 1982: 379).

of the child squatting with his finger to his mouth is attested already in the Old Kingdom period, the artistic
representation of a child on the lotus flower did not appear until the Third Intermediate Period, after which
the motif was widely exploited in various forms and materials (1986: 20).
317 In this regard, Schlögl asks why Nefertem did not appear in text or visual representations as a god on the

plant or blossom while all other child deities were depicted as the sun-child sitting on the blossom after the
Twenty First Dynasty and answers (1977: 33): “Es [the reason] läge im Charakter des Nefertem als jugendlicher
Urgott mit seiner engen Verbindung zum Sonnengott, auch als Gott auf der Blüte in Erscheinung zu treten. Dagegen
muss man einwenden, dass in der kosmogonischen Vorstellung Lotus und Schöpfergott als zwei selbständige Wesen zu
verstehen sind. Nefertem als personifizierter Lotus kann vielleicht eben deshalb als ‘Gott auf der Blüte’ gar nicht in
Betracht kommen.”

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6.6 Nefertem as “Duftgott”

As noted by Spiegel and Anthes, Nefertem can be viewed as the “Duftgott,” or the god of

fragrance, who delivers creative power to the creator/sun-god. In particular, Morenz repeatedly

argues that Nefertem is a mere “Duftgott” and thus he should be distinguished from the primeval

lotus on which the creator/sun-god sits (1954: 14-22): “Nefertem ist, streng genommen, nur der

Duftgott. Der Urlotos aber ist nicht an ihn gebunden.” In this regard, he reads the name of Nefertem

as “völlig Schöne” 318 and remarks that it might have belonged to the aesthetical/ceremonial sphere

(1954: 15). According to him, Nefertem, as the god of fragrance, is to be regarded as a

personification of perfume, as defined by Kees as “Gott des königlichen Hofparfümes” (1956: 288).

In order to understand the aspect of Nefertem as the “Duftgott,” it is necessary to take a look at

the role of fragrant scent and the blue lotus blossom, as an important medium of fragrant scent,

in ancient Egyptian religious thoughts and beliefs of the afterlife.

6.6.1 Role of fragrant scent

Fragrant scent played an important role in ancient Egyptian religion and beliefs of the afterlife.

First of all, the ancient Egyptians believed that the body of a god has distinct divine scent

(Brunner 1964: 51; Hornung 1982a: 133-134; Meeks et al 1996: 59). The divine fragrance indicates

his/her divine essence and serves to announce his/her presence, as shown in the inscription in

Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple in Deir el-Bahari (Urk. IV 220, 4): [aH baHj.(w) m st(j) nTr], [xnmw].f

nbw m pwnt “[the palace was flooded with the fragrance of the god], all of his [odors] from

It is worth noting that the interpretation of the name is based on the later etymology found in the
318

Ptolemaic temple of Edfu.

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Punt.” 319 In addition, fragrant substances were believed to originate from the gods. 320 Fragrant

incense and ointments offered to the deities was called “Eye of Horus,” like many items offered

to gods in temple rituals.

Burning and offering scented incense was also regarded as a means of communicating with the

god. In temple rituals, burning incense allows priests to attain the part of divine power and

anointing the divine statue with fragrant oils provided them with an opportunity to directly

contact the deity. 321 In opposition to the divine scent stands the stink of decaying corpses; the

deceased wished to absorb the body fragrance of the god with the help of scent in an unguent so

that he could be removed from the foul odor of death and decay. 322

Given that scent can have a profound influence on the senses, it holds a special place in creating

the mood for sexual union and procreation (and thus rebirth/resurrection as well). The most

prominent example is in the texts in Hatshepsut (and Amenhotep III) mentioned above. In

addition, there are numerous cases showing the link between fragrance and sexuality in literary

319 Restored after the parallel in the Luxor Temple. Fragrance from burning incense also served to open a

way for the deceased to reach the divine world, as shown in Pyramid Texts Spell 269 (Pyr. 376a-378a): dj sDt,
wbn sDt, dj snTr Hr sDt, wbn snTr, jj sT(j).k jr (wnjs)| snTr, jj sT(j) (wnjs)| jr.k snTr, jj sT(j).Tn jr (wnjs)| nTrw, jj sT(j) (wnjs)|
jr.Tn nTrw, wn (wnjs)| Hna.Tn nTrw, wn.Tn Hna (wnjs)| nTrw, anx (wnjs)| Hna.Tn nTrw, anx.Tn Hna (wnjs)| nTrw, mr Tn (wnjs)|
nTrw, mr sw nTrw “The fire has been set. The fire has arisen. The incense has been set on the fire, the incense
has arisen. Your scent has come to Unis, incense; Unis’s scent has come to you, incense. Your scent has come
to Unis, gods; Unis’s scent has come to you, gods. Unis shall be with you, gods; you shall be with Unis, gods.
Unis shall live with you, gods; you shall live with Unis, gods. Unis shall desire you, gods; desire him, gods.”
320 The divine origin of the incense can be attested by the comment of the divine snake in the Shipwrecked

Sailor (p.Leningrad 1115, I. 149-152): aHa.n sbt.n.f jm.j m nn Dd.n.j m nf m jb.f, Dd.f n.j, nj wr n.k antjw, xpr.t(j) nb sntr,
jnk js HoA pwnt, antjw n.j jm sw, Hknw pf Dd.n.k jn.t(w).f bw pw wr n jw pn “Then he (the divine snake) laughed at
me [the shipwrecked sailor] for this which I had spoken wrongly in his opinion, saying to me: ‘Do you have
so much myrrh, and have you become the lord of incense? But I am the ruler of Punt and myrrh belongs to
me. That Hknw-oil you said would be brought: it is the chief thing of this island.’”
321 For the role of fragrance in ancient Egyptian thought and temple rituals, see Manniche 1999: 33-46.

322 While the exact nature of scents offered to the dead king remains unknown, it seems to have been similar

to the “Seven Sacred Oils” used in funerary cults and temple rites. For the “Seven Sacred Oils,” see
Manniche 1999: 108-109. It is also noticeable that the same fragrant oils were used during the Rite of
Opening of Mouth.

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tales and love poems (Manniche 1999: 91-93). For instance, in the Tale of Two Brothers, the scent

from a lock of hair triggers the king to send expeditions to track down the owner of the hair tress

(Papyrus d’Orbiney 21, 3-9): wn.jn.sn Hr Dd n pr-aA a-w-s, jr tAj nbd Sntj nsj wa Srjw n pA ra Hrw-Axtj, jw

mw n nTr nbt jm.st, xr sw m nD Hr.k kwtj Xast, jmj Smt wpwt r xAst nb r wxAx.st , xr jr pA wpwt ntj jw.f r tA jnt

pA aS jmj Sm rmT onw Hna r jntw.s, aHa.n Dd Hm.f a-w-s nfr r jor zp 2 pA j.Dd.<t>n, jw.tw Hr djt Hn.w “Then

they (the learned scribes of the pharaoh) said to Pharaoh l.p.h.: ‘As for this hair-tress, it belongs to

a daughter of the Sun Horakhti, in whom is the water of every god, and it is a greeting to you

from another land. Have a mission go to every foreign land to seek her, and as for the mission

that will be to the wadi of the cedar, have many people go along to fetch her.’ Then His

Incarnation l.p.h. said: ‘What you have said is very good,’ and they were made to go.” The role of

scent in lovemaking is important in that sexuality is closely related to the concept of rebirth.

Because resurrection from death was thought of in terms of rebirth, it was necessary for sexual

competence to be expressed by all means possible.

6.6.2 Blue lotus blossom as a medium of fragrant scent

In connection with the prominent role of fragrant scent mentioned above, the close association

between lotus and soothing aroma comes to the fore. It is noteworthy in this regard that the pale

blue lotus blossom is the most popular of all flowers depicted in Egyptian art (Manniche 1999: 97).

In the banquet scenes linked to the Festival of Valley, men and women are depicted adorned with

a lotus-shaped unguent cone on their heads, wearing necklaces of lotus petals sewn together and

burying their noses into the scented petals. Moreover, there are countless tomb scenes in which

the deceased tomb-owner and his family members are shown smelling the lotus flower.

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As for the significance of the lotus flower’s strong scent in the ritual and funerary context, its

narcotic nature draws our attention (Emboden 1978: 395-407; Harer 1985: 49-54, 2001: 304-305).

Manniche claims that the scent of the blue lotus flower has a strong impact that can alter the

consciousness of the sniffer (1999: 99). However, Harer points out that the pleasant aroma of the

blue lotus flower is in no way intoxicating and thus the common interpretation of Egyptian

nobles smelling the lotus is erroneous (1985: 53). He adds that (1) the narcotic alkaloids are found

only in the blossoms and rhizomes of the blue lotus; and (2) they are soluble in alcohol but not in

water (1985: 53, 2001: 304). Given that modern wines have alcohol content in the 10-17% range,

ancient wines could be strong enough to dissolve the narcotic alkaloids by merely soaking the

blossom in it for a while. Egyptians may have appreciated the effect of lotus-enhanced wine,

since the alkaloids in the lotus flower may have psychoactive properties to induce hallucinations

or vivid dreams (Emboden 1978: 401-402; Harer 1985: 53). 323 Accordingly, it is possible to

interpret the image of Egyptian gods, kings and elites sniffing blue lotus flowers as a visual (and

simplified) metaphor of the actual ingestion of the narcotic alkaloids. In this regard, Harer’s

remark is particularly illuminating (1985: 54): “The association of wine and lotus is particularly

common during the New Kingdom in Egypt. Wine vessels are often shown with the blossom suspended

over them or wrapped around them in a fashion unlikely to exist in real life.”

The blue lotus flower is also prominent in the funerary sphere (Emboden 1978: 397). As

mentioned above, the deceased are frequently portrayed holding the blue lotus flower to their

noses and breathing in its perfume that gives them new life as the followers of the sun-god, who

himself receives the enlivening power from the divine embodiment of the lotus flower,

The hallucinating effect of the blue lotus flower reminds us of the “lotus-eaters” in Homer’s Odyssey (9,
323

84-96). However, the lotus-eaters feast on the honeyed fruits of the “lotus tree” that made the men of
Odysseus forgetful of home. According to Herodotus (IV, 177), however, a sort of wine may be used as the
magical medium even in this case (Darby et al 1977: 641-642).

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Nefertem. 324 Moreover, in the funerary sphere, there is a close link between sexuality and

rebirth/resurrection, and fragrant scent plays a critical role here, too. The connection between

fragrance and sexual power could be expressed by means of wordplay: stj “scent” can be also

read stj “engender” with a different determinative, both derived from stj “shoot” or “pour.” This

wordplay is perfectly visualized in the golden shrine of Tutankhamun, which shows (1) King

Tutankhamun “shooting” arrows with his wife Ankhesenamun holding an arrow; (2) the king

“pouring” forth liquid into the hand of his youthful wife; (3) the queen “pouring” liquid into her

husband’s cup decorated with the motif of lotus and poppy-pod on their rims; and (4)

Ankhesenamun anointing Tutankhamun with “scented” unguents from a dish containing an

ointment cone draped with two lotus blossoms (Westendorf 1967: 139-150; Manniche 1999: 97;

Roberts 2008: 16-46). As shown in the scene, the lotus assumes a prominent position in images

related to sexuality and fragrance (as well as anointing). In fact, a number of Late Egyptian love

poems reveal a close association between the lotus and the concept of lovemaking (Lichtheim

1976: 182-193; Tobin 2003b: 308-331). The Turin Papyrus 55001 serves as another example

portraying the social use of the lotus flower to enhance sexual activity. In one of the vignettes, a

playful young lady is depicted with a lotus over her head: even her posture is upside down,

placing herself “under the lotus” – that is, under the influence of the lotus to release her sexual

inhibitions (Harer 1985: 54; also cf. Omlin 1971: 50).

6.6.3. Nefertem as mediator with the power of fragrant scent

So far we have seen the power of fragrant scent in the cosmic and funerary spheres and the

prominent place of the blue lotus flower as a source of the fragrant scent. This can serve as

As a symbol of regeneration, the lotus was also a funerary flower to the Greeks, Romans and early
324

Christians. The reason is that the seedpods, open flowers and buds of a lotus are all visible at the same time,
which thus contains past present and future (Brereton 1987: 29).

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circumstantial evidence that will supplement the lack of textual evidence and help us better to

understand the nature of Nefertem as the “Duftgott” and the mediator with the creative power of

fragrant scent.

First of all, the fact that the chemical nature of the blue lotus flower is strong enough to alter

consciousness of the sniffer leads us to appreciate the role of Nefertem, as the god of lotus

blossom, whose fragrance gives the creative power to awaken and enliven the creator/sun-god, as

mentioned in Pyramid Texts spell (Pyr. § 266a): xa (wnjs)| m nfr-tm m zSSn r Srt ra “Unis will appear

as Nefertem, as the lotus at the sun-god’s nose.” The same concept is still found in the Book of the

Dead Chapters 81 and 174, cited above.

The effectiveness of the fragrant lotus flower also elucidates the mediating role of the king, who

is frequently depicted on the inner walls and columns of the temple offering a lotus to a deity

(Anthes 1958: 6-7; Ryhiner 1986: 31, 43, 53). The mediating function of the king and Nefertem

through the medium of fragrant scent suggests another possibility: that Nefertem can be

associated with the oil/ointment made of the lotus, which was used to anoint officials at their

installation into office. In this regard, Spiegel writes that (1) through the practice of anointing

officials the king gave some of the divine power that he obtained from the creator/sun-god as a

mediator between the divine and mundane worlds to designated officials who would act on his

behalf; and (2) this practice served to realize the state ideology that sees Egypt as the realm of the

sun-god (1953: 220-223). However, Thompson makes it clear that the practice of anointing

officials by the king at their installment into office did not originate in Egypt and might have

been adopted from the practice of the Syro-Palestinian region (1994: 15-25). Nonetheless, it can be

said that Nefertem fulfills his mediating role between the supreme creator/sun-god and the rest

Page | １８５
of the pantheon through the medium of soothing odor, which is emulated by the king in the

human world. 325

In the funerary sphere, the deceased breathing in the enlivening scent of the lotus flower can be

equated with the sun-god who receives the creative power from the divine embodiment of the

lotus flower, Nefertem. To further understand the power of scent in the funerary realm and its

possible association with Nefertem, it is necessary to take a look at a hymn to an unnamed deity

that will be discussed in detail in EXCURSUS 6-1. The hymn has several textual sources,

including the oldest one from a Middle Kingdom sarcophagus. 326 What merits our attention here

is a stela of the Late Period found in Horbeit that features, along with the hymn in question, a

peculiar bulbous root-symbol that has the stalk and the lotus flower with a sprouting double

feather (Naville 1910: Plates I and II). 327 The root is identified as the so-called “anx-jmj plant,” a

fragrant herb that was not only used as a medicine but also offered to the dead for its life-giving

fragrance, since its scent arouses the deceased to a new life and enabled them to regain the

control over their limbs (H. Altenmüller 1968: 7-9; Barta 1973a: 86). This quality is significant: the

image of the plant in the Horbeit stela can be seen as a combination of the anx-jmj plant and the

emblem of Nefertem that usually appears on the left of the Horus child on cippi (see 6.2 above). 328

325 As a first creation at the beginning of the world, the lotus is not only a bridge between pre-creation and

creation but also a mediating symbol as it rises out of the mud and the waters, bridging the amorphous
waters and the created earth (Brereton 1987: 28).
326 While Kees identifies the unnamed deity as Nefertem (1922: 92-120), H. Altenmüller believes that a solar

deity and Horus are combined in the hymn (1967: 9-18) and Barta concludes that the hymn is composed in
the praise of Horus (1973a: 84-91).
327 Naville identified the vignette not as an image of the lotus but as “l’image d’une plante spécialement révérée à

Horbéit” (1910: 191).

328 Kees considers the vignette of the Horbeit stela as the flower of Nefertem (1922: 116). H. Altenmüller

identifies the snw-plant in the text as the lotus flower based on the same vignette (1967: 10). However, Barta
thinks that the vignette has no connection with the text in the stela (1973a: 86). I think that (1) Barta’s
conclusion is hasty, since a number of visual representations confirm that the lotus blossom with the two
feathers is the emblem of Nefertem. Therefore, it is not impossible to see the vignette as a combination of the

Page | １８６
The combined image of the bulbous root that has powerful scent and the emblem of Nefertem

can evidence the role of the deity as the “Duftgott,” a mediator who enlivens the creator/sun-god

and the deceased with his power of fragrant scent.

Finally, regarding the rebirth/resurrection connected with sexuality, it is clear that the lotus

flower plays an important role in the concept of lovemaking through its scent and narcotic

property. While Nefertem is not directly associated in this sphere, it is noteworthy that the lotus

flower appears with the sistrum in many depictions that visualize the rebirth/resurrection

through sexuality, such as the golden shrine of Tutankhamun (with Ankhesenamun shaking a

sistrum before her husband) and the aforementioned Turin Papyrus 55001 (a woman “under the

influence of the lotus” having sex with a man on the chair under which a sistrum and a mirror

are placed). 329 As said before, music and fragrant scent appeal to our senses through their

soothing effects. Moreover, the sistrum is an instrument of Ihy, who plays a mediating role for his

mother-goddess Hathor. The presence of the lotus flower and the sistrum in these examples, as

well as their common soothing and stimulating effects, coupled with their common status as an

offering item to the god, indirectly justify the mediating role of Nefertem, who embodies the blue

lotus flower that delivers strong and stimulating fragrance to the god in the cosmic sphere and to

the deceased in the funerary sphere, as mentioned in Pyramid Texts Spell 249 and in the Book of

the Dead Chapters 81 and 174 (Bonnet 1952: 510). 330

anx-jmj plant and Nefertem’s lotus emblem. For the relationship between the lotus emblem and Nefertem,
see Munro 1969: 34-40.
329 The symbolism is interchangeable in ancient Egypt. As an example of the interchangeability of the

symbols, see R. Wilkinson 1999: 32-33 for the interaction of forms in cosmetic spoons and mirrors.
330 However, there is no direct mention that Nefertem plays a role of a caring guide like Ihy in the funerary

sphere, except for a short, elusive statement in Coffin Texts Spell 563 (CT VI 162s): jrr.j Smwt Hr rdwj.j mj nfr-
tm “I will make marches on my feet like Nefertem.” His close connection with Sokar seems to have derived
from his filial relationship with Ptah. Munro assumes that the Nefertem-Sokar connection may be based on
the fact that they share the same place of origin (1969: 36).

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Meanwhile, as the god of fragrance, Nefertem is also regarded as the god of scented oil/ointment

(Kees 1956: 288). 331 His role as the god of scented oil/ointment is expressed in a hymn found in

the mortuary temple of Seti I:

T6-4. Hymn to Nefertem 332

1 Dd-mdw (n)sw(t) (mn-mAat-ra)| dwA nTr

oA sxmt, 2 xa.s xa bAw.s Hknw.s 3 m wAD.s zA.s Hrw 4 nfr-tm
xwj tAwj, sanx 5 rxyt, ms nTrw 6 Sw Hna tfnwt m msw jmj-a tm
oA t(w)t, xnt(j) 7 jrjw, Ha Haw, [nf]r jrtjw, jwf nby Damy 8 xsb[D] mfk(At)
snn n ptH, mx(A)tj jnt-Hrw, mAwt ra, 9 bjk n psDt
jAm jb, Hwn n mjwt, nb fndw sro (n)H(b)t
10 jAm m Srt nTrw, mH (m) mDt, dmd.(w) X(r) jAmw, r(w)d jrt, 11 mn mrwt, smr nTr Spsj

mj Hkn jr.k nfr-tm, Haa kAw nb m 12 mAn.f, bA sxm spd wAS, snsn nTr Hna sn.f
dwA.n tw 13 ptH nfr Hr DHwtj srs nTr jAmw nTrw aH
dwA.k ra pr.f 14 m Axt jAmw nTrw Axtj
dj.k awj.k n skr m Hnw, sSm.k 15 Hrw r wAt jt(j).f
dj.k n.f HD.k r nTrw, sHb.k sn m st(j) Drtj.k 16 jr.sn n.k hy hnw sn tA tp rdwj.k
sHtp.k Hnw n pr.f
mrwt.k 17 r jb nTrw dj.k mrwt (n)sw(t) (mn-mAat-ra)| m Xt n jdbwj tAwj tm.(wj)
18 xw.k zA-ra mr.k nb xaw (stSj mr-n-ptH)| m-a xt nb(t) Dwt nj xpr.s r.f Dt

1 RECITATION of the king Menma’atre; praising god.

Sekhmet shall become high. 2 When she appears her impressiveness appears;
when she provides 3 her green one, her son Horus 4 Nefertem,
who protects the Two Lands; who nourishes 5 people;
who gives birth to the gods, 6 Shu and Tefnut, in the birth from the hand of Atum,
High of form, foremost 7 of shapes, joyful of members, beautiful of color;
Flesh of gold, electrum, 8 lapis-lazuli and turquoise;
Likeness of Ptah, equal of Onuris, new form of the sun-god, 9 falcon of the Ennead;
Gentle of heart; child of the mother, lord of noses who lets the throat breathe;
10 Pleasing in the nose of the gods, full of ointment, united with charm, firm in action,

331 Regarding the significant part that the ointment plays in the temple ritual and transformation of the
deceased into eternal resurrection, an oil container shaped in two juxtaposed cartouches of Tutankhamun
will serve as a good example because it shows the king in four stages of child, adult, old age and child in the
womb. The connection of the function of the vessel and its decorative motifs can serve as an indirect
indicator of Nefertem’s mediating role, as the god of scented oil/ointment, in the life-death-rebirth cycle. For
the significance of anointing in the kingship and mortuary spheres see Roberts 2008: 27-36.
332 For text, see Mariette 1869: 38c. For a translation, see Assmann 1999: 455-456 (ÄHG 202).

Page | １８８
 11 enduring of love, courtier of august god.
Give praise, Nefertem, at 12 whose sight all kas rejoice.
Powerful, sharp and esteemed ram, who unites a god with his brother.
13 Ptah, merciful of face, and Thoth who awakens the gods, have praised you,
(oh) graceful one of the gods of the palace.
May you praise the sun-god when he comes forth 14 from the akhet,
(oh) graceful one of the gods of the akhet;
may you give your hands to Sokar in the henu-barque;
may you guide 15 Horus to the path of his father;
may you give him your mace against the gods
may you make them festive from the scent of your hands
16 so that they will do for you shouting, jubilation, and kissing the earth at your feet;
may you (then) cause the henu-barque to rest to his house.
Since your love is 17 to the heart of the gods;
may you place the love of the king Menma’atre
in the body of the Two Shores and the Two Lands as a whole;
18 if you protect the Sun’s son, your beloved one, lord of appearance Seti-Merenptah
from all evil things, it will not happen against him for eternity.

In the Late Period, Nefertem was syncretized with Horus, especially Horhekenu (Hrw-Hknw),

namely “Horus of Ointment,” whose major cult center was Bubastis (Piankoff 1933: 100-101; de

Wit 1951: 235-236; Leitz 2002-IV: 224). It remains an open question whether the syncretization of

Nefertem with Horhekenu stems from the fact that the two deities played the same role as a deity

of perfume and ointment (Kees 1922: 117-118). 333

NEFERTEM AS A CHILD DEITY

As mentioned earlier, Nefertem is, among child deities, the god who is least attested by textual

sources and artistic representations before the end of the New Kingdom. For instance, most of the

333It needs to be remembered that ointment as an item in the offering ritual was also called the Horus-Eye. In
the light of the close association between Nefertem and Horhekenu, Kees assumed that the divine field
personified by the field-goddess mentioned in the hymn might have been located in Bubastis. For
Horhekenu, see Jankuhn: 1980: 3, 1.

Page | １８９
Coffin Texts where Nefertem appears (CT IV 48a; CT IV 302d; CT VI 162s; CT VI 174c; CT VI

274x) fail to give decisive clues as to the nature and function of the deity. Moreover, unlike Ihy

and Khonsu, Nefertem is not found in theophoric personal names, which suggests that the deity

was not commonly worshipped (R. Wilkinson 2003: 135). Lack of textual sources about him

forces us to rely on circumstantial evidence to grasp the nature of Nefertem. On the basis of the

little evidence at hand, Nefertem cannot be included in the category of the child deity because he

does not appear in the conventional image of a child with a side-lock of youth and a finger at his

mouth before the Late Period (Hall 1977: 55 and Plate XXIV-2). Nefertem is treated as such in this

dissertation, however, only because he is called son of Sekhmet in a Coffin Texts Spell (CT IV

302d) and some New Kingdom texts.

6.7 Parent deities

In the Memphite triad, Ptah and Sekhmet are the parent deities of Nefertem. Ptah was one of the

most prominent deities in the Egyptian pantheon and remained the chief deity of the royal

residence of Memphis throughout Egyptian history. 334 Te Velde notes that Ptah, like Amun in the

New Kingdom, could acquire the status of state deity because he was worshipped in the royal

capital (1982: 1177). His status as one of the state gods, along with Amun and Re especially

during the New Kingdom period, can be illustrated by the famous statement in the Leiden Hymn

to Amun (p.Leiden I 350, 4, 21-22): 3 pw nTrw nbw, jmn ra ptH nn snnw.sn, jmn rn.f m jmn, ntf ra m Hr Dt.f

ptH “All the gods are three: Amun, Re, and Ptah, without their second. His name (identity) is

hidden in Amun, his is Re as face, his body is Ptah.”

334For a comprehensive study of Ptah, see Sandman-Holmberg 1946. Ptah’s association with Memphis can
be supported by toponyms, names of his temple, many of his epithets, including Hwt-kA-ptH “Enclosure of the
ka of Ptah”; rsw(j) jnb.f “he who is south of (his) city’s wall”; Hrj st wrt “the one who is upon the Great Throne
(where the king was crowned); and nb anx-tAwy “Lord of Ankhtawy” (Dijk 2003: 74; Wilkinson 2003: 124).

Page | １９０
Ptah was grouped into the Memphite triad with Sekhmet and Nefertem. This divine triad is not

attested before the New Kingdom (Schlögl 1982: 378). While he was associated with a number of

goddesses, his primary consort was Sekhmet in the Memphite triad, who was regarded as both

daughter and beloved of Ptah (te Velde 1982b: 1179). 335 Given that Ptah was nb anx-tAwj “Lord of

Ankhtawy” (the area on the west bank of the Nile between Memphis and the necropolis) and that

Sekhmet was known as nbt anx-tAwj “Mistress of Ankhtawy” already during the Middle Kingdom

period, the two might be associated as husband and wife because of the fact that they shared the

common cult center. 336 As such, the two might have been considered as a couple before the New

Kingdom, but there is no textual evidence to support this (Sandman-Holmberg 1946: 188-189).

Along with aAt “the Great,” however, mrt ptH “beloved of Ptah” was the most frequent epithet of

Sekhmet from the New Kingdom on and the close relationship between the two deities is also

attested by the fact that Sekhmet was usually depicted standing behind Ptah instead of appearing

alone in reliefs (Honenes 1976: 197). 337 One New Kingdom example pointing to the relationship

between Ptah and Sekhmet is an inscription on the base of a life-size granite statue of Horemheb,

which dates back to the reign of Tutankhamun. The text inscribed on the right side of the statue

reads:

335 It is interesting to note te Velde’s observation that Sekhmet’s relationship to Ptah as the consort-daughter
is the most common form of marital relationship in the Egyptian pantheon. He also claims, without giving
any specific reason to support his claim, that Ptah was too important to be placed in a marriage relationship
of the mother-son or brother-sister type (1982: 1179). For Ptah’s relation with Egyptian goddesses, see
Sandman-Holmberg 1946: 188-193.
336 Regarding the origin of Sekhmet, Hoenes believes that Sekhmet’s appearance in the Old Kingdom royal

mortuary temples can support her Memphite origin (1976: 142-145). Sternberg notes, however, that the
epithet nbt anx-tAwj “Mistress of Ankhtawy,” which Sekhmet carried from Middle Kingdom, may have been
taken from Bastet, who also carried that epithet until the Late Period (1984: 330). Allam points out that
Memphite Hathor was originally closer to Ptah than Sekhmet (1963: 9).
337 For various examples of the close relationship between Ptah and Sekhmet, see Hoenes 1976: 197-199.

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T6-5. Prayer and Hymn of General Horemheb (Urk. IV 2090) 338

Htp-dj-nswt ptH rsw(j) jnb.f sxmt mrt ptH

ptH-skr nb St wsjr nb r-sTAw
dj.tn [p]rt bA m hrw r mA jtn
sDm.tn n.f sprt ra nb mj Axw n sAx.tn

A royal offering of Ptah, South-of-His-Wall, Sekhmet, the beloved of Ptah,

Ptah-Sokar, lord of Shetit, Osiris, lord of Rostau.
May you give the ba’s emergence by day to see the sun disk;
may you listen to petition for him each day like the akhs whom you made effective.

6.7.1 Nefertem as the son of Sekhmet

Nefertem was rarely called son of Sekhmet before New Kingdom but the mother-son relationship

between the two deities is already attested in the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts Spell 335 (CT IV

302d), which briefly mentions Nefertem as the son of Sekhmet. Interestingly, the statement is

found only in one copy (M57C) of the spell (see 6.3 above). Hoenes mentions that it is likely that

the filial relationship of Nefertem with Sekhmet is based on the fact that the two deities share the

same origin of Memphis as their cult center and adds that the relationship between the two gods

may not come from their relationship to the sun-god, because while Nefertem already shows a

close association with the sun-god in the Pyramid Texts (Pyr. § 266a), Sekhmet becomes closely

linked to the sun-god only after the New Kingdom (1976: 201; also cf. Rössler-Köhler 1980: 1083-

1084). As Nefertem is identified with Horhekenu in the Late Period, Bastet is also considered as

the mother of Nefertem as in the Book of the Dead Chapter 17 (Hoenes 1976: 210): ky Dd nfr-tm pw

zA bAstt, DADAt pw xsfwt xt n xftjw nw nb r Dr “Variant: he is Nefertem, son of Bastet; it is the council

that punishes the enemies of the Lord of All.” 339

338 For the text, see Winlock 1924: Plate IV; for a translation, see Lichtheim: 1976-II, 101.
339 For the relationship between Sekhmet and Bastet, see Hoenes 1976: 21-23; de Jong 2001: 512.

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Regarding the protective motherly role of Sekhmet, it is important to remember that the goddess

appears as the divine mother of the king, as in Pyramid Texts Spell 248 (Sternberg 1984: 323): 340

T6-6. Pyramid Texts Spell 248 (Pyr. §§ 262a-263c) 341

262-a Dd-mdw (wnjs)| pj aA, pr.n (wnjs)| jmt mntj psDt

262-b jwr (wnjs)| jn sxmt, jn Szmtt mst (wnjs)|
263-a sbA spd HAt wA Smwt, jnn xrt Hrt n ra ra nb
263-b j.n (wnjs)| r st.f tpt nbtj, xa (wnjs)| m sbA

262-a RECITATION. Unis is a great one: Unis has emerged from the Ennead’s thighs.
262-b Unis has been conceived by Sekhmet, and Shezmetet is the one who gave birth to
Unis,
263-a a star, sharp of front and extensive of goings,
who fetches what the above has for the Sun every day.
263-b Unis has come to his seat with the Two Ladies on it, Unis appearing as a star.

In the mortuary temples of the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, a lion-headed goddess is portrayed

embracing and suckling the king (Sternberg 1984: 324 and 330, note 33). From the New Kingdom,

Sekhmet played the role of the divine mother for the king, who sometimes took the place of

Nefertem as the divine son of Sekhmet (and Ptah). 342 Therefore, Amenhotep III claimed that he is

“son of Ptah, born of Sekhmet” in the Luxor Temple while Ramesses II described himself as zA ra,

pr m tA-tnn(j) Hnwt wrt “son of Re, emerged from Tatjenen and born of the Great Lady (determined

by the hieroglyphic sign of Sekhmet)” (Sternberg 1984: 327 and 332, note 77).

340 See also Pyramid Texts Spell 704 (Pyr. § 2206a-c) for a similar statement. In that spell, however, the
deceased king (or queen) appears not as a star but as a falcon. The deceased claims in the Book of the Dead
Chapter 66: jwr.kw jn sxmt, ms.kw jn nt, jnk Hrw “I was conceived by Sekhmet. I was born of Neith. I am
Horus.”
341 For translations, see Faulkner 1969: 60; J. Allen 2005: 42.

342 For examples of the king taking the place of Nefertem in the Memphite Triad, see Schulman 1963: 178,180;

Helck 1966: 32-34. The identification of the king as the son of Sekhmet is the surest way of guaranteeing
protection from the powerful goddess, who plays the role of a protective mother (Germond 1981: 191-193).

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In his close relationship with his mother-goddess Sekhmet, Nefertem was frequently depicted as

a lion-headed god from the time of the New Kingdom period (Schlögl 1982: 379; Leitz 2002-IV:

221). Because the lion is a solar animal (Germond 2001: 126-129, 154-157), the appearance of the

god as a human with a lion’s head indicates his solar connections. More importantly, however,

Sekhmet’s protective nature of destroying the enemies of the king explains the warlike character

of Nefertem and his close association with other Egyptian warrior gods such as Montu, Sopdu

and Harmerti (Houser-Wegner 2001b: 314). Kees observes that Nefertem and Horheneku could

both appear as a lion-headed god and they were regarded as a powerful god who annihilates

enemies of Egypt (Kees 1922: 112; de Wit 1951: 235-237). His association with the war gods

explains the presence of the kepesh, or a sharp sickle-shaped knife, in his left hand (Schlögl 1982:

379), and one of his epithets is xwj tAwj “Protector of the Two Lands.” As the son of Sekhmet,

Nefertem also appears as a dreadful deity who brings evildoers to the slaughter block and as a

member of the council of gods who judge the dead, as mentioned in the Chapter 125 of the Book

of the Dead above (Schlögl 1982: 378). 343

Finally, as the goddess of epidemic, Sekhmet is also a healer of illness and plague (Hoenes 1976:

42-46) and, by virtue of the filial relationship with his mother-goddess and the therapeutic

potential of the blue lotus flower (and its fragrant scent), Nefertem can also appear as a god of

protection and healing (Bonnet 1952: 510). 344 It should be noted, however, that Nefertem’s role as

the protective and healing god does not stem from the model of the Horus child in Chemmis

343 However, his role as the judge of the deceased, as well as his warlike attribute, may have been derived
from his role as a god of light, as Seeber aptly points out (1976: 132): “Als Bringer des Lichts nimmt Nefertem
aber auch kriegrische Züge an und bekämpft die Mächte der Dunkelheit, alle feindlichen und bösen Wesen. So tritt er
in Tb 17, 23 als straffender Gott gegen die Sünder auf und zählt sogar zu den 42 Totenrichtern.”
344 For the medical use of the blue lotus flower, see Manniche 1989: 126-127; Nunn 1996: 157-158. This can be

indirectly supported by the fact that Imhotep was later worshiped as the son of Ptah. Interestingly,
Imhotep’s mother is not Sekhmet but a woman named Kherdankh and Hathor (Sandman-Holmberg 1946:
194-196).

Page | １９４
(Brunner 1977b: 646). His healing and protective powers can be demonstrated by the fact that his

emblem appears as one of the apotropaic images on the cippi, which include the face of Bes and

the Horus falcon on the papyrus stem (Brunner 1971: 510). 345

6.7.2 Nefertem as the son of Ptah

Compared with the relatively close relationship with his mother-goddess Sekhmet, Nefertem’s

connection with Ptah is weak and less attested. Ptah is coupled with Nefertem only in the

Memphite Theology carved on the Shabaka Stone (Line 52b) (Munro 1969: 36, note 13): ptH ... [nfr-

tm] r Srt ra ra nb “Ptah ... [Nefertem] at the nose of the sun-god every day.” In addition, the text is

damaged, so it is not clear whether there is any meaningful connection between Ptah and

Nefertem. The statement in Pyramid Texts Spell 249 that Nefertem (identified with the deceased

king) rises from the earth and the primeval flood in the form of the lotus flower tempts us to

picture Nefertem, as the son of Ptah, emerging from the primeval ocean Nun or the primeval hill

Tatjenen, because Ptah is identified with Nun (and Naunet) (Sandman-Holmberg 1946: 115-120)

and with Tatjenen (Sandman-Holmberg 1946: 56-63; Schlögl 1980: 54-55).

While he became the member of the Memphite Triad in the New Kingdom, Nefertem is very

closely associated with the sun-god and thus it is appealing to view him as the divine child of

light equipped with the power of life-giving fragrance, who comes out of the dark and abysmal

primeval material represented by Ptah. In this regard, Anthes raises the question whether the

rivalry of Heliopolitan and Memphite theologies is the reason behind the incorporation of

Nefertem into the Ptah-Sekhmet-Nefertem triad (1955: 88; also cf. Munro 1969: 36-38).

Unfortunately, however, there is no conclusive evidence to support the image of Nefertem as the

345As a protective god, Nefertem was assimilated with the pantheistic protective god Bes in the Late Period
(Schlögl 1982: 379).

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divine child of light. What is clear is the fact that only one ancient Egyptian text definitely states

that Nefertem is the son of Ptah (Sandman-Holmberg 1946: 194; Hoenes 1976: 200). 346

6.8 Child-member of the Memphite Triad

From the New Kingdom until the Ptolemaic-Roman Period, Nefertem was expressly represented

as the son of Sekhmet. In addition, the familial relationship of the Memphite triad is attested from

the New Kingdom on (te Velde 1982b: 1180; Sternberg 1984: 326). Among other examples, 347

Papyrus Harris I mentions the three gods as a group (44, 1-2) and confirms that the three deities

were worshipped together in a sanctuary of the Memphite mortuary temple of Ramesses III (47,

6-7) (Hoenes 1976: 200; Germond 1981: 183). 348

T6-7. Papyrus Harris I 349

44,1 nA snmH sAxw dwAw snsw tnr Axw

j.jrw nsw bjt (wsr-mAat-ra mr-jmn)| a-w-s pA nTr aA n 44,2 jt(j).f ptH aA rsw(j) jnb.f nb anx-tAwj
sxmt aAt mry ptH nfr-tm xw tAwj psDt nbw Hwt-kA-ptH
…
47,6 jry.j n.k kArj StA m jnr n Abw smnx.(w) m kAwt (n)HH m at wa Xr aAwj r n Hmt m smA nt 6
Xty.(w) Hr rn.k Spsj r-SAa (n)HH
47,7 ptH sxmt nfr-tm Htp.(w) m Xnw.f twtw n nb r-gs.w r Hnk m-bAH.sn

wAH.j n.w Htpw-nTr mAaw xft-Hr.w mn.(w) n.k (n)HH n Hr.k nfr

346 The epithet zA sxmt ptH “son of Sekhmet and Ptah” is attested on a faience statue of the Twenty-fourth

Dynasty (Leitz 2002-VI: 95). It is noteworthy that: (1) Sekhmet precedes Ptah in this epithet; and (2) there is
no phrase such as zA ptH “son of Ptah” that clearly mentions the father-son relationship between the two.
Nefertem is shown at the back of the statuette of Ptah-Pataikoi, a dwarf-form of Ptah that began to appear at
the end of the New Kingdom (Dasen 1993: 91-92 and Plate 16-2b). This may also indicate the filial
relationship between the two deities.
347 Other textual sources indicating the grouping of the three deities include the Hymn to Nefertem at the

mortuary temple of Seti I at Abydos (see T6-4). For small objects such as scarabs, rings and vases that
indicate the relationship of the three deities, see Germond 1981: 319, 330-331. Cf. Munro 1969: 36 for the
New Year’s ritual with regard to the so-called “linsenförmige Neujahrflaschen,” Germond’s (1981: 329)
“gourdes du Nouvel An.”
348 Other stelae dating to the New Kingdom or later list Ptah, Sekhmet and Nefertem, but sometimes it is not

clear whether they represent the familial relationship or whether they are just a list of deities from the
Memphite area (cf. Griffth 1927: 196).
349 For the text, see Erichsen 1933: 49, 52. For a translation, Breasted 1906b: 161-162, 166.

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 44,1 The prayers, praises, adorations, mighty laudations and benefactions
that the king of Upper and Lower Egypt (Usermaatre-Meryamun)| l.p.h. the great
god
did for his father Ptah the Great, South-of-his-Wall, lord of Ankhtawy;
Sekhmet the Great, beloved of Ptah; Nefertem, Protector of the Two Lands; and
all the Enneads of the Enclosure of the ka of Ptah (Memphis).
…
47,6 I made for you a mysterious shrine in the stone of Elephantine, established with
works
of eternity, of a single block, with double doors of bronze, of an alloy of six, engraved
with
your august name, for eternity.
47,7 Ptah, Sekhmet, and Nefertem rest inside it, statues of the Lord beside them
in order to present offerings in their presence.
I set for them divine offerings presented before them, enduring for you for eternity
to your gracious face.

The Memphite Triad is much different from the triad of Osiris-Isis-Horus that represents an ideal

family as conceived by the ancient Egyptians. Nefertem is never shown performing his mediating

role for his father-god Ptah (neither in his role as the creator god nor as the divine craftsman) or

for his mother-goddess Sekhmet (like Ihy who shakes the sistrum to appease his irritable mother-

goddess Hathor). Moreover, there is no mention of a dramatic childhood as in the case of the

Horus child or of a generational transition like the one between Osiris and Horus. Hornung cites

the Memphite Triad as an example that follows the pattern of grouping deities worshiped side by

side into a familial triad (1982a: 218-219). In sum, it can be concluded that the three deities were

put together merely in order to form a triad because their cult centers were all located in

Memphis (Sandman-Holmberg 1946: 194; Säve-Söderberg 1977: 689).

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 CONCLUSION

Historically, Nefertem seems to have become fixed in image and function as the the embodiment

of the blue lotus blossom already in the Old Kingdom, as evidenced by Pyramid Texts Spell 249.

What is interesting is that the Coffin Texts do not provide any conclusive lead to the role of this

elusive deity in the pantheon. The image fixed in the Pyramid Texts spell appears again in the

Book of the Dead Chapters 81 and 174. As such, Nefertem plays his role as the embodiment of the

blue lotus flower at dawn in the cosmic and funerary spheres, offering the enlivening fragrance

to the creator god/sun-god and the deceased. On the kingship level, the king is depicted as

offering the scented lotus flower and aromatic oil/unguent jars to the god as a mediator and can

take the place of Nefertem as a member of the Memphite Triad.

As a divine child, Nefertem displays common characteristics of a child deity. He is supposed to

have healing power, perhaps deriving from the pharmacological properties of the blue lotus

flower. He is also considered a caring guide who leads the deceased to eternal life and

resurrection through the power of soothing odor. At the same time, Nefertem is called nb kAw DfAw

“lord of sustenance and provisions” (Bonnet 1952: 510; Schlögl 1982: 379) 350 and xwj tAwj

“Protector of the Two Lands” (as an annihilator of the enemies of Egypt in the form of lion).

While he is incorporated into the Memphite Triad, Nefertem is closely connected to the solar

realm (as in Pyramid Texts Spell 249 and the Book of the Dead Chapters 81 and 174) and,

considering the behavior of the lotus flower that he embodies, he can be considered a solar deity.

350Leaves, stalks and seeds of the blue lotus flower are very nutritious and can be taken as food (Harer 1985:
53; also cf. Darby et al 1977: 620-644).

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In this regard, his being symbolized by lotus flower as provider of enlivening energy to the sun-

god may be interpreted as the reverse of the kamutef concept, in that the sun-god receives the life

force, equivalent to ka, as Spiegel suggested (1953: 216-223), from his youthful alter ego, Nefertem.

In a sense, it is different from the concept of the kamutef regeneration since the consort-mother

goddess is excluded. Therefore, it is rather reminiscent of the Opet Festival, in which Amun-Re at

Karnak receives regenerative power from the Amun of Luxor (Bell 1985: 258-259, 1997: 174-176).

In sum, it can be said that Nefertem is, like other child deities, a mediator; he fulfils his mediating

role through the creative power of fragrant scent. But since his relationship with his parent

deities is superficial, Nefertem does not perform the mediating role on behalf of his parents, like

Ihy, who shakes the sistrum to please his mother-goddess Hathor. 351 The close association with

the sun-god rather makes him the child of light emerging from the primeval ocean 352 or the first

land, laden with the power that appeals to another sense.

Excursus 6-1: Unnamed deity in a hymn

In 1922 Kees wrote an article titled “Ein alter Götterhymnus als Begleittext zur Opfertafel” and

published a body of hieroglyphic texts and his translation of the hymn for an unnamed god

(1922: 92-120). According to him, there are five parallel texts, including the oldest from a Middle

Kingdom sarcophagus, two New Kingdom texts on the wall of the southern offering hall of

Hatshepsut’s Deir el-Bahri mortuary temple, and two other texts from the Late Period. 353

351 In some of the private tomb scenes, the son of the tomb owner is shown presenting the lotus flower to the
nose of his father.
352 In the Ptolemaic-Roman period, Nefertem was syncretized with Re-Horakhty (Leitz 2002-IV: 224).

353 For the dating of the original text, see Altenmüller: 1967: 17-18. He assumes that the original text might

have been composed during the Fifth Dynasty while the offering ritual related to the text might have come
into existence in the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty.

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T6-8. Hymn to an Unnamed God 354

1 Dd-mdw wr pw nn pr m tA sn nw
2 pr m nwt |3 sxm wr msy n gbb
4 xsf stS m nSn.f |5 wdy Hr xAswt rw.sn
6 kj.n psDt Hr rx rn.f
7 rd m Haw sxt tw Spst | 8 jmjt Haw jAbtt
9 xrt-a nmtj |10 zAwt spdw nb jAbtt
11 ntt m-gs dpt nt wsjr
12 TAz.n nbwj jAbt awj.sn Hr.f |13 Saa Drwt nt msw jtw.sn Hr fd.f m sxt

14 m.k jn n.k mj od tm zp 2 dmD.(w) Hr jAwt

15 j.tj jn mwt.k jst |16 j.mr.n.j nD.k jrt.k m-a jr r.k
17 j.rx mj n.n sxm anx 18 jn.t(j).f(j) nn n Hrw Hr rnpt tn
19 jn.t(j).f(j) n.f pt m jgp tA m smj
20 rd ob Tbt HAp.tj |21 jm gm nbD zA nwt wAt r.f
22 jr r (j)t.k m-Xnw gmwt jw.f r.T jrt Hrw |23 TAz pXr
24 jrt.k jmnt m msktt jrt.k jAbt m manDt
25 jrtj.k Hrw prt m tm Sw pw Hna tfnwt
26 bwt.sn j.xr a nTr Hr-xt.s n mnsA Swt nTr Xr-xt.sn |27 nj ao mtwt.f jm
28 nfa.n.(j) manDt Hr jrtj.k Hrw
29 rdj.n.(j) sn m msktt rdj.n.(j) sn m manDt n Hrw mAjnw
30 Spw xwd aAa r HA Hwa mAA tp rdwj Hrw mAjnw nj bn.sn |31 nj dA.sn Xr Dbaw Hrw mAjnw

1 RECITATION. The Great is the one who came from the earth and who broke away from
Nu,
2 who came from Nut, 3 the Great Power born of Geb,
4 who repelled Seth in his rage/storm, 5 who is set on the foreign lands so that they
withdraw,
6 the one whom the Ennead acclaim because of knowing his name,
7 the one who grows out of the body of the august field-goddess 8 who is in the body of
the East
9 the assistant of Nemti, 10 the one whom Sopdu, Lord of the East, guards,
11 who is on board the boat of Osiris,
12 the one over whom the two Lords of the East tied their hands together,

354For the texts, see Kees 1922: 96-116. The hymn was later incorporated into Coffin Texts Spell 607. For
translations, see Kees 1922: 96-116; H. Altenmüller 1967: 9-10; Barta 1973a: 87-90; Faulkner 1977: 195-196. The
text is divided into two sections: the first section (Lines 1-13) comprises epithets describing the various
aspects of the unspecified deity; the second section is a text about an offering ritual. My translation of Lines
1-13 here is based largely on that of Kees in order to show his interpretation of the unspecified deity as
Nefertem. Another translation of the first section based on that of Barta is presented below. See also Kees
1922: 96-116; Altenmüller 1967: 9-10; Faulkner 1977: 195-196.

Page | ２００
 13 because of whose removal from the earth the hands of the children of their fathers are
cut off.

14 “Look, all things are brought fully and completely to you from the mound,”
15 says your mother, Isis.
16 “I have wished you to save your eye from the one who acted against you.
17 Please learn the life-power for us
18 that will bring these to Horus for this year,
19 that will bring him the sky in clouds and the earth in haze
20 with refreshing stride and mysterious sole
21 so that the Tressed One, son of Nut, may not find a way to him.
22 The one who acted against your father in weakness, he is against you, Horus-Eye, and
23 vice versa
24 Your right eye is the Evening Barque; your left eye is the Morning Barque.
25 Your two eyes, Horus, that came out of Atum, they are Shu and Tefnut.
26 Their abomination is that the god’s arm fall after it because of the ejaculation of the
god’s shadow after them.
27 His semen does not enter there.
28 I have removed the Morning Barque because of your two eyes, Horus.
29 I have given them as the Evening Barque;
I have given them as the Morning Barque to Horus of Manu.
30 The blind eye, rich of outflow, teary and short-sighted before Horus of Manu,
they do not swell, 31 they do not ejaculate under the fingers of Horus of Manu.”

Kees notes that the god in this hymn shows two clear features: (1) he is a plant that sprouts out of

the field under the protection of deities in the East (Lines 5, 7-13); and (2) he is Horus, with Isis as

his mother. But Kees asserts that the god’s association with Horus is secondary because Horus, as

son of Osiris and Isis, has little to do with the primeval deity who came out of Nut and Geb, as

described in the introductory statements (Lines 1-3). In addition, the deity is also the one who

came out of the primeval waters Nu, like Atum at the beginning of the creation, and that is why

the deity is called “the Great” in the beginning of the hymn, which can also be interpreted as the

greatest, meaning the oldest and the most primeval (1922: 116). In addition, Kees points out that a

Page | ２０１
peculiar root-symbol in a fragmentary stela of the Late Period found in Horbeit shows a double-

feather sprouting from the bulbous root, which is the typical symbol of Nefertem. 355

On the basis of this, Kees identifies the deity in the hymn with Nefertem. He points out that the

deity is mentioned as the plant “that rises from the earth” and as the one that emerged from the

primeval water, as described in Pyramid Texts Spell 249: (wnjs)| pj nw n zSzS wbn m tA wab.(w) “Unis

is that lotus that rises clean from the earth.”

As regards the origin of the deity in the hymn (identified by Kees as Nefertem), Kees focuses on

his nature as a plant-god who sprouts out of the field-goddess. To support this, Kees quotes a line

from the Book of the Dead Chapter 81 that mentions the appearance of Nefertem from the earth:

jnk zSn wab pr m jAxw “I am the pure lotus that came forth clean from the light.” He maintains that

the Book of Dead statement corresponds to Lines 7-8 of the hymn (1922: 117).

Moreover, Kees points out: (1) Nefertem was closely associated with the sun-god Re as indicated

in Pyramid Texts Spell 249, cited above; (2) the lotus emblem of Nefertem was frequently

accompanied by the symbol of the solar barque or that of Sokar, which explains why Morning

and Evening Barques are mentioned in the hymn. 356 In the light of the abovementioned remarks

on the hymn, Kees concludes that the unspecified deity in the hymn is indisputably Nefertem:

“Soviel Uneinheitliches und Widersprechendes in dieser Auffassung liegt, die Beziehung unseres Textes

auf Nefertem scheint mir unbestreitbar.” 357

355 For the vignette, see Naville 1910: Plates I and II.
356 For representations of the Nefertem emblem in association with the solar barque and the barque of Sokar,
see Kees 1922: 117, note 2.
357 In making this conclusion, he assumes: (1) the close relationship between Nefertem and the eastern region

and its local gods – especially Sopdu – might be quite old, probably going back to the early Old Kingdom

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H. Altenmüller wrote two articles regarding the above-mentioned hymn in 1967 and 1968. He

divides the text into two parts (as shown above) and concentrates most of his focus on the

interpretation of the second part as a text connected with the offering ritual for the deceased

(1967: 12-17). In his analysis of the text, H. Altenmüller shows his reservations regarding Kees’s

identification of the unnamed deity as Nefertem by observing that the unnamed deity in the first

part is a solar god while the deity in the second part is a form of Horus. Regarding the identity of

the first god, he says that the first part reveals conclusive and uniform characteristics of the deity:

(1) the deity is called “the Great” (Line 1) and, therefore, can be regarded to be the eldest

(“Uralter”) and the primeval god (“Uranfänglicher”), like the sun-god Re, although he is also

mentioned as a son of Nut and Geb; (2) a deity in the form of the snw-plant (Line 2), which is

regarded as the lotus flower (cf. Line 13) according to the vignette of the Horbeit stela; (3) the

plant grows from the earth (Line 8) and is protected by Nemti and Sopdu (Line 12). He notes that

Kees assumed the solar deity in this part to be Nefertem (1922: 10). He goes on to explain that the

second part is a text addressed by one or more gods to a deity in a form of Horus who is the

possessor of the Horus Eyes. At the end of his analysis, H. Altenmüller concludes that a solar

deity and Horus are combined in the hymn through: (1) the mother deity – the field-goddess of

the east (Lines 8-11), on the one hand, and Isis (Line 15), on the other hand, whose identities are

combined in Line 11 (1967: 11); and (2) the mention of a solar mythology in the last section of the

second part that refers back to the identity of the deity as a solar deity (1967: 12). Still, he remains

cautious, adding: “Vom geschilderten mythologischen Geschehn her haben jedoch weder die beiden

Hauptteile, noch die einzelnen Abschnitte des zweiten Teils ursprünglich miteinander viel gemeinsam. Ihre

Zusammenfugung ist locker, aber dennoch wahrscheinlich nicht zufällig.”

period (“die Zeiten des memphitischen Reiches”); and (2) if the first assumption is right, the hymn might have
been composed during the same period, possibly by Memphite priests. In addition, he observes that the
repeating theme of the Eye Legend, which might stem from the local tradition of Letopolis (the cult center of
Horhekenu), was influenced by the Heliopolitan Theology (as evidenced by the mention of Shu and Tefnut).

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Through the detailed analysis of the second part of the hymn, H. Altenmüller points out that the

whole text was not just a hymn that accompanied the offering list (“Begleittext zur Opfertafel”) but

that it fulfilled a specific role in the offering ritual (1967: 12). The texts that accompany the

offering ritual served to establish mythological precedence for the cult objects handled in this

world and offerings in the funerary offering rituals were generally identified as the Eye of Horus,

as is the case in the hymn in question. At this point, H. Altenmüller assumes that wordplay

(“Wortgleichklang” and “Wortähnlichkeit”) was adopted here to mention those offerings and he

used it as a key to interpret the second part of the hymn. So he concludes that the second part

deals with the presentation of milk (Lines 15-16), an offering of water (Lines 17-20), the

presentation of a white jar and a black jar (Lines 21-24), and the two mensa jars (Lines 28-31)

(1967: 16-17; 1968: 4). H. Altenmüller’s comments about the assumed role of the lotus flower in

the ritual are interesting. He points out that the hymn does not give any mythological precedence

to the rituals of purification and mouth-opening of the deceased that usually precede the actual

presentation of the offerings. So he assumes that another method must have been used to enliven

the deceased. He focuses on the plant-like nature of the unspecified deity mentioned in the first

part of the hymn. As mentioned earlier, Kees identifies this god as Nefertem, a personification of

the lotus blossom. Here, H. Altenmüller says, while citing no specific sources, that the lotus was

regarded in ancient Egypt as a plant with a strong scent that had a life-giving power that could

open the nose of dead and make them breathe again. When we follow his logic, it means that the

mention of the purification and mouth-opening rituals was replaced by the mention of the deity

that personifies the lotus flower. In this regard, H. Altenmüller assumes: (1) the introduction of

the unnamed deity in the first part might have to do with the offering of the lotus blossom to the

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deceased; 358 and (2) that is why the deity that could be identified with Nefertem shows up only in

Lines 1-13 while Lines 15-31 deal with a different god in the form of Horus (1968: 3).

Kees’s identification of the deity as Nefertem and the deity’s characteristics described in the

hymn were quoted by many scholars for fifty years until Barta refuted Kees’s observations and

claimed that the hymn was composed for Horus, and not for Nefertem (1973: 84-89). 360 Barta

questions Kees’s two assumptions that led him to identify the deity in the hymn as Nefertem.

According to Barta, (1) Kees used the epithet in Lines 7-8 of the hymn to understand the deity as

the plant-deity: rd m Haw sxt tw Spst jmjt Haw jAbtt “the one who grows out of the body of the august

field-goddess who is in the body of the East”; and (2) Kees also saw the vignette of a root-like

plant on the Horbeit stela as lotus. 361 In order to prove his counter-interpretation, Barta first

identifies the plant in question not as the lotus but as the anx-jmj plant, a fragrant herb that was

not only used as a medicine but also offered to the dead for its live-giving fragrance (1973a: 86;

also see H. Altenmüller 1968: 7-9). 362 Then he presents his own translation up to the line 13, where

the long epithets of the deity end, as shown below.

358 To quote the original text (Altenmüller: 1968, 3): “Da dieser aber als Gott der Lotosblume gilt, ist zu fragen, ob
die Einführung des Gottes in den Opfertext nicht erst durch die Übergabe einer Lotospflanze veranlaβt wurde.”
360 For the scholarly works based on Kees’s identification of the deity as Nefertem, see Barta 1973a: 85, note 2.

361 Kees did mention the close association of the deity in the hymn with the Osiris mythology: (1) the

identification of the field-goddess with Isis (Line 15); (2) the protection of Osiris (Line 11); (3) the son of Isis
chased by Seth (Lines 19-21); (4) Seth who did evil to the father of the deity (Line 22); (5) the deity’s eye that
was lost and recovered (Line 16); and (6) the deity’s victory over Seth (Line 4). He added that Osiris himself
played no active role in the hymn (1922: 118). However, he thought the hymn was “influenced” by the
Osiris mythology, as well as by the Heliopolitan Theology.
362
In his article of 1968, H. Altenmüller reports two newly found parallel texts to the hymn, one of which
contains the “Spell of the anx-jmj Plants of Each Day That Are Brought to the Grave” (1968: 1, note 5). As for
the plant, he explains: (1) the anx-jmj plant’s strong scent was, like that of the water-lily blossom, regarded to
have power to make the deceased breathe again and open his/her eyes, ears and mouth; and (2) the plant
was therefore used in the embalming process. For the use of the plant and its identification with henna
(Lawsonia inermis), see Altenmüller 1968: 6-8. Focusing on the title mentioned above, Barta points out (1973:
85-86): “Die Frage, welche Pflanze auf der Horbeit Stele dargestellt gewesen ist, kann uns am ehesten der Spruchtitel
des Louvre-Textes [one of the two parallel texts mentioned above] beantworten; denn der oben erwähnten

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T6-8a. Hymn to an Unnamed God 363

1 Dd-mdw wr pw nn prj m tA sn njw

2 pr m nwt 3 sxm wr msj n gbb
4 xsf stS m nSn.f 5 wdj Hr xAswt rwj.sn
6 kj.n psDt Hr rx rn.f
7 rd m Ha sxt tw Spst | 8 jmjt Haw jAbtt
9 Xrjt a nmtj |10 zAwt spdw nb jAbtt
11 ntjt m-gs dpt wst-jrt
12 Tz nbwj jAbt awn.sn Hr.f |13 Saa Drwt njwt msw jtw.sn Hr fdjt.f m sxt

1 RECITATION. This is the Great One who came from the earth and
who separated himself from Nu,
2 who came from Nut, 3 the Great Power born of Geb,
4 who fended off Seth in his rage/storm, 5 who is set on the foreign lands so that they
withdraw,
6 the one who instills respect into the Ennead upon knowing his name,
7 the one who grows out of the body of the august field-goddess 8 who is in the body of
the East
9 who stands under the (protecting) arm of Nemty,
10 who is protected by Sopdu, Lord of the East, protects,
11 who is onboard (beside) the boat of Osiris,
12 the one for whom the two Lords of the East tied their hands together,
13 the one for whose pulling out of the field the hands of the children of their fathers are
cut off.

Regarding the description of the deity’s birth in Lines 1-2, Barta explains that the Great One is the

sun-god, who comes out of the earth and the primeval waters, and that the mention of his parent

deities serves as a clue for the exact origin of the sun-god, because Nefertem was not represented

formalen Parallele zwischen Spruchtitel und Vignette wird eine gleichgerichtete inhaltliche Aussage entsprochen haben.
Wenn deshalb der Spruchtitel von einer täglich zum Grabe gebrachten anx-jmj-Pflanze handelt, so wird auch die
Vignette eine anx-jmj-Pflanze abbilden wollen, d.h. die Stele aus Horbeit drückte im Bilde genau das aus, was der
Spruchtitel mit Worten besagt; denn die Vignette wäre dann wie der Titel als Überschrift zu verstehen. Dazu kommt,
dass die anx-jmj-Pflanze – der Darstellung auf der Horbeit-Stele entsprehend – einen kugeligen Wurzelknollen besessen
haben könnte; zumindest spricht ein später Zusatz zu Totenbuchkapitel 13 bzw. 121 von einer Kugel (bnn) der anx-jmj-
Pflanze.“
363 Transliteration and translation here are largely based on Barta’s work in German.

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as the son of Geb and Nut. 364 The Great One was also used as the epithet of Horus (Barta 1973a:

85) and, therefore, the deity can be Horus the Elder (Hrw-smsw) who is mentioned as son of Geb

and Nut. 365 In addition, the contender against Seth in Line 14 is not Nefertem but Horus,

although it is not clear whether Horus is here brother or nephew of Seth. For Line 6, Barta cites

the Pyramid and Coffin Texts spells that mention Horus who (sometimes identified with the

deceased king) receives the kingship from Atum and appears as the ruler of the Ennead. 366 As for

the deity’s mother-goddess described in Lines 7-11, he observes that the “august field-goddess” is

the personification of the sun-god’s birthplace, 367 who is under the protection of the “Lords of the

East” in Lines 12-13 (Barta 1973a: 89-90).

Barta says that the text from Line 14 does not reveal the nature of the deity in the question, but

Isis’s statement is addressed to the sky-god Horus, whose two eyes are identified with the two

solar barques and who loses his sight in the evening as Horus of Manu, thus identified with the

sightless Horus of Letopolis. He concludes: (1) the hymn encompasses the aspects of Horus the

Elder (Lines 1-6, 24-31) and Horus, son of Isis and Osiris (Lines 24-31); and (2) the alternating

pattern is a significant feature of the hymn, because it illustrates the life cycle not only through

the course of the sun (as Horus the Elder) but also the death-resurrection found in nature,

without presenting a unified image of the god (Barta 1973a: 91).

364 In this regard, Barta admits that the sun-god Re is a son of Nut but is not mentioned as son of Geb (Barta
1973a: 87).
365 CT III 264 e-g.

366 Pyr. § 301 a-b; CT II 216a; CT IV 36e; CT IV 84k.

367 Barta believes that the birthplace of the sun-god can be identified with the Field of Rushes (sxt-jArw)

where the sun-god rises each morning after the purification. Therefore, the birth/emergence from the field-
goddess does not confirm the origin of the plant-god; rather, it should be construed as a general reference to
the birth of a solar deity who can be Re, Horus or Nefertem. There is no evidence to support that the birth
from the field-goddess exclusively refers to Nefertem (Barta 1973a: 87). For the Field of Rushes, see J. Allen
2003: 24.

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 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

So far, we have conducted cases studies of the three child deities – Ihy, Khonsu and Nefertem.

While they share the same status as members of a divine triad, they all possess different

characteristics and follow different paths of evolution before their integration into the divine

triads of major cultic centers. Therefore, the first step should be to take a look at the changes that

these deities experienced in the course of time. In some aspects, they share some features but

otherwise do not exhibit an overall common pattern. In this final chapter, I will examine the

peculiar characteristics of the three child deities in areas such as name, iconography and

evolution of traits, and then move on to see if there is any shared trait that may have facilitated

their integration into the divine triad. The final step is to use the two prototypes of the child

deities – the sun-child and the Horus child – to examine their roles on the cosmic, kingship and

funerary levels.

NAME, ICONOGRAPHY AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

7.1 Name

Regarding the names of the three child deities, there is always more than one theory to explain

their meanings and the owner’s nature and function based on them. 369 Ihy can be counted as an

exception among the three child deities in that his name, iconography and roles are relatively

For the meaning (or etymology) of the divine name, which contributes to a better understanding of the
369

owner’s nature and function, see Hornung 1982: 66-69.

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firmly established already in the Old Kingdom. However, the key attributes of the other child

deities are still evolving during the Middle Kingdom or the New Kingdom.

While there have been attempts to understand the name of Ihy in connection with the diminutive

form of jH “cattle,” the meaning seems to refer directly to his role as the “musician” who shakes a

sistrum in the worship of his mother Hathor. In the case of Khonsu, the name was interpreted by

some scholars as x-nsw(t) “the placenta of the king,” but it is now generally accepted that the

name xnzw means “the one who travels” or the “courser,” which is derived from the verb xnz “to

traverse.” His name expresses the image of the moon-god sailing the night sky. Finally, the exact

meaning of Nefertem remains obscure. Some scholars point to a close connection with the sun-

god Atum but it seems more likely that the name indicates his role as a god of fragrance in the

meaning of “completely beautiful one” (Morenz & Schubert 1954: 15).

7.2 Iconography

Regarding the iconography of child deity, Ihy is the only one who appears in a pure child form

from the Old Kingdom. He is usually depicted as sporting the side-lock of youth, holding the

sistrum in his hand and wearing the menit around his neck. Khonsu and Nefertem are rarely

shown in the form of a child up to as late as the New Kingdom. Rather, they appear as a youthful

god symbolizing the concept of rejuvenation and resurrection as the youngest member of the

divine triad. They are visualized in pure child form – a naked child with his finger in his mouth –

only after the Third Intermediate Period. Therefore, while they wear the side-lock of youth and

the menit to denote their status as a child-member of the divine triad, they display a few

iconographic features found in adult deities, such as the divine beard and various scepters. They

are also depicted as wearing the shendyt or the mummy sheath. These iconographic features

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clearly indicate that they are not a mere child but rather a youthful god as a symbol of

rejuvenation and resurrection.

7.3 Historical development

The concept of the child deity is found already in the Old Kingdom. Horus is described as a child

in Pyramid Texts Spell 378 (Pyr. §§ 663c-664a): nxj n Hrw Xrd nxn Dba.f m r.f, (ttj)| pw Hm Hrw Xrd nxn

Dba.f m r.f “nxj-Horus, the young boy with his finger in his mouth. And Teti is Horus, the young

boy with his finger in his mouth.” In addition, Brunner mentions an Old Kingdom inscription of

a child god from Buto (nb-jmt, jmtj), whose writing includes a determinative of a seated child

wearing the Red Crown (1977c: 648).

All three child deities are attested already in the Old Kingdom. Ihy is mentioned in the Palermo

Stone, and Khonsu and Nefertem are mentioned in the Pyramid Texts. As mentioned earlier,

however, their traits developed differently over time. In the case of Ihy, his role as the divine

musician and acolyte of his mother-goddess Hathor is established already in the Old Kingdom

and further bolstered during the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom. However, Khonsu

appears in most cases as a violent deity who devours his enemies in the Old and Middle

Kingdom textual sources. The violent aspect can be considered as one of the traits possessed by

the moon god but it is only during the New Kingdom that the deity began to be considered as a

moon-god, absorbing various features from other well-known moon gods including Thoth.

Nefertem shows a more complicated pattern of evolution. He is styled in the Old Kingdom

Pyramid Texts as the lotus bud at the nose of the sun-god but his role is not refined during the

Middle Kingdom; the Coffin Text spells fail to give any decisive clue as to the deity’s true nature.

During the New Kingdom, his image established in the Pyramid Texts is reiterated in some

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chapters of the Book of the Dead. Fortunately, some late New Kingdom hymns to Nefertem and

other related Memphite deities offer us tantalizing evidence for his role as the god of fragrance.

During the New Kingdom, Khonsu and Nefertem are integrated into divine triads as child-

member in their respective cultic centers in line with (1) the new trends of visualizing the king as

a child (deity) and (2) the influence of the Osirian cycle on the theology of other cultic centers. In

this regard, it is noteworthy that Ihy, whose specific role is fixed earlier than the other child

deities, is the last one who became the child-member of a divine triad, due largely to the strong

bond with his mother-goddess Hathor.

NATURE OF THE DEITIES

7.4 Primary roles

Usually depicted as a youthful deity wearing the menit around his neck and holding a sistrum in

his hand, Ihy is the divine musician par excellence. He personifies the jubilation associated with

the use of the sacred instruments. As the son of the versatile goddess Hathor, Ihy also plays the

role of child-intermediary for his mother-goddess, mediating the two different spheres – the

divine and the mundane – through the medium of music.

Khonsu is a moon-god whose role is gradually expanded through assimilation and identification

with other lunar deities, especially Thoth. By the New Kingdom, the deity appears as the

benevolent son of Amun and Mut. According to ancient Egyptian religious thought, the moon

can replace the sun after sunset and the sun-god is considered father of the moon. As Amun was

syncretized with the sun-god Re and thus became a sun-god, Khonsu the moon god could stand

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vis-à-vis his solarized father Amun through the mediation of the mother-goddess Mut, who

played the role of binding force between the two luminaries of the sky. In the Theban Triad, the

role of Khonsu is, like Ihy’s, a divine intermediary who can mediate between the divine and

human spheres in the light of his status as rejuvenating child and heir of the supreme state god.

Nefertem is the embodiment of the blue lotus blossom and the god of fragrance who delivers the

creative power to the creator/sun-god (and the deceased). Considering the weak familial ties with

his parent deities, it is safe to say that Nefertem is a youthful deity who fulfils his mediatory role

through the creative power of fragrant scent in his close relationship with the sun-god.

To sum up, the primary role of the three child deities is as divine intermediary between the

divine sphere and the human world through the medium of music (Ihy) or fragrance (Nefertem),

or through the status as the prominent celestial body that can stand face-to-face with the sun

(Khonsu). In addition, their mediating role explains why the king can frequently replace them in

their respective familial triads in his role as an intermediary between the divine and human

spheres. Therefore, the king serves as the Ihy-musician for Hathor (along with the priests who

were his delegates). He is also identified with Khonsu, as evidenced by the granite statue of

Tutankhamen in the Khonsu Temple. Sometimes the king also takes the place of Nefertem and

plays the role of offering the scented lotus flower and aromatic oil/unguent jars to the god in his

capacity as divine mediator.

Finally, their status as divine intermediary explains why the child deities became so important

and popular in the Late and Ptolemaic-Roman Periods. Possessing the charm and spontaneity of

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a child, 370 they are friendlier and more accessible than other major deities in the Egyptian

pantheon in the time of “personal piety.” They are regarded as the “great god” who retains full

divine power in the form of a child who hears prayers for help and provides protection to his

followers (Brunner 1977b: 648). 371

7.5 Other roles of the deities

As shown above, the three child deities can serve as a divine intermediary between the divine

sphere and the human world, even though they display different traits and roles in the Egyptian

pantheon. As a divine intermediary, they appear as a benevolent god who plays significant roles,

such as (1) a divine guide/protector, (2) a healing deity and (3) a fertility god, for the deceased

and his followers.

First of all, Ihy comes to the fore in his role as a divine guide/protector. As the son of Hathor, the

goddess of the afterlife, he appears as an intermediary who guarantees the deceased proximity to

Hathor. Khonsu appears as a divine helper who guides the deceased to heaven as the god of sky.

Nefertem is considered a caring guide who leads the deceased to eternal life and resurrection

through the power of soothing fragrance.

As regards their role as healing deity, Khonsu plays a prominent role as a moon-god who

possesses great magical and healing power. Therefore, he is credited with offering either spiritual

redemption or miraculous cure to his followers. As the son of Sekhmet (the goddess of plague),

370 In this regard, Clift lists the virtues of a child, which include “innocence, purity, wonder, receptivity,
freshness, non-calculation, the absence of narrow ambition and purpose” (1987: 243).
371 Cf. Jung (1978: 77): “This archetype of the ‘child god’ is extremely widespread and intimately bound up with all the

other mythological aspects of the child motif. It is hardly necessary to allude to the still living ‘Christ-child,’ who, in the
legend of Saint Christopher, also has the typical feature of being ‘smaller than small and bigger than big.’”

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and based on the medical properties of the lotus blossom that he embodies, Nefertem is also

considered as a god of healing and protection. It is particularly noteworthy that their function as

healing deity does not stem from the model of the Horus child in Chemmis. Each deity retains

healing power based on his own respective functions.

Basically, a child deity can symbolize rebirth after death, renewal of the cosmos and yearly

renewal of Egypt’s fertility. As such, most of the child deities are believed to bring fertility

(Brunner 1977b: 650). In this regard, it should be noted that Khonsu represents the fertilizing

moon, as opposed to Thoth who is the measurer of time and the god of writing and recording. As

regards the other child deities, this trait is mostly attested by epithets such as nb DfAw “lord of

provisions.”

Finally, it is important to consider that the three child deities also demonstrate turbulent or

violent traits. Ihy’s turbulent nature is mentioned in the Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 181i): jnk nb

dSrw, jnk kA Xnnw “I am the lord of blood; I am the bull of turbulence.” As mentioned earlier,

Khonsu is originally a blood-thirsty god who devours the hearts of victims in order to assert his

power. Nefertem also appears as a raging god when he appears as a human with a lion’s head, a

form that is attributable to his close association with Sekhmet, who is frequently depicted as a

lioness who destroys the enemies of the king. But once they become child-member of a divine

triad, these child deities function as benevolent gods. In fact, the most frequently used epithet of

Khonsu during the New Kingdom is Neferhotep, which means “perfect of grace.” Finally, it

should be mentioned that the Horus child and other child deities are later identified with the

pantheistic Bes – a popular divine mediator (Meeks 1992: 425-427; Dasen 1993: 74).

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 TRAITS OF CHILD DEITIES

7.6 Divine family

Säve-Söderberg proposes three classification systems (principles) for grouping and subordinating

ancient Egyptian deities (1977: 688). They include: (1) the social system; (2) the locality-based

system; and (3) the numerical-genealogical system. The social system assumes that the same

social order found in ancient Egyptian society can be applicable to the Egyptian pantheon but it

actually plays a marginal role in theological developments. The locality-based system focuses on

the locality of gods who are worshipped in major cultic centers and analyzes the composition and

hierarchy of the divine groups from the perspective of geographical proximity. Finally, the

numerical-genealogical system is the simplest way of grouping deities into a unit and the

smallest unit in this type of grouping is the pair or couple. As a rule, couples of deities are

composed of a god and a goddess and the male-female opposition naturally leads to a triad – or a

divine family – when a child deity is added (te Velde 1971: 83; Säve-Söderberg 1977: 692). In fact,

the familial triad is “the preferred and the most frequently encountered grouping of Egyptian

deities” (Hornung 1982a: 218).

Here, we can see the different stages of the development of the familial triad of the three child

deities. As mentioned in CHAPTER FOUR, Ihy was integrated in the triad only after the

Ptolemaic Period and the late development of his triad is to some extent attributable to the close

and exclusive bond between Ihy and Hathor, who are in relationship of master goddess and

divine acolyte. The other child deities – Khonsu and Nefertem – also took different paths when

their respective familial triads were formed. Khonsu, like the Horus child, became the child-

member when the Theban triad was formed – in other words, without any intervening stage of

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Amun and Mut alone as a couple. However, Nefertem joined the Memphite triad only after Ptah

and Sekhmet had already been worshipped side by side for a long time (Hornung 1982a: 218;

Säve-Söderberg 1977: 692).

7.6.1 Father gods

As creator gods or state gods, the father gods of the three child deities always form the center of

each divine triad. In fact, Re, Amun and Ptah formed a triad of supreme deities representing

Egypt’s major cultic centers of Heliopolis, Thebes and Memphis during the late Eighteenth

Dynasty and the Ramesside Period, as mentioned in the Leiden Hymn to Amun (Leiden I 350, 4,

21-22): 3 pw nTrw nbw, jmn ra ptH nn snnw.sn, jmn rn.f m jmn, ntf ra m Hr Dt.f ptH “All the gods are three:

Amun, Re, and Ptah, without their second. His name (identity) is hidden in Amun; his is Re as

face; his body is Ptah.” In addition to the textual evidence, there are a few visual representations

of this supreme triad united together as a group, the most prominent example probably being the

group of Ptah, Amun, Ramesses II (or his royal ka) and Re in the sanctuary of the Abu Simbel

temple.

One prominent feature that should not be missed regarding the father gods is the fact that they

remain passive in their relationship with the child deities. Even in the Osirian triad, which is

regarded as a model divine family, the birth of Horus is posthumous and thus Osiris plays no

significant role in nurturing and caring for Horus. 372 In the case of the other child deities, the

372 In ancient Egyptian society, the father’s role in the upbringing of his son is limited to (vocational)
education and social activities (Assmann 1991: 104-115). In this regard, it is interesting that Osiris plays an
active role in securing his son’s position in the pantheon with the following threat in the Contendings of
Horus and Seth (p.Chester Beatty I, 57, 5-8 ... 58, 2-5): j.jr.tw gAbw zA.j Hrw Hr jx, jw jnk j.jrw tn m nxt, xr jw jnk jrw
jtj btj r sanx nTr mj nA jAwt Hr sA nTr, jw bw gm sw nTr nb ntrt nb r jr.f ... jr pA tA ntj tw.j jm.f sw mH.(w) m wpw HsA Hr, jw
bn st sndw n nTr nb ntrt, jw.j djt pry.sn mtw.sn jn HAtj n pA ntj nb jrt zpw bjn mtw.sn xprw dj r Hna.j “(In his letter to
the Ennead) Why is my son Horus cheated, since I am the one who made you by force, and I am the one

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father gods play a limited role in the divine familial triad and, more importantly, they are only

very rarely mentioned as father of the child deity. In fact, their aloofness to their sons stands in

stark contrast to relatively close interactions between the mother goddesses and their sons.

7.6.2 Mother goddesses

At the core of Egyptian religious thought lie the fundamental notions of birth, death and

resurrection on the cosmic, kingship and funerary levels. And in these notions, mother-goddesses

play an essential role as the generative and protective force.

 On the cosmic level, creation and regeneration (rejuvenation) was an act that requires the

agency of the feminine creative principle. For instance, the sky-goddess Nut in the sun-child

pattern serves as the matrix of the cyclical rejuvenation with the sun (along with the stars)

travelling through her body and completing the perpetual cycle of rejuvenation. In the

Horus child pattern, Isis appears as a nurturing, protective mother of Horus.

 On the kingship level, mother-goddesses give birth to the king, nurture and protect him, and

ensure the integrity of his body. Here, they play a role of ensuring the divine kingship and,

in this regard, Hassan claims that the kings becomes divine by assimilating the sacred power

of motherly goddesses (1992: 312, 315, 316-318).

 On the funerary level, mother-goddesses receive or embrace the deceased king (or non-royal

person) for rebirth/resurrection, defend him against their enemies in the netherworld, help

him claim his rightful position in the afterlife, and assist him in ascending to the sky to join

the sun-god.

who makes barley and emmer to enliven the gods like the herds after gods, and no god or goddess can
discover how to make it. ... As for the land that I am in, it is full of envoys of fierce force, who are not afraid
of any god or goddess. I will let them come out and get the heart of everyone who does bad deeds, and they
will come to be here with me.”

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In the case of the three child deities, their mother-goddesses, to some extent, fulfill the roles

mentioned above. Apparently, their relationship with their son-gods is more intimate that that of

the father gods.

The mother goddesses of the three child deities can be grouped into the so-called “Hathorian”

goddesses in a number of aspects that they share as a mother of the child deity:

(1) Eye of Re: The Hathorian goddesses are closely connected with the sun-god Re. They

wear the sun-disk and they are regarded as the wife (and at the same time the daughter)

of the sun-god or the solarized creator god. They are also feared as the vengeful “Eye of

Re,” and, like their children, frequently show violent and blood-thirsty traits.

(2) Goddess of female sexuality and motherhood: The Hathorian goddesses are inextricably

associated with love and female sexuality, as well as with motherhood. With Hathor as

the chief goddess, they represent the female creative principle in their close association

with all aspects of motherhood. In this regard, it is worth noting that they play a role of

binding the father and son as a divine intermediary in the familial triad. Through their

mediating power, the mother-goddesses serve to weld together the creator/sun-god with

the child deity in the triads.

(3) Mother (and wife) of the king: As mentioned above, the king can take the place of the

child-member of the divine triads. Therefore, the Hathorian goddesses play a role as the

mother of the king. In addition, they can appear as the “wife” of the king from an early

date, since the king’s chief wife is viewed as the earthly manifestation of the goddess

(especially in the case of Hathor and Mut) and also serves as her chief priestess.

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In contrast to the divine father-son relationship, that between the child deities and their mother

goddesses is clearly confirmed from the textual evidence: Ihy and Nefertem are mentioned as zA

Hwt-Hrw “son of Hathor” and zA sxmt aAt “son of Sekhmet the Great,” respectively. In the case of

Khonsu, Mut is identified as mwt xnzw “mother of Khonsu.” In addition, the close mother-son

relationship of Ihy and Nefertem is attested by the fact that they are frequently depicted as a pair

with the child deities standing before or at the side of their mother goddesses. Khonsu shows a

relatively weak filial bond with his mother, which is substituted by Mut’s role as the great

mother goddess to the son/heir of the supreme state deity. In this regard, it is also notable that

Khonsu is usually represented with both of his parent deities.

7.6.3 Dysfunctional family

Even though the Hathorian goddesses play the role of caring mother, the child deities of those

goddesses do not seem to enjoy the care and protection provided to the Horus child by his

mother-goddess Isis or Hathor. Moreover, those child deities do not experience any dramatic

childhood like the Horus child nor is there any mention of the generational succession like the

one between Osiris and Horus. In the case of Ihy, his role as the divine acolyte explains his

superficial filial relationship with his mother-goddess Hathor. Khonsu is considered the child of

Amun and Mut due largely to his status as the perpetually rejuvenating moon. As the heir of the

supreme state god, his name was reinterpreted as x-nsw(t) “the child of the king” in the Late

Period. But Khonsu’s childhood otherwise lacks any detailed account of a conflict in which he

engages to win the kingship from his adversary. The filial relationship of Nefertem is the most

superficial. He is never shown performing the mediating role for his parents.

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In sum, it turns out that the divine families of Ihy, Khonsu and Nefertem are dysfunctional in

many respects. There is no hint of a loving couple or caring parents in their familial triads. There

is no dramatic childhood or a meaningful interaction between the mother goddesses and their

children. There is no struggle against the formidable opponent at the time of transition from

puberty into adulthood. For this reason, it seems likely that the members of each divine family

were simply consolidated into a triad in order to emulate the ideal model of the divine family of

Osiris-Isis-Horus and rival the tradition of other major cultic centers (Meeks & Favard-Meeks

1996: 184).

7.7 Shared traits

It is true that the three child deities have taken their own path of development and played

diverse roles in the Egyptian pantheon. Still, there are some traits that they share in common.

First of all, they meet the definition of the child deity mentioned in CHAPTER ONE (see 1.1

above).

 They are child-members of the familial triads consisting of a father, mother and son.

 They are usually represented in juvenile or youthful human form.

 They symbolize the cyclical rejuvenation of the universe (and the legitimate succession of

the king).

The fact that the three deities share common traits is indicated in Coffin Texts Spell 563 (CT VI

162s-v): jrr.j Smwt Hr rdwj.j mj nfr-tm, ssn.j TAw m fnD.j mj xnzw HoA DfAw, mAA.j wAt m jrtj.j mj jHy zA Hwt-

Hrw mry.s “I will make marches on my feet like Nefertem. I will sniff air with my nose like

Khonsu, the lord of sustenance. I will see the path with my eyes like Ihy, son of Hathor, whom

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she loves.” In the spell, the three deities are mentioned side by side as if to form a group as child-

members of important triads. In this regard, it is also noteworthy that they are identified with

each other, especially in the case of Ihy and Khonsu (Allam 1963: 135). Thus, Khonsu is identified

with Ihy in Coffin Texts Spell 334 (CT IV 180i-j): soA.j m rn.j pw n jHy, dj.t(w) n.j hy m rn.j pw n xnzw

“I have been exalted in this my name of Ihy. Acclamation is given to me in this my name of

Khonsu.” In other spells, their identification is not direct but implied in their shared relationship

with Hathor (B. Altenmüller 1975: 168):

 Coffin Texts Spell 187 (CT III 90e-91a): gm.n.j xnzw Hr wAt hA.n.f pwnt, rdj.n.f aHa n.j xAw Hms n.j

Swt m sn m snt m anxw m anxwt m r(m)T m Abt.j m njwtjw.j m njwtwt.j “I found Khonsu on the way.

When he descended on Punt, he made thousands stand up for me and hundreds sit down for

me, as brother and sister, as male living and female living, as people, as my family, as my

male villagers and my female villagers.”

 Coffin Texts Spell 195 (CT III 114d-g): gm.n N pn xnzw aHa.(w) m wAt.f m hAt.f m pwnt, jw rdj.n.f aHa

n N pn m xAw Hms n N pn m Swt m snw snwt m njwtjw njwtwt “this N has found Khonsu standing

in his path when he came down from Punt, and he has caused standing for this N in

thousands and sitting for this N in hundreds, as male and female siblings and as male and

female villagers.”

More importantly, however, the most salient trait they have in common is the fact that they are

all gods of light. 373 As the son of Hathor and the sun-god, Ihy clearly exhibits the traits of the sun-

373In the mythology of the primordial child, the moment in which the light first appears represents
simultaneously the dawn of creation and the moment when a human being awakens from the sleep of the
unconscious (Moon 1991: 232). In this regard, also note Fossum (1999: 315): “Emerging out of the night and the
subterranean cave, the child god stands for the ego emerging from the dark realm of the unconscious. The dark cavern
represents chaos, the state in which it is impossible to distinguish between things. The divine child brought out into the

Page | ２２１
child and thus a god of light. He also appears as the primeval god who emerges from the

primeval waters. Needless to say, Khonsu is the god of light in his capacity as the moon god. In

fact, his role as god of light explains a number of his traits that seem to be confusing. For instance,

his fear-inspiring nature can be explained in the light of his role as a god of light who slays

opponents of the sun-god (or the deceased) and dispels the force of darkness (Pinch 2002: 166). In

addition, as a healing deity, Khonsu is capable of expelling darkness (or exorcising demons) and

blindness in his role of the god of light. Nefertem is also considered the god of light in that he is

the embodiment of the lotus blossom (one of the powerful symbols of the sun) and thus very

closely associated with the sun-god. Therefore, it would not be wrong to view him as the divine

child of light equipped with the power of life-giving fragrance who comes out of the dark and

abysmal primeval material represented by Ptah. This aspect also helps us understand his role as

the judge of the deceased (Seeber 1976: 132).

As the light of god, the three child deities (1) guarantee the eternal renewal of the cosmos and the

resurrection of the deceased; and (2) represent the concept of kamutef. 374 Therefore, we can

conclude that the three child deities embody the nHH-cycle and thus follow the pattern of the sun-

child, rather than that of the Horus child. Their closeness to the sun-child pattern is also

supported by other factors such as (1) the superficial familial relationship with their parent

light of day signals the new creation and the moment when the human being awakens from the sleep of the
unconscious.”
374 There is no textual evidence that clearly designates these child deities as kamutef. However, their role as

god of light can also shed light on their nature as kamutef. First, the kamutef aspect of Ihy is hinted at in
Coffin Texts Spell 334 through the epithet kA Xnnw “the bull of turbulence” and the phrase describing him
growing into the splendid midday sun. In the case of Khonsu, the following should be considered: (1) the
moon is regarded as kamutef in the name of “Bull of Ennead” due to its capacity of rejuvenating itself each
month; and (2) one of his father-deity Amun’s aspects is the ithyphallic kamutef. Most importantly, however,
the union of the sun and moon mentioned on the wall of the Ptolemaic propylon of the Khonsu temple
suggests a kamutef pattern or the Mut-Khonsu cycle. Finally, Nefertem’s role as the solar deity who provides
enlivening energy to the sun-god leaves us a possibility of interpreting it as a reverse image of the kamutef
concept because the sun-god receives the life force in the form of fragrance from his youthful alter ego
Nefertem.

Page | ２２２
deities; (2) the absence of the dramatic childhood and the conflict with the formidable opponent

at the crisis of puberty; and (3) the lack of evidence for the generational transmission from father

to son. It is also important to note that the three child deities are all syncretized with Harpocrates

in the Late Period. When he emerged as an independent (and supreme) child deity, Harpocrates

had already become fully solarized and thus embodied the child-god of light.

This common trait as the god of light also played the pivotal role of promoting the three child

deities as the child-member of a divine triad. As gods of light and as gods of the sky (i.e.

luminary of the sky), they naturally appear as benevolent deities, playing important roles as

divine guide, protector and healer. In addition, these luminary children can stand face-to-face

with their father deities who are the creator god, the sun-god or the primeval god as a

rejuvenated form of the light on the basis of their close relationship with their Hathorian mother-

goddess. In their role of benevolent deity, they must have been friendlier and thus more

accessible to those who wished to ask help and salvation from the gods, especially during the

period of “personal piety.”

SUMMARY

As mentioned in the previous chapters, the sun symbolizes the nHH-element that completes its

perpetual cycle by uniting the mother-goddess who represents the Dt-matrix. In this aspect, the

sun represents a cyclical and reversible rejuvenation and regeneration.

The Horus child pattern focuses on a generational transmission and succession. According to the

Heliopolitan cosmogony, the familial triad of Osiris-Isis-Horus forms an inverted triangle that is

Page | ２２３
antipodal to the first triad of Atum-Shu-Tefnut (see Fig. 3-1 above). This antipodal structure

stresses the role of the Horus child, who stands at the terminus of the divine generation. Here, he

is a successor of the future generation and, at the same time, the fruition of the perpetual creation.

At the same time, the divine family of the Horus child pattern was considered ideal by the

ancient Egyptians. In the family, a productive sexual union of father and mother is not

suppressed and this leads to a birth of a child – Horus and the living king. In addition, the

dramatic childhood of the Horus child underscores the generational nature of the Horus child

pattern. Here, Isis faithfully fulfills her caring roles as a protective mother, which is clearly

contrasted with the mother-goddess of the sun-child, who merely serves as a matrix of rebirth

and rejuvenation. Finally, the conflict of Horus and Seth that forms the final part of the childhood

of the Horus child validates the succession from father to son, through the burial of the deceased

father and the coronation of the living son.

With regard to the two basic patterns of the prototypical child deities, the three child deities seem

to follow the pattern of the sun-child as mentioned above, because they embody the nHH-element

and symbolize the cyclical rebirth and rejuvenation as a god of light. Therefore, on the cosmic

level, the child deities serve as a guarantor of eternal renewal of the universe. Obviously, Ihy and

Nefertem are the solar child and the embodiment of the nHH-cycle with their close association

with the sun-god. As the moon god, Khonsu plays the role of the deputy of the sun-god

illuminating the world with his light at night. On the kingship level, they are closely linked to the

concept of the divine birth of the king, who frequently identifies himself with those child deities

in order to present himself as the child-member of the powerful divine families and fulfill his role

as the intermediary of the divine and human spheres. In addition, the king is also depicted as

Page | ２２４
presenting offerings to those versatile deities for the bliss of rejuvenation and the continuity of

the legitimate royal succession. On the funerary level, the child deities play the role of a trusted

guide and protector of the deceased and lead them to eternal life. At the same time, the deceased

identify themselves with those deities in order to take advantage of their formidable magical

power and seek to benefit from the powerful medium in their possession such as music and

enlivening fragrance.

CODA

As mentioned earlier, the New Kingdom saw the emergence of a new trend that depicts the

living king as a child (god) in connection with the concept of the king’s divine birth. The child-

king motif was continuously expanded to encompass the image of the child deity as an

embodiment of rebirth and regeneration and incorporated into the formal repertoire of royal

artistic convention from the end of the New Kingdom onward.

Nonetheless, the worship of child deities in temples and private cults began in earnest only after

the Third Intermediate Period. The earliest development of theologies involving child deities can

be observed in the Theban region with the growing importance of Khonsu and other child forms

of Horus. Later the number of child deities increased substantially, 375 with specialized roles such

as protector from illness and danger. In the process, while sharing common iconography and

functions, child deities began to evolve into independent deities. The phenomenon can be most

Budde enumerates child deities attested in the Late Period, such as Harpocrates, Ihy, Khonsu, Heka,
375

Harpara, Harsomtus, Somtus, Horus-wedja, Horhekenu, Horus-Shu, Re, Neferhotep, Shemanefer,

Panebtawy, Mandulis and Tutu (2010: 7).

Page | ２２５
clearly observed in the independent child forms of Horus, such as Harpocrates, Harendotes and

Harsiese, which can appear side by side in temple reliefs.

In the ritual scenes in the temple, those child deities are depicted as accompanying their parent

deities, but sometimes they appear as the sole recipient of offerings. However, the most

interesting features in the late representation of child deities are the following: (1) local child

deities and other child deities show up in a ritual scene according to a certain hierarchy in which

local child deities take precedence over the others; and (2) sometimes they were treated as a

group of seven, a configuration perhaps influenced by the concept of the seven Hathors. For

instance, Ihy is shown in seven manifestations in the temple of Hathor in Dendera (Budde 2010: 6,

Fig. 8) and the seven child deities depicted on the northern outer wall of the mammisi in Armant

symbolize all child deities worshipped throughout Egypt during the reign of Cleopatra VII

(Sandri 2006: 203-206).

The most decisive factor that contributed to the dissemination of the theology of child deities was

the idea of a divine child who was expected to bring hope and stability to the world during the

period when Egypt was under successive foreign rules (Budde 2010: 8). Here, the birth of a child

deity showed a marked difference from the New Kingdom notion of the divine birth in two

aspects: (1) the child deity was no longer identified with the ruler but regarded as a divine savior

who assured the well-being of Egypt and her people; and (2) therefore, the queen no longer

played the significant role of conceiving the future king by the supreme god Amun; rather the

child deity could bring himself into the world through the mother-consort goddess. The hope for

a divine child allowed Egyptians in the grip of foreign rulers to see the present as divine

providence and retain hope for divine salvation (Assmann 1992: 264).

Page | ２２６
The conception, birth, and enthronement of the young deity were celebrated each year in the

mammisis throughout Egypt and local worshippers actively took part in the festivals and

processions. In the pursuit of their legitimacy, foreign rulers identified themselves with the child

deity, with their mothers assumed the role of the mother-goddess. By doing so, they also hoped

for blessings of child deities – especially the eternal rejuvenation of the royal family. This

tradition is ultimately reflected in the miraculous birth of Jesus Christ, because for Christians,

Jesus is also an example of the divine child born from a divine father and destined to become the

Savior of the whole world.

Page | ２２７
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