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BASIC MOUNTAINEERING COURSE No.2

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CAMPSITE SELECTION
When you end a long day’s trek, you need to scout for a place to spend
your night as safe as comfortable as possible. When establishing your
campsite, you need to follow certain criteria. Try to look for the
following:

1. The site should have sufficient water drainage. This ensures adequate
surface water runoff in case of a downpour. If you select a depression or
relatively flat area with poor drainage, you may find yourself swimming
in an inch of water , maybe even more.

2. The site should have protection from strong winds. Take advantage of
natural windbreakers such as bushes, stable boulders, trees or even tall
cogon grass. Be careful though not to pitch your tent directly beneath
trees since there is the danger of falling branches which could damage
your tent or worse, injure you. tree branches overhead will also drip
water on you long after a downpour - which can be very annoying.

3. The ground should be covered with grass or dead leaves to provide a

cushioning effect for a more comfortable night’s rest. This will also help
prevent water seepage into the tent and lessen the impact on the ground’s
compact ability.

4. A water source would be located nearby, but within a reasonable

BASIC MOUNTAINEERING COURSE No.2 distance (like 100 feet) to avoid getting it contaminated. You should
camp several meters from the highest possible water line because a flash
flood may occur.

5. To further appreciate the wilderness, a panoramic view of the area

could be taken into consideration when selecting your campsite.

6. Mountains that are climbed regularly have traditional or impacted

campsites. Set up your tents here, instead of hacking a new area. This
way, we keep damage to the site to a minimum.
7. Plan the arrangement of the tents to facilitate proper camp traffic 3. It should be composed of a breathable inner body and a water repellant
wherein people can move without the danger of stumbling over guy lines fly. This allows your body heatto drive away the interior moisture formed
and pegs. by wet clothing and dew. This also allows better ventilationinside the tent
(aided by windows) while also allowing for air movement within the
8. Take into consideration the relative strengths of the different tents airspace betweenthe body and the fly, thus preventing condensation. The
brought by the team. Weaker tents, such as huge domes and A-frames, fly remains impenetrable to the rain since it iswater repellant.
should be given priority in sheltered areas. Stronger tents, such as tunnels
could be pitched in more exposed areas so they can act as windbreakers 4. It should have a bathtub floor construction made of coated nylon or
for the other tents. any other water repellant material.This is to help prevent water seepage
from the ground and wind driven precipitation from getting into the tent.
9. Avoid camping beneath overhangs and other areas that are prone to
landslides and other natural hazards. If you really have to spend the night 5. It should be lightweight and compact. Nylon is not bulky and is the
in such areas, make sure that you reinforce your tents. The site should lightest material available. A weight of two to three pounds per person is
also be free from poisonous plants and dangerous animals. reasonable ( Example: a two person tent should weightaround four to six
Note: when selecting a campsite, the probability of finding all the above pounds).
is quite remote, but the more of them you can get in one site the better.
6. It should have at least two(2) doors or a door and a window for proper
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--------------- ventilation. It should havezippered and meshed doors and window to
keep insects out.
CAMP SHELTER
7. It should be simple in construction and easy to pitch. Some tents have
One of the basic necessities you should look for or have when you’re a no-hitch-pitch (NHP) featurewhich makes setting up the tent easier.
exposed in the outdoors is the shelter. It is a common practice that
mountaineers bring their own portable shelter - a tent. A tent is a major 8. It should have sturdy poles. Aircraft aluminum, being strong and
investment. Not only monetarily, but for your protection outdoors. Your lightweight, is the best material. Agood alternative, though heavier and
life depends on your shelter. prone to splintering, is fiberglass. Poles are preferably shockcorded, that
is, pole sections are joined by an elastic cord for easier set up.
A.) Features of a good tent
9. An optional but useful feature is the tent vestibule, an extension of the
1. It should be sturdy in construction, double stitched, and supported by flysheet that can be used as acovered cooking area and storage area for
patches at stress points. your equipment.
2. It should be able to stand exposure to strong winds and rain. Tents 10. Try to use tents with “earth colors” unnatural colors disrupt some
achieve this by having an important natural processes (like thereproductive cycle of some
aerodynamic shape( such as tunnels) or by adding an extra pole within organisms).
the framework ( for example: adome with 3 poles becomes a geodesic
dome if you add one more pole). It is also ideal that tents arecovered by a
full flysheet.
B.) Types of tents disadvantage when you are bottled in by a storm. For a team of
sixpersons, bring along a coupleof three person tents. Aside from being
There are numerous types of tents ranging from one-person bivouac much more stable, it is easier to distribute the tent parts evenlyamong the
sacks to huge family tents. There are two (2) main categories of tent. group. It is also easier to find a campsite for two smaller tents than for a
Not Free Standing. Tents which are not free standing need to be pegged large one.
to the ground in order to supportitself. These are more difficult to pitch
and some are less sturdy. Some examples: classic A-type, Sierra C.) Tent Pitching
Designs Flashlight, North Face West Wind. Free Standing. Free standing
tents need not to be pegged in order to maintain its structure. They also Each type of tent has a different way of being pitched. This would be
have the advantage of being moved around after being pitched. Some discussed in detail during yourpractical exercises, but below are some
examples are: A-frames and Domes. rules to follow:
Listed below are the common types of tents (Free and not free standing):
1. Determine the orientation of the tent. The main factor is the direction
1. A -Type The classic triangular design. The body is stretched and of the wind. Generally, thesmallest profile points towards the wind. For
staked to the ground tautly with guidelines and is supported by (2) A-Frame and Domes, a point a door or a window towards the wind
vertical poles at each end though much cheaper, it is more cumbersome because this will inflate the tent and ease a little pressure off the poles.
to pitch and requires a larger space due to its guidelines.
2. Lay the tent on the designated spot to estimate the area to be covered.
2. A - Frame - An innovation of the A-Type. The body is supported by This is done to maximize thecampsite.
intersecting poles (A-Frame) on each end with a central horizontal pole
to keep the whole tent taut. Modified A-Frames an added central hoop to 3. Remove the tent to lay the groundsheet. Replace the tent body over the
keep the side walls near vertical, thereby adding more space. Examples: groundsheet. This layer ofplastic provides waterproofing and protects the
(A-Frame)Eureka Timberline and (modified A-Frame) Eureka Alpine tent body from sharp stones and sticks.
Meadows.
4. Stake down the corners. Pegs should be driven into the ground in a 45
3. Tunnel or Hoop - Tunnel shaped, supported by looped frames usually degree angle from the surface. Incase of hard rock soil, screw the peg
tapering on one end. This has anedge since it is aerodynamic, but it is instead of hammering it with a rock. On loose soil, place a heavy
more cramped than other tents. Examples: Sierra DesignsFlashlight and rock on top of each peg. Always hold the pegs or stuff them in a pocket
North Face Lunar Light. while pitching the tent to avoidlosing them.

4. Dome - The tent Body is supported by arching poles forming a Dome 5. Insert the poles. Attach the flysheet after the tent has been set up.
frame. The usual number of polesforming a Dome tent is three, forming a Make sure that all attachments arecomplete.
hexagonal floor. The number of poles for dome tents may vary.
Generally, the more poles a Dome has, the more it can withstand high 6. In strong winds, attach extra guylines. Be sure that these can be seen
winds. A Dome with four ormore poles is called a modified Dome or a especially at night so people won’ttrip over them.
Geodesic dome. The steep vertical walls maximize internalspace.
Examples: Half Dome (2poles) - REI Half Dome and Geodesic Dome
(4poles) - North Face VE-25Note: Generally, the lower the tent, the more
stable it is on high winds but this makes for less headroominside, a
7. When pitching down, clean the tent of trash first. Then reverse the your tent and fly into the sack like you do a sleeping bag.It's best not to
procedure mentioned for pitching.Stuff the tent body into its bag before cram a wet tent into its stuff sack, but sometimes you have no choice. If
storing. Clean the campsite; replace rocks and fluff up the grass cogon. you must pack it wet,shake the tent out as best you can to remove excess
Make the spot as if no one has been there.Note: In large groups, the team water. As soon as you arrive at the next campsite, set upthe tent so it can
leader decides where tent would be pitched, especially in areas with start to dry out.
limitedcampsites.
6. Cleaning - Clean a tent by setting it up and wiping it with a damp
D.) Proper care and handling of the tent: sponge or cloth. For stubborn dirt,use mild soap. Apply a light coat of
silicone lubricant or candle wax to the zippers to keep them sliding
By the nature of their use, tents are subjected to a lot of abuse such as sun freely. Grease can be removed with a small drop of kerosene. Never
degradation, stress of pitching andpacking, and abrasion. However, machine wash a tent nor subject itto high temperature.
through proper care and use, a tent could last for many years. Here are
some ways to prolong the life of the tent: 7. Poles and Pegs - Wipe off soil and dirt after use. Apply car wax on
aluminum poles to keep smooth.Keep the poles dry, clean, and scratch-
1. Seal seams - All exposed seams should be sealed for complete tent free.
waterproofing or else water mayseep in through needle holes. Seams will
need to be resealed when the sealer starts to wear off (thisusually 8. Storage - Be sure that the tent is dry before storing to avoid mold and
happens after 6 months).Set up your tent in a protected area, and put the mildew. Avoid storing the tentbody and flysheet compressed inside its
fly on inside out. Run seam sealer along every seam on the fly and floor. sack. Hang it in a breezy, shaded area. Never expose it directly
It's better to apply two thin coats than one thick coat. Allow to dry for tosunlight. Store it in a cool, dry place. Keep all parts in a single stuff
several hoursbefore putting the tent away. sack.

2. Sun - Never leave your tent set up under the sun longer than 9. Check - Regularly check the tent for damage, especially before a
necessary. Use the flysheet even onclearer even on clear days. It acts as climb. It is better to fix it as early as possible to avoid discomfort. Rips
sunscreen and is less susceptible to ultra violet damage than thetent body could be patched up with sail tape, torn seams can be sewn.
because of its urethane coating. It is also easier to replace when damaged.
E) Improvised shelter
3. Staking - A free-standing tent does not need stakes or pegs to keep its
shape. But pegs serve as anchorsduring strong winds. Though many tents are available, it is necessary that you know how to
make an improvised shelter. Theremight be circumstances when your
4. Fire - Most tent fabrics are fire retardant, not fireproof. Use common tent might be broken and you have to resort to making an improvised
sense when using a stove or acandle inside or near a tent if possible,avoid shelter. Below are some examples (using a tarp or a groundsheet) which
cooking inside the tent. Use the vestibule instead. But if bad weather are easy to set up.
forces you to cook inside, be sure to properly prime the stove before
bringing it in. openthe windows a bit to allow hazardous gases to escape. 1. A-Type - There are various types of improvised shelters you may use.
If there are two adjacent treespresent, tie a line connecting the trees. Fold
5. Packing a tent - Folding and rolling your tent neatly every time you the groundsheet into two (along its length) and hang it on the line. Tie the
pack it away tends to stress thesame areas over and over, eventually corners to the ground using strings and pegs. If there are no available
causing waterproofing to break down along the creases. Instead,stuff trees, you may improvise poles from strong branches. Drive these two at
opposite ends of the groundsheet. You may attach the groundsheet. At 6. Do not cook inside the tent except during (very) bad weather. If your
the ends of the poles or connectthe tips with a line (like the previous tent has a vestibule, it is advisablethat you cook there. Prime your stove
example). Stake the corners again. properly outside the tent. Make sure you stove is hot and goingbefore
bringing it in. this reduces the chances of “stove flare” wherein
2. Lean-to - This type of shelter is ideal during good weather. Using two unvaporized fuel reaches the height of a few centimeters to two feet.
improvised poles or two adjacenttrees, attach the two corners of the Have a frying pan ready to cover the stove in case it flares up toprevent it
groundsheet to the poles or trees. Peg the remaining two corners. Itis from damaging the tent body. Place your stove on an earthpad to protect
important that you note the wind direction when using the lean-to, the your floor fromheat and spills to prevent unnecessary heat fall-off from
exposed side of thegroundsheet should be facing where the wind is the stove. Ventilate the tent properly and keepmovement to a minimum.
coming from. It is easy to knock over a stove in a cramped tent.
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--------------- 7. Always use a trash bag.
COOKING AREA
8. When using a campfire, smear soap outside the pot. This enables you
The preparation of the cooking area is a vital step in meal preparation and to take off the soot much easierwhen cleaning the pot.
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camp orderliness. By preparingthe area, you will be able to cook safely ---------------
and efficiently. Preparing the cooking area THE BOLO/MACHETE
1. A suitable cooking area should facilitate convenience and ensure This is a long knife with a blade length of 12 inches or more. Used for
safety. Choose a level ground so yourstove will not topple even with a chopping, splitting wood, trail blazingand bush craft. It should have a sheath to
pot on. Clear the ground of flammable materials. protect both you and the blade and can be worn also on a belt.Proper care and
Handling of the bolo
2. Make sure that the kitchen is protected against strong winds. High
winds can snuff out the flame andwhisk away the heat. You can shelter 1. You should hone the bolo regularly with a sharpening stone to keep it sharp
on the downwind side of the tent. You can also use your earth pad to and safe. Hold it with theblade pointing up, then rub the stone over the blade,
stroking away from you. Remember to keep a 30-degree angle between the
block the wind off.
stone and the blade. Turn the blade over or shift the stone to your other hand
to sharpen to other side. Continue until the blade is sharp. You may also use
3. If a campfire is built, be certain that you can set it up downwind from sandpaper to sharpen thebolo.
your tent at least three metersaway. No want wants to sleep in a smoked
2. When travelling in public transportation, hide the bolo inside the pack.
sleeping bag inside a tent full of holes made by sparks.
3. When passing the bolo, offer the handle, not the blade.
4. Have everything you need within reach; utensils, food garbage bags,
etc…should be placed within the area. 4. Do not let your bolo strike the ground, so always use a chopping block.

5. It is imperative that your stove and pot are stable. Mountaineers 5. Remember that the bolo can chop not only wood but people too, so make sure
you provide a two-meterdistance from others when using it.
abounds with stories of rice, hotchocolate and soup spilled on the ground
or on somebody’s lap due to precarious stove balance.
 A.) Types of stoves
6. Chopping: Use the contact method for this. Hold the bolo edge against a
stick on a slant to the grain,not straight across. Raise the bolo and stick together 1. The Butane Cartridge Stove / Bluette: Butane cartridge stoves are
and bring them down hard on the chopping board.repeat until cut. If the stick is easy to light. Flame control is verygood and as simple as turning a knob.
too thick to cut with the chopping method, use the bucking method. Mechanical functions are almost non-existent. The cartridges arebulky,
but burn a longer time compared to most white gas stoves. The principal
7. Bucking: Place the stick on the chopping block and cut it into two with a V-
shaped notch. Make the topof the V as wide as the thickness of the stick. It is disadvantages of butane stoves are their poor performance in cold
better if you cut both sides partially with V-cuts, thenhurl the stick down onto a weather and the decreased heat output occurs as the amount of fuel in the
rock to snap it. cartridge decreases. The butane inside thecartridge is in liquid form,
burning into a gas when released. As fuel is consumed, the pressure
8. Splitting: Use the contact method again. Hold the middle of the stick with decreases and the gas is expelled at a slower rate. Do not shake the
one hand and rest one end ofit on the chopping block. Place the blade on top of cartridge before using as this maycause flare-ups.Butane cartridges - or
the stick, partially embedding it. lift both stick andbolo together then bring both any fuel for that matter should not subjected to heat above 120 degrees
down gingerly. As they are brought down, release your grip of the stick, Fahrenheit. Manuguit Outdoors Club 1995
just in case the bolo goes through the wood. Repeat this several times until the
bolo is more thanhalfway down the wood, then twist it slightly to split the 2. The White Gas Stove: White gas is a highly volatile fuel, an attribute
wood.
both good and bad. Spilledwhite gas evaporates readily with little odor,
9. Lopping or Limbing: This is the process of removing branches. Always but is dangerously flammable.White gas or naphtha is a very pure
strike upwards to the top of thetree to prevent the bolo from being wedge. petroleum product containing no additives and no tetra-ethyl lead.
Always swing away from the body. Lead is not highly poisonous, but it will clog stoves beyond repair.
Unleaded automotive fuels are notrecommended for use in white gas
10. Trailblazing or Hacking: When cutting branches off a tree, make sure that stoves as they contain many other additives that will clog burners and
you have a clear swing sinceanything on the way may obstruct you and deflect may cause safety releases and possible explosions.White gas stoves are
the bolo and damage it, or even injure you. Alwayscut diagonal to the grains generally termed “high output” as they tend to produce flame hotter than
and not straight across. butane.This is excellent for cooking quickly. The potential hazard is that
they consume oxygen at an extremelyrapid rate and the user must ensure
11. Rest when you are tired hacking because ones concentration is dimmed
there is adequate ventilation for both the stove and himself. The danger
when tired.
of suffocation is more real than many would expect. Additionally, all
12. When not in use, sheath your bolo. stove produce carbon monoxide - a deadly gas. Carbon monoxide is the
------------------------------------------------------------------- result ofincomplete combustion. Lack of oxygen in an enclosed shelter
--------------- (tent) or poor airflow to the burner couldcause serious problems.
STOVES
3. Multi-fuel Stoves: Multi-fuel stoves are similar in construction and
Stoves are now considered a necessity for mountaineers. Many of the appearance to white gas stoves. They have special gaskets that can be
mountains we climb no longer haveadequate supplies of firewood; manipulated to make the stove adaptable to different kinds offuel.
besides, building a fire is not environmentally sound. Stoves have a
minimalimpact on the wilderness. “Fires last a night, fire rings last a B.) How to operate the stove
decade”.
Operating a stove depends on the brand and type of stove one is going to
use. The first step is to read andfollow the operating instructions printed
on the stove or accompanying manual. Generally, the steps inoperating a 2. Make sure that the fuel is compatible with the stove type.
stove are as follows:
3. Always make sure that the pump is properly lubricated. This is to
1. Fuel: Put / attach the fuel inside / on the stove. Make sure it is tightly maintain pumping efficiency.
sealed before going to the nextstep. Do not change the fuel near open
flames, replace your fuel at least two(2) meters away from any 4. As much as possible, stoves must be kept in an upright position. Pack
source of flame. it in such a way that it will notfall on its side (especially for the Peak 1
stove). This is to prevent fuel spillage. Make sure that the stoveis no
2. Pump : Some stoves require pumping, like the Coleman Peak 1 , but longer pressurized before you pack it to prevent clogs.
bluette stoves do not requirepumping. The number of times you need to
pump the stove depends on which stove you are using;follow what is 5. Although a stove is made of metal, it may also be deformed if not
indicated on the instructions. Usually, stoves need to be pumped around stored in a proper container. Dents instoves may damage some of its
30 times. internal parts leading to malfunctions. There are available stove
containers in the market, but you can also put the stove inside a large
3. Light : Light the stove with a match or a lighter. REMEMBER cookset or caldero.
ALWAYS MAKE SURE THAT YOUHAVE YOUR FIRE READY
BEFORE TURNING THE STOVE ON. The reason for this is to prevent 6. Lastly, make sure that the stove is always clean. Just wipe off the dirt
burns or possible explosions. Remember that gas diffuses easily and is or mud found on its surface. Thishelps prevent the corrosion of the metal
highly flammable. parts of the stove.

4. Control : As you cook, you can manipulate the flame (higher or D.) Trouble Shooting
lower) by turning the right knobs.
Listed below is a list of common stove problems and their solutions.
5. Turn off: After using the stove, immediately turn it off to save on gas. Some problems can be remedied by thereasonably knowledgeable owner;
Just switch it off and wait for thefire to die by itself. NEVER BLOW others may necessitate bringing the stove to a repair shop.The vast
THE FIRE TO EXTINGUISH IT because unburned fuel will clog the majority of stove problems are caused by using improper fuel or by
burner. Remove the remaining pressure by loosening the fuel valve (not leaving fuel in the tank over along period of time. Fuel left in the tank
for bluettes). will form gums that impairs the stove’s performance. This does not
apply to butane cartridges.
C.) Care for the stove
1. Failure to operate or weak flame
Stoves go through a lot of conditions such as being exposed to dirt, stress a.) Clogged - stoves should be disassembled and cleaned. Some
in packing and deformities.However, through the proper care and use, a parts may require replacement.
stove could last for many years. b.) Leak in safety valve in tank cap - Replace cap
c.) Low vapor pressure - Pump up pressure; insulate from cold.
1. Never allow your stove to get wet. Put the stove inside the tent when d.) Improper fuel - Empty stove and fill it up using the correct
not in use and before going tosleep so that it will not be exposed to rain fuel type.
and dew.
2. Stove surges and has dirty, yellow flame A.) Make a safe fire site
a.) Clogged - Adjust flame control lever (high to low, then low to
high) repeatedly until the clog is cleared, When you build a fire, make sure that is safe. A fire must always beunder
or until blue flame appears. Refer to item 1.a. complete control. It must be builton a spot where it cannot spread. Pick
b.) Improper fuel type - Refer to item 1.d. an open space at least two (2) meters away from the nearest tree or bush.
c.) Improper priming - Allow stove to cool, then prime again and Be sure that it is located downwind from your tent.Note: If a campsite
light. has an established fire site, use it. There is no sense in making another
fire ring. Buildingfire on a big flat rock is a good idea. Turn it over first
3. Stove stays lit for a few second, then dies (use the underside) and turn it back to its originalpositionwhen finished.
a.) Slow pressure leak in tank cap - Replace tank cap gasket. This way you can hide the charred spot where you built the fireClear a
three-meter circle on the ground of flammable materials such as branches
4. Stove will not build up pressure when primed or dry grass and leaves.On grassy areas, place a layer of soil on top of the
a.) Blown safety valve - Replace tank cap. Once blown, a safety grass. On wet ground, build your fire on a floor of sticksor barks of dead
valve will not hold much pressure. trees.
b.) Pump up leather has dried out - apply oil to pump leather.
c.) Deformed tank lid gasket - Replace or reshape gasket. B.) Prepare your material

Note: Stove tanks should not be filled more than two-thirds full to allow Now you are ready to gather firewood. There are three types:
proper pressure to build up. Formore information on how to operate or
repair a stove, refer to the manufacturer’s instruction manualincluded 1. Tinder : any kind of material which would easily catch fire like dried
with the original purchase. grass or leaves, tree bark, deadtwigs no thicker than a match stick.
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2. Kindling :Thin branches of split wood about the size of a pencil that
will catch flame from the tinder.
FIRE BUILDING
3. Fuel : These are thumb-sized branches to thick logs that will sustain
You may be surprised that the modern mountaineer rarely builds a fire.
the fire.Tips for selecting and gathering firewood:
Instead of campfires, we usemodern, compact camping stoves for several
Only dead, dry wood should be used. Live branches will not burn. Take
reasons. First it is much more convenient to use a stove than tobuild a
wood that snaps easily. Whittle adead branch into shavings (for tinder).
fire, especially during a hard trek or during inclement weather. Gathering
In dry weather, gather wood that is strewn on the ground. During
firewood takes someeffort and time, and in some places there are no good
the rainy season, look for dead branches on trees. Split open the pieces of
firewood. Second, stoves produce less environmentalimpact. If all
wood, discard the wet outer layer and use the drier, inner portion. Cut or
climbers gather and cut wood for their use, most mountains would be
split wood into usable lengths, about a foot or so. Stack them neatlyin
denuded and becomeunsightly.Still, every mountaineer should know how
one place and cover it with a tarp or poncho if you intend to use them
to build and use a fire. There will come a time when you wouldhave to
later.
use this skill, say your stoves breaks down or if you have to make a
signal fire for rescue purposes.The process of building a fire is as
follows:
C.) Fire Starters B.) Care for Mountaineering Rope

These are lifesavers during rainy days when firewood is exceptionally 1. Coiling and Uncoiling: After coiling the rope neatly in a clockwise
had to burn. direction ( with a diameter of about2.5 ft to 3 ft), tie a simple whipping of
three to six turns to secure the ends. If the rope is longer than 150
1. Fuzz stick: Use dry sticks, thumb thick, and a handspan long. Hold ft, double the rope before coiling. When uncoiling a rope, untie it in the
one end and shave it all around butleave the shavings attached. Make the exact reverse method as it wascoiled. Starting at the rope end will result
shavings as thin and long as possible so it can easily catch fire. in a helpless tangle.

2. Candle wax / Fire bugs : Bring candle sticks or better yet, make “fire 2. Use: Be careful not to step on the rope when using it. Always carry the
bugs” by rolling newspaper into atight wad and tying it with two strings, rope coiled, slung around theshouldersor inside the pack. Never leave the
two inches apart. Cut in between and dip each “bug” in molten candle rope lying on the ground in the campsite.
wax. Cool and store.Waterproofed Matches: Waterproof your matches by
storing them in watertight containers such as film canister. Be sure not to 3. Storage: Dirt or grit should be wiped or washed off with a mild soap,
forget the friction pad. Some even go one step further by dipping the not with a detergent. When wet,let it dries in a shaded area, hung in a
heads in molten wax or nail polish. loose coil. Direct exposure to the heat of the sun will hasten its
--------------------------------------------------- deterioration. When dry, coil and then store in a cool, dry place.
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ROPEMANSHIP ---------------------------------------------------
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Ropes are essential in climbing. Small ones have a variety of uses: from KNOT TYING
securing a tent to making aclothesline. Larger ones can provide safety to
the climbers.Ropes can be STATIC or DYNAMIC. A static rope has low You probably use a couple of knots for everyday needs. In
stretchability, some don t even stretch at all. A Dynamic rope has the mountaineering, you need to know several more. The trick is to know
ability to stretch and is more elastic than a static rope. which knot to use and how to tie it right. Remember that every knot
A.) Types of rope. should pass the
knot test; it is easy to tie, it holds when tied correctly, and it s easy to
1. Laid Rope (static): Natural or synthetic fibers are twisted into yarns, untie.
the yarns are twisted into strands,and the strands are twisted into rope.
Laid or Hawser rope with a diameter of around 11 millimetersand made A.) Knots for Joining:
of strong nylon make an excellent general mountaineering rope. If is These are for tying two rope ends of the same rope or two different rope.
ideal for river crossingas a safety line because of its low stretchability.
2. Kernmantle Rope: A Large number of filaments (kem) running the 1. Square Knot : A binding knot, it is used for tying two ends of the
whole length of the rope arecontained in a braided sheath (mantle) This same rope. It is useful in tying bundles
construction (and the special materials) gives the rope ahigh tensile and packages and is indispensable in first aid.
strength, superior protection from abrasion, and comparative freedom
from twisting. The kernmantle rope is available in a number of diameters 2. Fisherman ‘s Knot : Used for tying ropes of equal size together. This
ranging from 5 mm (accessory cords) to 11 mm.Due to its ability to is the best knot for tying fine lines.
stretch, it is best for rockcraft.
3. Double Fisherman ‘s Knot : A variation of the fisherman s knot, this 2. Bowline: This knot will form a loop that will not close. As such, it is
is used to join two ropes intended an important rescue knot. A bowlinetied around ones waist should be
to support a person because it is less likely to unravel. tight enough to prevent the rope from slipping. It should be loose
enough at the same time for a person to be comfortable. This knot should
4. Sheet Bend : This is the best knot for tying two ropes of different be one fist away from yourbody.
thickness together, although it can
also be used for equal sized ropes. 3. Bowline, casting method: use the method of tying a bowline
illustrated here when you need to fasten aline around an object. When
B.) Hitches: synthetic rope is used to tie this knot, it might be less reliable. It is a
goodidea to secure the end with extra half-hitch, or tuck it and trap it
A knot is called a hitch when it is used to tie a rope to an object, such as a beneath one of the rope's strands.
pole, a post or a ring.
4. Figure-of-eight loop: also known as Figure-of-eight on the bight.
1. Clove Hitch : this knot is important in tent pitching, when a rope is Although this knot is difficult toadjust and cannot easily be untied after
attached to a peg. This also used in loading, its advantages outweigh these drawbacks.It is a comparatively
bushcraft. simple knot to tie, and it stays tied, even when stiff rope is used. In
2. Two Half Hitches : This knot is used to tie a rope such as a addition, because its appearance is unmistakable, it can be quickly
clothesline to a post or a ring. It forms a loop checked, which is important when it is used byclimbers. This general
that can be pulled tightly and yet loosened easily. purpose loop is also often used by climbers to attach a line to a
carabineer.
3. Taut Line Hitch : This knot is used for tying a tent guyline. One can
tighten or loosen the line by 5. Threaded figure-of-eight loop: this is a variation of the figure-of-
pushing the hitch downward or upward. eight loop. The most frequent uses ofthe threaded figure-of-eight are for
tying on to the rope and for anchoring non-climbing members of a
4. Timber Hitch : This is used for raising logs, dragging them over the team.This is probably the most common way of attaching a rope to the
ground or pulling them through harness.
water. This also used in bushcraft. ---------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------
5. Constrictory Knot: More secure version of clove hitch.
THROWING THE ROPE
C.) Knots for loops
1. Estimate the distance the rope has to reach, adding a few more feet for
These knots form permanent loops which have permanent sizes or good measure. Coil this length.Let the rest pile loosely (untangled) on the
“running” loops which vary in size. ground.

1. Slip Knot: This knot is used for tying a string around a package or for 2. The throwing of the rope must always point to the desired direction.
bundling up a rolled sleeping bag This is to ensure proper uncoilingas the rope is thrown. Make sure that
or tent. The formed loop can be slipped into a larger or smaller size. the free end of the rope does not snag on any object.
3. Throwing Upward : Stand with your feet apart , with your back to the
target point ( ex: top of cliff ).Swing the rope from between the legs and 3. Applying Friction: In any belay method, the rope from the climber
release directly above the length. This will help the ropereach its full goes to a belay device or around the belayer`s hips and then to the
length vertically. belayer’s braking hand. This braking hand produces the belay. The
controllable friction by the belay method stops a falling climber. The hip
4. Throwing Forward : Stand with feet apart , facing the target with wrap amplifies friction bypassing the rope around your back and around
your left foot forward (for right handers, right foot forward if otherwise) your sides.Paying Attention: Presence of mind is of the essence. This
.Throw the rope by swinging the arm from the back and releasing the system will fail without proper attention by thebelayer of the climber’s
rope directly in front of you . Use the force to propel the rope as you progress. Remember, you are responsible for the other person `s safety so
twist your body to the waist . When throwing to a person on a river, concentrate on what you are doing.
consider the current. Throw the rope a upstream such that it drifts to the ---------------------------------------------------
person upon landing. -------------------------------

BELAYING RIVER CROSSING

Belaying is the fundamental technique of climbing safety. It is a system
of setting up a rope to hold a climber When crossing rivers the following rules should be strictly followed:
in the event of a fall. A belay consists of nothing more than a rope from a
climber to another person, the 1. Unfasten your hipbelt and sternum strap. This will allow you to
belayer, who is ready to put immediate friction on the rope to stop a fall. easily remove your pack in the eventthat you fall into the water.
Remember, packs have a tendency to float which will affect your balance
Four things make belaying work --- 1) a skilled belayer to apply in the water.
friction to the rope, 2) a proper stance and anchor to take the forward pull
of the fall, 3) a method of amplifying the friction of the belayer`shand , 2. Face the current. Water carries floating debris downstream which
and may hit you if you are unaware ornot paying attention.
4 ) the belayer`s undivided attention. The essentials of a belay are two a.)When crossing alone in knee-deep water, it is advisable to
climbers, each tied to a rope. As one climbs, the other belays. The belay make use of a stick .this will help youmaintain your balance by
is connected to an anchor, a point of secure attachment to the rock. The acting as your third leg and will also function as a prod to check
belayer “pays out” or takes in rope asthe climber ascends, ready to use what isunder the water.
one of the methods of applying friction in case the climber fall. b.) When crossing in groups, hold hands and cross in a triangular
formation in threes. This will help youmaintain balance and
1. Belay Anchor: As the ultimate security for any belay, the anchor deflect the current. Hipbelts and sternum straps again be loosened
should be able to hold the fall and thefull weight of both climbers. A as the group
large natural feature, such as rock or a tree is an ideal anchor. crosses.
3. In the event of a flash flood, seek higher ground and stay put. Water
2. Belay Stance: If you belay from the body rather than directly from the subsides as fast as it rises.
anchor, you should brace againstthe forward pull of a fall with a solid 4. When the water exceeds waist level, the use of a rope is
stance. recommended. A rope is strung across the body of the water diagonally
a) located behind a solid object downstream and used as a guide for the members crossing. Climbers
b) sitting stance shouldstay on the downstream side.
c) standing stance
5. When strung perpendicularly to the current, ropes tend to sag in the
middle when loaded – which willhinder movement . It is also advisable
to remove your backpack before crossing, to lessen the drag. Itwill be
easier and safer to pull it across later, after crossing.
References: c/o the UP Mountaineers

Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills. Edited by Don Graydon.Fifth

Edition. The Mountaineers,
Seattle. Pp. 108-135
REI Fact Sheet “For Your Information – Stoves”
Knots: by Peter Owen