c

c 
 

c 
c

The 1990s have borne witness to dramatic shifts in the marketplace triggered by sharp changes in
the lifestyle patterns of the past and present and the radical revolution in the telecommunication
technology. Time tested concepts on Brand loyalty and Mass Marketing, are being turned on
their heads as they fail to gauge the Behaviour of new generation customers. The behaviour is
characterized by the uniqueness of individual expectations, the preference for multiple options,
propensity to abandon Brand loyalty and switch to competition Brands that give higher
(perceived) value. The new breed is even willing to import to satisfy specific requirement. It is
difficult to classify this generation by conventional Demographic factors and unless their thought
process and buying behaviour are fully understood, decisions on product designs and packaging,
Branding and Distribution channels are likely to be misplaced. With the inevitability of change
looming large over the horizon, Indian companies must learn from their western counterparts;
not only to identify the sources, timing and direction of the changes likely to affect India, but
also the new competencies and perspective that will enable them to respond to these changes,
comprehensively and effectively. Companies offering Product or Services will need to
understand this new face of the customers. The changing Demographic profile of the population
in terms of education, income, size of family and so on, are important by what will be more
substantive in days to come will be the Psychographics of customers that is how they feel, think
or behave. Markers will have to constantly monitor and understand the underlying
Psychographics to map their respective industries are moving and decide what needs to be done,
by way of adding value that motivates customers to buy the company¶s products and influence
the future industry structure.

c




c




This means to know about the existence of the product in the market. It is the
first stage of the adoption process. The consumers are exposed to the product innovation. The
consumers at this stage are not interested in more information about the product.




c   It is defined as the process by which an individual selects, organizes and
interprets stimuli into a meaningful and coherent of the world. It is how we see the world around
us¶. Two persons subject to the same stimulus under the same conditions will react differently. A
stimulus is any unit of input to any of the senses. The study of perception is largely the study of
what we subconsciously add to or subtract from raw sensory to produce our own private picture
of the world.



c

  In simple dictionary meaning µattitude; means a way of thinking is a learned
predisposition to behave in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way with respect to a given
object. Attitudes are learned may be because of a previous experience with the product,
information acquired from others, and exposure to mass media. Attitudes are not permanent, they
do change over a period of time.



The study of consumers helps firms and organizations improve their marketing strategies by
understanding issues such as how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between different
alternatives (e.g., brands, products);

The psychology of how the consumer is influenced by his or her environment (e.g., culture,
family, signs, media);

The behavior of consumers while shopping or making other marketing decisions;

Limitations in consumer knowledge or information processing abilities influence decisions and

marketing outcome;

How consumer motivation and decision strategies differ between products that differ in their
level of importance or interest that they entail for the consumer; and how marketers can adapt
and improve their marketing campaigns and marketing strategies to more effectively reach the
consumer.

Understanding these issues helps in adapting strategies by taking the consumer into
consideration. For example, by understanding that a number of different messages compete for
our potential customers¶ attention, one learns that to be effective, advertisements must usually be
repeated extensively. It is also learnt that consumers will sometimes be persuaded more by
logical arguments, but at other times will be persuaded more by emotional or symbolic appeals.
By understanding the consumer, the company will be able to make a more informed decision as
to which strategy to employ.

The "official" definition of consumer behavior given in the text is "The study of individuals,
groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of
products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes
have on the consumer and society.

Behavior occurs either for the individual, or in the context of a group (e.g., friends influence
what kinds of clothes a person wears) or an organization (people on the job make decisions as to
which products the firm should use).

Consumer behavior involves the use and disposal of products as well as the study of how they
are purchased. Product use is often of great interest to the marketer, because this may influence
how a product is best positioned or how we can encourage increased consumption. Since many
environmental problems result from product disposal (e.g., motor oil being sent into sewage
systems to save the recycling fee, or garbage piling up at landfills) this is also an area of interest.

Consumer behavior involves services and ideas as well as tangible products.

The impact of consumer behavior on society is also of relevance. For example, aggressive
marketing of high fat foods, or aggressive marketing of easy credit, may have serious
repercussions for the national health and economy.

There are four main applications of consumer behavior:

The most obvious is for r
 


²i.e., for making better marketing campaigns. For
example, by understanding that consumers are more receptive to food advertising when they are
hungry, we learn to schedule snack advertisements late in the afternoon. By understanding that
new products are usually initially adopted by a few consumers and only spread later, and then
only gradually, to the rest of the population, we learn that (1) companies that introduce new
products must be well financed so that they can stay afloat until their products become a
commercial success and (2) it is important to please initial customers, since they will in turn
influence many subsequent customers¶ brand choices.

As a final benefit, studying consumer behavior should make us better consumers. Common sense
suggests, for example, that if you buy a 64 liquid ounce bottle of laundry detergent, you should
pay less per ounce than if you bought two 32 ounce bottles. In practice, however, you often pay a
size ï
rr by buying the larger quantity. In other words, in this case, knowing this fact will
sensitize you to the need to check the unit cost labels to determine if you are
 
getting a
bargain. There are several units in the market that can be analyzed.

  !"

There are two main categories of research methods. V 

 research uses research that has
already been done by someone else. For example, marketers often find information compiled by
the U.S. Census very useful. However, in some cases, information specific enough to satisfy a
firm¶s needs is not publicly available. Original research that a firm does for itself is known as
ï
r


 
.

There is no one perfect primary research method. Each has strengths and weaknesses, and thus
the appropriate method must be selected based on research needs.

V

are useful for getting a great deal of specific information. Surveys can contain open-
ended questions or closed-ended, where the respondent is asked to select answers from a brief
list. Open ended questions have the advantage that the respondent is not limited to the options
listed, and that the respondent is not being influenced by seeing a list of responses. However,
open-ended questions are often skipped by respondents, and coding them can be quite a
challenge. In general, for surveys to yield meaningful responses, sample sizes of over 100 are
usually required because precision is essential.

Surveys come in several different forms. Mail surveys are relatively inexpensive, but response
rates are typically quite low²typically from 5-20%. Phone-surveys get somewhat higher
response rates, but not many questions can be asked because many answer options have to be
repeated and few people are willing to stay on the phone for more than five minutes. Mall
intercepts are a convenient way to reach consumers, but respondents may be reluctant to discuss
anything sensitive face-to-face with an interviewer.

]   
ï involve getting a group of 6-12 consumers together to discuss product usage.
Focus groups are especially useful if we do not have specific questions to ask yet, since we don¶t
know what consumers¶ concerns might be. Drawbacks of focus groups include high costs and the
fact that generalization toward the entire population is difficult for such small sample sizes. The
fact that focus groups involve social interaction also means that participants may say what they
think will make themselves look good rather than what they really believe (the social desirability
bias).


 
 involve in-depth questioning of an individual about his or her interest in or
experiences with a product. The benefit here is that one can get really into depth . but this
method of research is costly and can be extremely vulnerable to interviewer bias.

Projective techniques are used when a consumer may feel embarrassed to admit to certain
opinions, feelings, or preferences. The main problem with this method is that it is difficult to
analyze responses.

Observation of consumers is often a powerful tool. Looking at how consumers select products
may yield insights into how they make decisions and what they look for. Observation may help
in determining how much time consumers spend comparing prices, or whether nutritional labels
are being consulted.

Physiological measures are occasionally used to examine consumer response. For example,
advertisers may want to measure a consumer¶s level of arousal during various parts of an
advertisement.

#!!

Segmentation basically involves dividing consumers into groups such that members of a group
(1) are as similar as possible to members of that same group but (2) differ as much as possible
from members other segments. This enables us then to "treat" each segment differently²e.g., by:
Providing different products (e.g., some consumers like cola taste, while others prefer lime) .
Offering different prices (some consumers will take the cheapest product available, while others
will pay for desired features). Distributing the products where they are likely to be bought by the
targeted segment.

In order for a segment structure to be useful:

X Each segment must have an identity²i.e., it must contain members that can be
described in some way (e.g., price sensitive) that behave differently from another
segment.

X Each segment must engage in systematic behaviors (e.g., a price sensitive

segment should consistently prefer the low price item rather than randomly
switching between high and low priced brands).

X Each segment must offer marketing mix efficiency potential²i.e., it must be

profitable to serve. For example, A smaller segment may be profitable if, for
example, it is price insensitive or can be targeted efficiently . Some segments are
not cost effective.

There are three "levels" of segmentation. Levels here refer to the tradeoff between the difficulty
of implementing a segmentation scheme and the benefits that result.

X The first level of segmentation involves ï
  

  ²e.g.,

demographics. The trouble with this method of segmentation, however, is that
there is often not a good correlation between personal characteristics of
consumers and what they want to buy. Psychographics includes a bit more
information about the consumer than his or her mere descriptive characteristics.

X The second level is — 
²that is, segmenting on what someone wants
rather than who he or she is. Implementing segmentation on benefit desired is
more difficult. The benefit, however, is that one can now make product that
matches more closely a particular segment¶s specific desires, and one can
 promote, price, and distribute it according to the desires of the segment. This
method, then, lends itself extremely well to strong product positioning²one make
a product that offers specific benefits, and we aggressively promote this fact to
interested consumers. A drawback, however, is some efficiency is lost in
marketing communication.

X The third level is segmentation based on — 
. Behavior here refers to a
person¶s response (or lack of response) to a given treatment. The rewards are
often great, because one can tailor the kind of deal we give a consumer to the
minimum concession needed to get that consumer to buy our (as opposed to a
competing) product.

Direct marketing offers exceptional opportunities for segmentation because marketers can buy
lists of consumer names, addresses, and phone-numbers that indicate their specific interests.

p
 

Culture is part of the 
  influences that impact the consumer. That is, culture represents
influences that are imposed on the consumer by other individuals.

The definition of culture offered in the text is "That complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, art, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man person as a
member of society." From this definition, one can make the following observations:

Culture, as a "complex whole," is a system of interdependent components.

Knowledge and beliefs are important parts. Other issues are relevant. Art, for example, may be
reflected in the rather arbitrary practice of wearing ties in some countries and wearing turbans in
others.

Culture has several important characteristics: (1) Culture is rï
 . This means that all
parts must fit together in some logical fashion. (2) Culture is 
 rather than being
something we are born with. (3) Culture is manifested within —
 of acceptable behavior..
(4) Conscious awareness of cultural standards is limited. (5) Cultures fall somewhere on a
continuum between static and dynamic depending on how quickly they accept change.

Cultural rules can be categorized into three types. ]
r 
 carry relatively explicit standards
as to how one should behave, and violations often carry severe sanctions. 
r 
 , on the
other hand, are less explicit and may not carry sanctions for violation. Finally,    


 involve implicit standards as to what constitutes a good product.

Language is an important element of culture. It should be realized that regional differences may
be subtle.

Subculture is often categorized on the basis of demographics. While part of the overall culture,
these groups often have distinguishing characteristics. An important consequence is that a person
who is part of two subcultures may experience some conflict.

Values are often greatly associated with age groups because people within an age-group have
shared experiences. Regional influence, both in the United States and other areas, is significant.

]

 

The Family Life Cycle. Individuals and families tend to go through a "life cycle." The simple life
cycle goes from

child/teenager ---> young single ---> young couple* ---> full nest

---> empty nest ---> widow(er).

A "couple" may either be married or merely involve living together. The breakup of a non-
marital relationship involving cohabitation is similarly considered equivalent to a divorce.

full nest ---> single parent

This situation can result either from divorce or from the death of one parent. Divorce usually
entails a significant change in the relative wealth of spouses. In some cases, the non-custodial
parent (usually the father) will not pay the required child support, and even if he or she does, that
still may not leave the custodial parent and children as well off as they were during the marriage.
On the other hand, in some cases, some non-custodial parents will be called on to pay a large part
of their income in child support. This is particularly a problem when the non-custodial parent
remarries and has additional children in the second (or subsequent marriages).

Divorced parents frequently remarry, or become involved in other non-marital relationships;

thus, we may see

full nest ---> single parent ---> blended family

Another variation involves

young single ---> single parent

Generally, there are two main themes in the Family Life Cycle, subject to significant exceptions:

As a person gets older, he or she tends to advance in his or her career and tends to get greater
income (exceptions: maternity leave, divorce, retirement).

Unfortunately, obligations also tend to increase with time (at least until one¶s mortgage has been
paid off). Children and paying for one¶s house are two of the greatest expenses.

Note that although a single person may have a lower income than a married couple, the single
may be able to buy more discretionary items.

Family Decision Making: Individual members of families often serve different roles in decisions
that ultimately draw on shared family resources. Some individuals are 
r 
 


, who seek out information about products of relevance. These individuals
often have a great deal of power because they may selectively pass on information that favors
their chosen alternatives.  
do not ultimately have the power decide between
alternatives, but they may make their wishes known by asking for specific products or causing
embarrassing situations if their demands are not met. The   r 
 have the power to
determine issues such as:
 ¢? whether to buy;
¢? which product to buy (pick-up or passenger car?);
¢? which brand to buy;
¢? where to buy it; and
¢? when to buy.

One is —
 ²one member will give up something in return for someone else. strategy is

 ²trying to get the other person(s) to accept one¶s view through logical argumentation.

÷



Humans are inherently social animals, and individuals greatly influence each other. A useful
framework of analysis of group influence on the individual is the so called

 
ï²the
term comes about because an individual uses a relevant group as a standard of reference against
which oneself is compared. Reference groups come in several different forms. The ï
 


  
ï refers to those others against whom one would like to compare oneself.
    reference groups include people who more realistically represent the individuals¶
current equals or near-equals²e.g., coworkers, neighbors, or members of churches, clubs, and
organizations. Finally, the     reference group includes people that the individual would
 like to be like.

Reference groups come with various degrees of influence. 
r

reference groups come with a
great deal of influence²e.g., members of a fraternity/sorority. V 

reference groups tend
to have somewhat less influence²e.g., members of a boating club that one encounters only
during week-ends are likely to have their influence limited to consumption during that time
period.

Another typology divides reference groups into the 
r   kind (influence is based almost
entirely on members¶ knowledge), 
r  (members influence what is perceived to be "right,"
"proper," "responsible," or "cool"), or  . The difference between the latter two
categories involves the individual¶s motivation for compliance. In case of the normative
reference group, the individual tends to comply largely for utilitarian reasons²dressing
according to company standards is likely to help your career, but there is no real motivation to
dress that way outside the job. In contrast, people comply with identification groups¶ standards
for the sake of belonging²for example, a member of a religious group may wear a symbol even
outside the house of worship because the religion is a part of the person¶s identity.

  

The diffusion of innovation refers to the tendency of new products, practices, or ideas to spread
among people. Usually, when new products or ideas come about, they are only adopted by a
small group of people initially; later, many innovations spread to other people. The 

ï is the maximum proportion of consumers likely to adopt .

Several forces often work against innovation. One is risk, which can be either social or financial.
Another risk is being perceived by others as being weird for trying a "fringe" product or idea.
Other sources of resistance include the initial effort needed to learn to use new products (e.g., it
takes time to learn to meditate or to learn how to use a computer) and concerns about
compatibility with the existing culture or technology. Innovations come in different degrees. A
 innovation includes slight improvements over time. A 
 r 
 
innovation involves some change in technology, although the product is used much the same
way that its predecessors were used²e.g., jet vs. propeller aircraft. A   innovation
involves a product that fundamentally changes the way that things are done²e.g., the fax and
photocopiers.

Some cultures tend to adopt new products more quickly than others, based on several factors:

X m

: The extent to which the culture is receptive to new things. In some
countries, such as Britain and Saudi Arabia, tradition is greatly valued²thus, new
products often don¶t fare too well. The United States, in contrast, tends to value
progress.

X arï
 The more similar to each other that members of a culture are, the
more likely an innovation is to spread²people are more likely to imitate similar
than different models. The two most rapidly adopting countries in the World are
 the U.S. and Japan. While the U.S. interestingly scores very low, Japan scores
high.

X 
      The greater the distance between people, the less likely
innovation is to spread.

X ï 
ï The more opinion leaders are valued and respected, the more
likely an innovation is to spread. The style of opinion leaders moderates this
influence, however. In less innovative countries, opinion leaders tend to be more
conservative, i.e., to reflect the local norms of resistance.




Background. Our perception is an approximation of reality. Our brain attempts to make sense out
of the stimuli to which we are exposed.

Factors in percpetion. Several sequential factors influence our perception. „ï 
 involves the
extent to which we encounter a stimulus. Most of this exposure is random²we don¶t plan to
seek it out. Exposure is not enough to significantly impact the individual²at least not based on a
single trial In order for stimuli to be consciously processed,  is needed. 
ï
 
involves making sense out of the stimulus. —
    suggests that consumers¶ ability to
detect changes in stimulus intensity appear to be strongly related to the intensity of that stimulus
to begin with.

Several factors influence the extent to which stimuli will be noticed. One obvious issue is

  . Consumers, when they have a choice, are also more likely to attend to ï 
stimuli (but when the consumer can¶t escape, very unpleasant stimuli are also likely to get
attention²thus, many very irritating advertisements are remarkably effective). V
ï
 
stimuli are likely to get more attention²survival instinct requires us to give more attention to
something unknown that may require action. A greater 
(difference between the stimulus
and its surroundings) as well as greater ï
r  (e.g., greater size, center placement) also
tend to increase likelihood of processing.
±  
 


Background. Learning involves "a change in the content or organization of long term memory
and/or behavior." The first part of the definition focuses on what we know (and can thus put to
use) while the second focuses on concrete behavior.

Classical conditioning. Pavlov¶s early work on dogs was known as    .

Pavlov discovered that when dogs were fed meat powder they salivated. Pavlov then discovered
that if a bell were rung before the dogs were fed, the dogs would begin salivating in anticipation
of being fed (this was efficient, since they could then begin digesting the meat powder
immediately). Pavlov then found that after the meat had been "paired" with the meat powder
enough times, Pavlov could ring the bell without feeding the dogs and they would  salivate.

In the jargon of classical conditioning, the meat powder was   r (US) and
the By ï 
 the bell with the unconditioned stimulus, the bell became a  stimulus
(CS) and salivation in response to the bell (with no meat powder) became a 
 ï 
(CR).

Operant conditioning. Instrumental, or operant, conditioning, involves a different series of

events, and this what we usually think of as learning. The general pattern is:

Behavior ---> consequences ---> behavior is more or less likely to be repeated

There are three major forms of operant learning. In ï 

r, an individual does
something and is rewarded. He or she is then more likely to repeat the behavior.

 r is the opposite. It should be noted that  

r is very different from
punishment.

In general, marketers usually have relatively little power to use punishment or negative
reinforcement.

Several factors influence the effectiveness of operant learning. In general, the  
r the
consequences are to the behavior, the more effective the learning. However, it is not necessary to
reward a behavior every time for learning to occur. Even if a behavior is only rewarded some of
the time, the behavior may be learned.

Memory. There are two kinds of memory. When you see an ad on TV for a mail order product
you might like to buy, you only keep the phone number in memory until you have dialed it. This
is known as 

rmemory. In order for something to enter into 
r memory, which is
more permanent, you must usually "rehearse" it several times. A special issue in memory are so
called "scripts," or procedures we remember for doing things. Scripts involve a series of steps for
doing various things (e.g., how to send a package).

 
 




Perspectives on Consumer Behavior and Motivation: People considered several perspectives on

behavior as a way to understand what motivates the consumer. Each of these perspectives
suggests different things as to what the marketer should do and what can (and cannot) be
controlled.

The a
 
  
 perspective is based on learning theories such as operant and
classical conditioning. These theories suggest that consumers must learn from their own
experiences rather than merely observing 
ïï who overeat and get sick.

The V   
 
ï , in contrast, allows for 
 learning--i.e., learning
obtained by watching others getting good or bad consequences for behavior. The r that
may be observed and imitated include peers and family members as well as relevant others that
may be observed in advertising. Certain people are more likely to be imitated than
othersGenerally, observations are made of overt behavior, but some room is made for individual
reasoning in learning from others. This perspective is clearly more realistic than that of the "Hard
Core" view.

The  approach emphasizes consumer  rather than mere behavior.Here, the
emphasis is on how people reason themselves to the consequences of their behavior. It is often
somewhat more difficult to attempt to "get into" a consumer¶s head than it is to merely observe
his or her behavior, and what we "observe" is somewhat more subjective.
The   approach suggests that most behavior is determined by genetics or other
biological bases. By this perspective, it is suggested that consumers eat the foods they eat in
large part because the body craves these foods. The main implication of — 
r r
is that the marketer must  ï--for example, food advertisements are more likely to be effective
when people are hungry, and thus they might better be run in the late afternoon rather than in the
late morning.

The !   „ï   perspective is based on an economic way of looking at the World.
The 
  
 perspective is based on the work of historical psychologists such as Sigmund
Freud who suggest that (1) much behavior has a biological basis which is (2) often sexual in
nature, and (3) that early experiences in childhood will have a profound, but    effect
on later life. Although modern psychologists certainly recognize that early experiences may
influence later psychological well being, the psychoanalytic view has largely been discredited
today as being much too centered on the issue of sex.


ï
 r : Motivation is described through several properties:

X m   rï 


 
 " A person may or may not have
enough motivation to engage in a given activity.

X m  r
 — 
# #  rï. Some motivations are publicly
expressed (e.g., the desire to buy an energy efficient house), while others (e.g., the
desire to look wealthy by buying a fancy car) are not.

X m 
r  

—
 

 
  (e.g., eliminate
thirst or hunger).

X m   —
—

—
  
  
.

X m  r
 
 ï 
   --people may either be
motivated to achieve something (e.g., get a promotion at work) or avoid
something (e.g., being hospitalized without having adequate insurance).
 X  r

 r      . Achieving these goals may require
sustained activity over time (e.g., exercising every day for months or years) as
opposed to just taking some action once.

X  r
r   —   — 
 
  —

 

. M

X m 
     
  . Different consumers are motivated to

achieve different things, and it may be difficult to infer motivations from looking
at actual behavior without understanding these differences in desired outcomes.


 

   Traditional research in marketing has not been particularly
successful in finding a link between personality and consumer behavior. „r. Emotion
impacts marketing efforts in several ways. One purpose is to get  to a stimulus (since
emotionally charged individuals tend to be less predictable than calmer ones, there has been an
evolutionary advantage in paying attention to emotion). Secondly, emotion influences

r ï
  "




Definition. Consumer attitudes are a composite of a consumer¶s (1) beliefs about, (2) feelings
about, (3) and behavioral intentions toward some object within the context of marketing, usually
a brand or retail store. These components are viewed together since they are highly
interdependent and together represent forces that influence how the consumer will react to the
object.

Beliefs. The first component is — . A consumer may hold both positive beliefs toward an
object (e.g., coffee tastes good) as well as negative beliefs (e.g., coffee is easily spilled and stains
papers). In addition, some beliefs may be neutral.

Affec. Consumers also hold certain feelings toward brands or other objects. Sometimes these
feelings are based on the beliefs (e.g., a person feels nauseated when thinking about a hamburger
because of the tremendous amount of fat it contains), but there may also be feelings which are
relatively independent of beliefs.
Behavioral intention. The behavioral intention is what the consumer plans to do with respect to
the object (e.g., buy or not buy the brand). As with affect, this is sometimes a logical
consequence of beliefs (or affect), but may sometimes reflect other circumstances.

Attitude-Behavior Consistency. Consumers often do not behave consistently with their attitudes
for several reasons:

X —
"He or she may be unable to do so.

X rïr  

 
 .

X V   .

X m 
r ï
—r . Measuring attitudes is difficult. In many situations,

consumers do not consciously set out to enumerate how positively or negatively
they feel about mopeds.

Attitude Change Strategies. Changing attitudes is generally 

  , particularly when
consumers suspect that the marketer has a self-serving agenda in bringing about this change
(e.g., to get the consumer to buy more or to switch brands).

   . One approach is to try to change affect, which may or may not involve getting
consumers to change their beliefs. One strategy uses the approach of     try to
"pair" the product with a liked stimulus. Finally, products which are better known, through the
r
ï 
 effect, tend to be better liked--that is, the more a product is advertised and seen in
stores, the more it will generally be liked,    r
    ï 
 ï  
—  —ï
 t.

 — 
. People like to believe that their behavior is rational; thus, once they use our
products, chances are that they will continue unless someone is able to get them to switch. ----
One way to get people to switch to one brand is to use temporary price discounts and coupons;
however, when consumers buy a product on deal, they may justify the purchase based on that
deal (i.e., the low price) and may then switch to other brands on deal later. A better way to get
people to switch to our brand is to at least temporarily obtain better shelf space so that the
product is more convenient. Consumers are less likely to use this availability as a rationale for
their purchase and may continue to buy the product even when the product is less conveniently
located. (Notice, by the way, that this represents a case of shaping).

 — . Although attempting to change beliefs is the obvious way to attempt attitude
change, particularly when consumers hold unfavorable or inaccurate ones, this is often difficult
to achieve because consumers tend to resist. Several approaches to belief change exist:

X   


— . It is generally very difficult to attempt to change
beliefs that people hold, particularly those that are strongly held, 


 
.

X  rï
  — .

X — . Consumers are less likely to resist the addition of beliefs  

   — .

X   . It usually difficult, and very risky, to attempt to change ideals, and
only few firms succeed.

One-sided vs. two-sided appeals. Attitude research has shown that consumers often tend to react
more favorably to advertisements which either (1) admit something negative about the
sponsoring brand or (2) admits something positive about a competing brand Two-sided appeals
must, contain overriding arguments why the sponsoring brand is ultimately superior.

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and Celebrity Endorsements. The ELM suggests that
consumers will scrutinize claims more in important situations than in unimportant ones.

The ELM suggests that for "unimportant" products, elaboration will be low. However, for
products which are either expensive or important for some other reason elaboration is likely to be
more extensive, and the endorser is expected to be "congruent," or compatible, with the product.

Appeal approaches. Several approaches to appeal may be used. The use of   to induce
rï 
with advertising characters may increase attraction to a product, but may backfire if
consumers believe that people¶s feelings are being exploited. ]
 ïï  appear to work only
if (1) an optimal level of fear is evoked--not so much that people tune it out, but enough to scare
people into action  (2) a way to avoid the feared stimulus is explicitly indicated. ar

appears to be effective in gaining attention, but does not appear to increase persuasion in
practice. In addition, a more favorable attitude toward the advertisement may be created by
humorous advertising, which may in turn result in increased sales. rï
 
 ,
which is illegal in many countries, often increases sales for the sponsoring brand, but may
backfire in certain cultures.

V$ ï#V    #  



The self-concept. The consumer faces several possible selves. The   self reflects how the
individual actually is, although the consumer may not be aware of that reality In contrast, the
  self reflects a self that a person would like to have, but does not in fact have. The ï
 
self is one that is not intentionally exposed to others. The key here is to keep in mind which kind
of self one is trying to reach in promotional messages.

Individuals will often seek to augment and enhance their self concepts, and it may be possible to
market products that help achieve this goal.

Lifestyles. Self-concept often translates into a person¶s lifestyle, or the way that he or she lives
his or her life. Attempts have been made to classify consumers into various segments based on
their lifestyles. For example, both "Achievers" and "Strivers" want public recognition, but only
the Achievers have the resources to bring this about. A global analogue is the Global Scan.

Situational influences. Specific circumstances often influence consumer behavior. Consumers

whose attention is demanded elsewhere are likely to disregard commercial messages.

 r
%  m 

Definitions. Consumer decision making comes about as an attempt to solve consumer problems.
A ï
—rrefers to "a discrepancy between a desired state and an ideal state which is sufficient
to arouse and activate a decision process."
Consumer Problem Recognition. Consumers often note problems by comparing their current, or
actual, situation, explicitly or implicitly, to some desired situation. In terms of the "big picture,"
what is compared may be the totality of one¶s lifestyle.

Problems come in several different types. A problem may be an  one (e.g., you have a
headache and would like as quick a solution as possible) or  -- you are not aware that your
situation is a problem (e.g., a consumer is not aware that he or she could have more energy with
a new vitamin). Problems may be  (e.g., a consumer is aware that his or her car
does not accelerate well enough or  (e.g., a consumer will not acknowledge that
he or she consumes too much alcohol). Finally, needs can be relatively specific (generic), as in
the need for enjoyment (which can be satisfied many different ways), or specific, as in the need
for professional attire to wear at a new job.

Creating problems for consumers is a way to increase sales, albeit a questionably ethical one.
One way to create new problems, and resultant needs, is to create a new ideal state.

There are two main approaches to search. 
 searches are based on what consumers already
know. Thus, it may be important for certain firms to advertise to consumers before they actually
need the product. A problem is that some excellent ones which are not remembered, or have
never been heard of, are not considered. „
 searches get people to either speak to others
(getting information by word of mouth) or use other sources (such as advertisements now sought
out or yellow page listings). Consumers often do not consider all alternatives. Some are not
known (the "unawareness" set), some were once known but are not readily accessible in memory
(the "inert" set), others are ruled out as unsatisfactory (the "inept" set--e.g., Glad bags attempts to
get "bargain bags" into that set), and those that are considered represent the "evoked" set, from
which one alternative is likely to be purchased.

The amount of effort a consumer puts into searching depends on a number of factors such as the
market (how many competitors are there, and how great are differences between brands expected
to be?), product characteristics (how important is this product? How complex is the product?
How obvious are indications of quality?), consumer characteristics (how interested is a
consumer, generally, in analyzing product characteristics and making the best possible deal?),
and situational characteristics (as previously discussed).

Two interesting issues in decisions are 


  (where consumers seek to try new brands
not because these brands are expected to be "better" in any way, but rather because the consumer
wants a "change of pace," and &rï &ï
  . Impulse purchases are, generally speaking,
unplanned, but represent a somewhat fuzzy group.

— 
 

There are certain marketing practices which may harm consumers. Two main issues are (1)
deceptive marketing practices (such as misleading advertising) and (2) the marketing of
dangerous or otherwise harmful products (e.g., tobacco). The following are some ethical
problems that occur in marketing, and the question arises as to which, if any, kind of government
intervention is appropriate.

X m
 
  r
  
     rï (e.g., products that
consumers cannot afford and do not really need). However there are many gray
areas--e.g., cosmetics, video games, and even something as politically correct as a
gourmet coffee houses. A special case involves marketing to children, whose
parents may be coerced, often out of guilt, to buy questionable items aimed at
children.

X ! 
 ï     ï          —

 rï. Some European countries have mandated that manufacturers be
required to take back packaging materials for their products.

X % ïr
ï
  : Products claim benefits which really do not result

from use of the product (as is done by numerous manufacturers of nutritional
supplements); advertising may be misleading (may not indicate the true cost of a
product up front or may contain "fine print" that the consumer is unlikely to see or
understand)
 X 
  
 
(e.g., many children¶s foods contain excessive fat).

Government action is often considered, although it may not always be effective. For example,
although the government requires the use of warning labels on some products, manufacturers
will often try to "water down" the warnings as much as possible. Further, the prevalence of
warning labels today may desensitize consumers since reading all of them carefully would
provide the consumer with information overload.

Another issue is anti-competitive behavior. Antitrust laws are generally aimed at prohibiting
firms from conspiring to "fix" prices or collectively drop service levels. Antitrust law is,
however, a "thorny" area. Consumers may benefit, for example, as some less efficient firms are
driven out of business, and may benefit from the efficiencies which may or may not materialize
when large firms "gobble up" smaller ones--a defense used in the Microsoft trial.

 

  

The toothpaste history in India can be tracked back from 1975 with 1200 tonnes of
toothpaste produced by the toothpaste industry. Prior to the toothpastes Oral Hygiene
was the domain of local home made powders and ayurvedh practitioners. With the
entry of Colgate in Indian marketplace the awareness about Oral care and the
importance of oral care. In recent years the Industry has shown impressive growth rate
of 18.6% (this growth is calculated in terms of value growth in Rs. ).

The growth in the Urban market has been largely by the Gel Segment. Presently, a large
chunk of the Market is still held by Colgate. The major players in the toothpaste Industry
being Colgate Palmolive and Hindustan Lever Limited and several minor players like
Balsara hygiene, Dabur etc.

Presently Colgate Dental Cream holds 52% of market share. HLL͛s Close up lies far
behind with 23% of the existing market share. The third player in the marketplace in
terms of market share is Colgate Gel with 10.5% of the market share. That leaves 14.5%
market share for other Brands like Pepsodent, Pepsodent G, Promise, Babool,
Sensofoam, Forhans, Cibaca, Neem, Vicco etc. The toothpaste market is presently
valued at Rs. 750 crores out of which the Gel segment has already bagged 1/3rd portion
of it. The Gel segment presently stands at Rs. 248 crores and is growing at a rate much
faster than Cream. In India toothpaste usage as compared to other countries is very low
which signifies about the potential of the market. In Urban India the usage of toothpaste
per person per year is just 190gms. Where as it is 200gms of toothpaste per person per
year in developing countries as Indonesia and Thailand. In developed countries as USA
and other European countries the toothpaste usage is 375 gms per person year. In India
the toothpastes companies are going in for advertising on a heavy note, on an average
the companies managing this FMCG category are spending 6.15% of their sales on
development. Colgate Palmolive had shelled out 15% of their sales on ads in the year
1994. Dabur had an ad expenditure of 5.07% for the year 1993. whereas balsara
Hygiene spend a huge 10.17% of their sales.

TOOTHPASTE COMPANIES AND TOOTHPASTE BRANDS

(1) Company : Shri Niranjan Aurvedh Bhawan, Tumsur

(Mah)

Product Range : Niranjan

(a) 200 gm Tube Rs

(b) 100 gm Tube Rs

(c) 50 gm Tube Rs

Segmenting Factor : Veg. / Non-veg. Population

Target : 20% educate customers that all
toothpastes have di-calcium phosphate
or bone ash which is animal based.
Whereas they use calcium rich PIPAL
insted.

Availability : Maharastra

Distributors : 107 (newly appointed)

Positioning Stance : Yoga For Teeth.

Direct Competitor : Vicco Vajradanti, but they feel that will

beat them in the price game as VICCO͛s
200 gm tube for Rs 44.

(2) Company : Hindustan Lever Limited

Brand Name : Close Up

Marketed By : Hindustan Lever limited (HLL)

Product Range : Close Up (Red, Green, Blue)

50 gm Rs
100 gm Rs
150 gm Rs

Pepsodent : 50 GM Rs
100 GM Rs
 200 GM Rs

Pepsodent G : 50 gm Rs

150 gm Rs

Segmenting Factor : Age

Targeted At : Young people. The target market

being ͞Multi Brand Households͟
where young does not use what their
parents. This particular targeting was
significant when Close Up was
launched because Colgate positioning
was a sort of Flip flop between Tooth
decay and Bad Breath and Colgate was
going for a Broad market constituting
of all the age groups.

Sought to be perceived by the customers was Fresh Breath. The physical appearance by
the users, the Bright Red Gel synerized well with the Fresh breath Benefit. The
advertising account was handled by LINTAS which focused on Fresh Breath that brought
teenagers closer.

By 1980 Close Up had 3% of the 16,000 tonnes toothpaste market. The production
capacity was doubled through a deal with third party manufacturer and the Brand was
taken National over the next year and a half, the Premium slashed by 30%. In 1983
Colgate started fearing after witnessing a downfall in market share and started airing its
campaign by inviting customers into its Dental ring of confidence, by stressing more on
breath and posing as a complete toothpaste. Close Up countered this move by
sharpening product benefits, while urging the customers to do the HA test by blowing
air on the palm, the message was that Close Up feels a lot cooler which reiterated the
basic benefit of a fresh breath.

1987 was a ͞Probe into Problem͟ year for HALL as Close Up was much below
expectations with only 4.5% of the 32,000 tonnes toothpaste market. They identified
two basic problems:

(1) Appearance of Toothpastes detracts prospects from its serious buyers.

(2) Commercials displayed too much of proximity between couples which was too much
for a mother, who actually purchased the Toiletries.

1998 Lever reworked 3 Ps in its Marketing mix in Tamil Nadu where people have a
strong sense of Oral Hygiene and the area has a cost effective media Reach. The three
reworked Ps are as follows:

v
Product :

· Blue mint flavour introduced.

· Tangerines of Read reduced. (for serious buyers.)

· Soft Squeeze lamitubes for toothpastes introduced for the first time in the country.

v
Communication

· Advertisement focus moved from spotlight to Gregarious couples. This group

orientation was more acceptable to the Mother.

v
Distribution

· Took Brand to Sub Urban and Rural areas.

· Posters and Mobile Vans arrived in areas where Urban lifestyle was a matter of
aspiration. This was a purposeful move as the company did not want the Brand to be
saddled with a restrictive.

Y market image

In the year 1990, Colgate followed Close Up by launch of it͛s Blue Colgate Gel. It was
targeted at the youngsters within its Brand fold who were seeking Freshness. It was
priced at par with Close Up gel. The Colgate ad showed a fluorescent Blue spiral round
the users body and it talked of Fresh Breath Energy. By this time Gel became the
Battleground in order to become the leader because:

* There is rapid expansion in gel segment.

* Youngsters thought white paste to be outdated.

In 1991, Close Up launched Zing Green and simultaneously Lever sponsored ͞Close Up
Sangeet Muquabala͟ targeted at the rural youth. In 1991 Close Up͛s market share
increased to 16% of Rs 377 crores per year market. 1991 witnessed a few problems for
Close Up Blue, which was faltering on repeat purchases as customers did not perceive
much freshness value in it. In 1992, HLL launched ͞AQUA BLUE͟ with added attributes
like increased Mouthwash contents and a more Minter flavour, so that customer͛s
perceived benefit is Freshness which is Lever͛s Positioning stance. In response Colgate
introduced ͞Red Actirinse͟ and then ͞Colgate Blue͟. People at HLL thought to counter
Colgate͛s growth by cashing in on Medicinal appeal and came out with ͞Pepsodent͟
with Germicheck snf ͞Mentadent G͟ now renamed as ͞Pepsodent G͟ for Gum problems.
Colgate countered this move by launching ͞Colgate Total͟ as an advanced paste to fight.

Tartar, Gingivitis, and other Dental ailments. 1993 was the year when HLL tried to woo
the customers by innovative packaging. Firstly it introduced ͞Stand Up Pump
dispensers͟ for metros but it bombed in the market because of High price perception as
compared to benefits. Sachets formula was used by lever to break into Colgate͛s fort.
The Close Up sachets was priced at Rs. 3 per unit and it offered 20 uses, which means
that a family of five could use it four times each. The year it sponsored zee Close Up
Antaksharee. HLL also went in for Close Up Toothbrushes under the Brand name
͞Confident͟ and launched it in Tamil Nadu.

The confident toothbrushes were taken National and most importantly HLL
advertisement account shifted from LINTAS to FTA due to

Global alignment move by Lever͛s parent Unilever. The brief given to the new agency
was to ͞Strengthen the Audience͛s perception of Brand͛s functional values.͟

Close Up͛s formulation was reworked and the new Close Up was enriched with
͞Microwhiteners͟ so that the perceived benefit by the customer be that he will have
Shining Teeth. As the ad account was handed over to HTA, the ad moved closer to the
Indian Culture, they also took note of the cultural changes which showed in their ads
like Females were now more than equal participants in Boy Girl activity as in Salim
Anarkali ad which showed her confidence by joining the Boy on the stage and saving the
day.

1996 witnessed introduction of ͞Close Up Liquifresh͟ a liquid in a carry along squeeze

can in two sizes :

¢? 30 gm Rs.

¢? 100 gms Rs.

HLL gave it a dual positioning platform of a Mouthrinse and a toothpaste, like squeeze
the Gel directly into Mouth. Close Up is pushing hard for semi Urban and Rural areas
were disposable incomes are rising rapidly and in order to tap these markets it is going
for Vernacular Advertising in Eight languages. In Bengal as the communication did not
work all that work initially, HTA has contracted Anjan Dutta a signer popular with both
Young and old alike in Bengal.
3) Company : Colgate Palmolive (India) Limited

Brand : Colgate

Product Range :

 Colgate dental Cream

* 50 gm Rs.

* 100 gm Rs.

* 150 gm Rs.

* 200 gm Rs.

* 250 gm

 Colgate Gel vBlue and Red

· 50 gm Rs.

· 100 gm Rs.

· 150 gm Rs.

· 200 gm Rs.

· 250 gm Rs. -

 Colgate Total

· 50 gm Rs. -

· 100 gm Rs.

· 150 gm Rs. -

· 200 gm Rs. -

4 Colgate Calciguard

· 50 gm Rs. -
· 100 gm Rs. -

· 150 gm Rs. -

· 200 gm Rs. -

 Colgate Sensitive

Segmenting Factor : Family

Target Audience : The Brand Colgate and it͛s extensions are targeted at Indian families
taking booth economical and premium stances.

Availability : All over India

Positioning Stance : on Health care through Duality of benefits, talks about ͞Stops bad
breath and fights tooth decay.͟ This positioning stance has worked well in Indian
probably because Oral. Now also the company is constantly following the fresh breath
route which proved successful for the company.

Care is not taken in a sensitized manner and hence the custom looks for multi-benefits.
History of Colgate :

For people in Colgate volume is the key. This is the Mantra for India a. Today the Indian
arm is one of the top 10 subsidiaries of the global giant ; one of the top three volume
drivers in toothpastes. In India, the Multinational is first and foremost identified with
Toothpaste (Dental care) are currently there is a lot of curiosity on how C-P is
responding to the challenges that HLL is throwing it͛s way. On toothpastes, where C-P
claims an overall 62.3 percent market share a clear cut strategy is evident i.e.
maintaining leadership in Oral care and expand the oral care market size. Consistency of
communication is of strategic importance. More so in an increasingly cluttered
environment. Vice President of C-P (India) limited dually complies ͞We have not
changed the platform - Duality of Benefits - for the last 15 years.͟
The main growth in the Urban toothpaste market for C-P has for sometime been coming
from the Gel segment. Colgate gel has been performing well with it͛s market share
standing at 11 percent and a growth faster than Close Up͛s market share, which has
declined by the end of 96.

In an effort to capitalize in the growth, C-P recently introduced it͛s latest extensions,
Fresh Stripes, with ͞Stripes of Benefit͟. this latest launch brings C-P͛s toothpastes to a
total of six, with mega Brand Colgate Dental Cream (CDC), the category volume driver;
Colgate Gel-Positioned as giving long lasting fresh breath; Calciguard with an anti cavity
therapeutic positioning marketed in the Metros; Colgate Total with it͛s therapeutic
positioning and multi benefits and Colgate Sensitive being Marketed through Dental
Profession.

To expand the category, C-P has an on going Rural Van programme, rather similar to the
HLL idea of expanding the market and also not being confused as a premium consumers.
An intensive investment this Video van develops the market by teaching people to use a
brush or seen a finger properly to clean their teeth with the Big Red CDC. In addition
there is also a school programme which covered 1.5 million children last year. According
to Rechard Usuquen VP C-P (India) Ltd. C-P͛s action will center around finely balancing
the Urban market - where it claims a 59.5 percent market share - with the Rural where it
claims a 68 per cent share. So while the company has introduced such premium
packaging as stand-up toothpaste tubes with Flip up caps in the Urban market, it is also
selling sachets of CDC at low prices.

In 2001, the company has come up with a lot of schemes such as 25% extra in 100gm
pack. In 50% gm pack there is an off of Rs 5.5. In 200gm pack the company is providing 2
toy planes for kids. They are also providing a lot of discount and incentives to its
stockiest and retailers. They have also come up with transparent packaging in gel
segment to attract the customers.
 
$





c 

%& '
c




c 

ZONE PERCENTAGE
EAST 21%
NORTH 25%
WEST 21%
SOUTH 33%

%&



c    (



RURAL MARKET 40%

URBAN MARKET 60%
The above segmentation details gives us an overall scenario of the toothpaste industry. As
seen from the zone wise segmentation table, the distribution is fairly even in all the
zones. Also the rural to urban markets ratio is 40:60 which is expected and thus no
surprises are seen from this data or rather no unusual variation is observed.

%& (


$ )
$

c 

NAME % SHARE
COLGATE DENTAL 46
COLGATE GEL 10
CIBACA 3
CLOSE UP 18
PEPSODENT 09
PROMISE 9.5
BABOOL 0.5

The data tabulated above clearly supports the fact that Colgate and HLL products are way
ahead as far as market share goes. These brands have earned a place in customers minds
or speaking in a technical term they have been positioned in the customer's minds.
Secondly, the brands like Promise and Babool are catering to a very specific segment of
customers which is the Herbal toothpaste user segment. Thus, they also have positioned
themselves as Herbal toothpastes and hence they always target the same segment. This
can be termed as a 'niche market' which they are catering to these segments.