Revised Thesis Sven Schmedes
Revised Thesis Sven Schmedes
Revised Thesis Sven Schmedes
January 2015
This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this
or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in
candidature for any degree or other award.
STATEMENT 1
This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).
STATEMENT 2
STATEMENT 3
i
ABSTRACT 1-2
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Preamble 3
1.2 Requirement and importance of this research 3-4
1.3 Aims of this research 4-5
1.4 Objectives of this research 5
1.5 Academic relevance of this research 6-9
1.6 Research methodology 9-13
1.7 Sources used in this research 13-14
1.8 Structure of this research 14-15
1.9 Summary chapter introduction 15-16
ii
3.2 Changing venue locations for the Olympic Games 62
st
3.3 Stadium design in the 21 century 63-66
3.3.1 Future use of buildings for singular events 63
3.3.2 Adaptability of sports venues 63-64
3.3.3 Transformation of sports venues 64
3.3.4 Temporary stadiums 65-66
3.4 Summary chapter stadium design in the Olympic context 67-68
5 CASE STUDIES
5.1 Analysis case studies 94
5.2 Overview selected venues for the case studies 95-97
5.2.1 Olympic Stadiums 95
5.2.2 Indoor Stadiums 96
5.2.3 Football Stadiums 97
5.3 Selected venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in Sydney 98-105
5.3.1 Sydney Olympic Park 98-99
5.3.2 Sydney Olympic Stadium 99-101
5.3.3 Sydney Indoor Stadium 101-103
5.3.4 Canberra Football Stadium 103-105
iii
5.4 Selected venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens 105-112
5.4.1 Athens Olympic Park 105-106
5.4.2 Athens Olympic Stadium 106-108
5.4.3 Athens Indoor Stadium 108-110
5.4.4 Athens Football Stadium 110-112
5.5 Selected venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing 113-120
5.5.1 Beijing Olympic Park 113-114
5.5.2 Beijing Olympic Stadium 114-116
5.5.3 Beijing Indoor Stadium 116-118
5.5.4 Beijing Football Stadium 118-120
5.6 Summary chapter case studies 120-121
6 ANALYSIS
6.1 Evaluation A Urban Category 122-133
6.1.1 Evaluation Sub-category A.1 Urban Integration, A.1.1 Location 122-125
6.1.2 Evaluation Sub-category A.1 Urban Integration, A.1.2 Building 125-128
6.1.3 Evaluation Sub-category A.2 Urban Context, A.2.1 Proximity 128-130
6.1.4 Evaluation Sub-category A.2 Urban Context, A.2.2 Connectivity 131-133
6.2 Evaluation B Environmental Category 133-147
6.2.1 Evaluation Sub-category B.1 Building, B.1.1 Overlay 133-137
6.2.2 Evaluation Sub-category B.1 Building, B.1.2 Adaptability 137-140
6.2.3 Evaluation Sub-category B.2 Building Services, B.2.1 Energy 141-144
6.2.4 Evaluation Sub-category B.2 Building Services, B.2.2 Water 144-147
6.3 Evaluation C Social Category 147-162
6.3.1 Evaluation Sub-category C.1 Usage Mix, C.1.1 Sport Usage 147-149
6.3.2 Evaluation Sub-category C.1 Usage Mix, C.1.2 Other Usages 149-153
6.3.3 Evaluation Sub-category C.2 Utilization, C.2.1 Number events 153-157
6.3.4 Evaluation Sub-category C.2 Utilization, C.2.2 Diversity events 158-162
6.4 Summary chapter analysis 162-164
7 DISCUSSION
7.1 Comparison case study results 165
7.2 Discussion results A Urban Category 165-168
7.2.1 Discussion results A.1 Urban Integration 165-167
7.2.2 Discussion results A.2 Urban Context 167-168
iv
7.3 Discussion results B Environmental Category 168-172
7.3.1 Discussion results B.1 Building 169-170
7.3.2 Discussion results B.2 Building Services 170-172
7.4 Discussion results C Social Category 172-175
7.4.1 Discussion results C.1 Usage Mix 172-173
7.4.2 Discussion results C.2 Utilization 174-175
7.5 Summary chapter discussion 175-177
8 COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT
8.1 Comparative assessment case study results 178
8.2 Comparative assessment A Urban Category 178-183
8.2.1 Comparative assessment Parameter A.1.1 Location Type 179-180
8.2.2 Comparative assessment Parameter A.1.2 Building Type 180-181
8.2.3 Comparative assessment Parameter A.2.1 Proximity 181-182
8.2.4 Comparative assessment Parameter A.2.2 Connectivity 182-183
8.2.5 Summary comparative assessment Urban Category 183
8.3 Comparative assessment B Environmental Category 184-191
8.3.1 Comparative assessment Parameter B.1.1 Overlay 185-186
8.3.2 Comparative assessment Parameter B.1.2 Adaptability 187
8.3.3 Comparative assessment Parameter B.2.1 Energy 188-189
8.3.4 Comparative assessment Parameter B.2.2 Water 190
8.3.5 Summary comparative assessment Environmental Category 191
8.4 Comparative assessment C Social Category 191-196
8.4.1 Comparative assessment Parameter C.1.1 Sport Usage 192-193
8.4.2 Comparative assessment Parameter C.1.2 Other Usages 193-194
8.4.3 Comparative assessment Parameter C.2.1 Number events 194
8.4.4 Comparative assessment Parameter C.2.2 Diversity events 195
8.4.5 Summary comparative assessment C Social Category 196
8.5 Comparative assessment stadium types 196-200
8.5.1 Comparative assessment Olympic Stadiums 196-198
8.5.2 Comparative assessment Indoor Stadiums 198-199
8.5.3 Comparative assessment Football Stadiums 199-200
8.6 Summary chapter comparative assessment 200
v
9 EXAMPLE OLYMPIC GAMES 2012
9.1 Introduction Wembley Stadium 201
9.2 Application sustainability indicators on Wembley Stadium 201-202
9.3 Evaluation A Urban Category Wembley Stadium 202-203
9.4 Evaluation B Environmental Category Wembley Stadium 204-207
9.5 Evaluation C Social Category Wembley Stadium 207-209
9.6 Summary chapter Example Olympic Games 2012 209-211
10 CONCLUSIONS
10.1 General conclusions 212-213
10.2 Conclusions comparative assessment case studies 213-214
10.3 Recommendations stadium design in the Olympic context 214-216
11 APPENDIX
11.1 Template for comparative Evaluation Matrix 217-218
11.2 Rating matrix for comparative assessment 218-220
11.3 Sydney 2000, Games of the XXVII Olympiad 221-240
11.3.1 Sydney Olympic Stadium event schedules 221-227
11.3.2 Sydney Indoor Stadium event schedules 228-230
11.3.3 Canberra Football Stadium event schedules 231-240
11.4 Athens 2004, Games of the XXVIII Olympiad 241-263
11.4.1 Athens Olympic Stadium event schedules 241-251
11.4.2 Athens Indoor Stadium event schedules 252-257
11.4.3 Athens Football Stadium event schedules 258-263
11.5 Beijing 2008, Games of the XXIX Olympiad 264-266
11.5.1 Beijing Olympic Stadium event schedules 264-265
11.5.2 Beijing Indoor Stadium event schedules 266
11.5.3 Beijing Football Stadium events schedules 266
12 REFERENCES 267-293
vi
List of illustration references
vii
Illustration 24 Sydney Olympic Stadium with maximum seating capacity of 100
115,600 during Olympic Games in 2000 with temporary
seating capacity on the north and south spectator stands
Illustration 25 Sydney Olympic Stadium with reduced seating capacity of 101
80,000 after Olympic Games and new roofs above modified
north and south spectator stands
Illustration 26 Satellite picture of Sydney Indoor Stadium and Sydney Olympic 102
Stadium after the Olympic Games in 2000
Illustration 27 Sydney Indoor Stadium with parking structure and Sydney 102
Olympic Stadium during the Olympic Games 2000
Illustration 28 Sydney Indoor Stadium with 21,000 seats capacity after the 102
Olympic Games 2000
Illustration 29 Satellite picture of Canberra Football Stadium after Olympic 104
Games 2000
Illustration 30 Canberra Football Stadium with spectator capacity of 25,000 104
seats after completion Olympic Overlay
Illustration 31 Canberra Football Stadium with roof above the grand stand with 105
8,000 covered seats constructed for the Olympic Games in 2000
Illustration 32 Excerpt masterplan of Athens Olympic Sports Complex submitted 105
as part of the original bidding document of the Athens Organizing
Committee for the Olympic Games in 2004
Illustration 33 Satellite picture of the Athens Olympic Park (Athens Olympic 106
Sports Complex) after the Olympic Games in 2004
Illustration 34 Satellite picture of the Athens Olympic Stadium with spectator 107
capacity of 72,000 seats during construction
Illustration 35 Athens Olympic Stadium with spectator capacity of 72,000 107
seats during construction
Illustration 36 Athens Olympic Stadium with a capacity of 72,000 seats 108
and new roof structure during the Olympic Games in 2004
Illustration 37 Athens Indoor Stadium, Athens Olympic Stadium and 109
Swimming Complex after the Olympic Games in 2004
Illustration 38 Athens Indoor Stadium with warm-up hall, new Athens 109
Olympic Stadium and Athens Olympic Stadium before
the Olympic Games in 2000
Illustration 39 Athens Indoor Stadium with a spectator capacity of 19,250 110
seats during the Olympic Games in 2004
viii
Illustration 40 Satellite picture of Athens Football Stadium after the 111
Olympic Games
Illustration 41 Athens Football Stadium during construction on existing site 111
before the Olympic Games in 2004
Illustration 42 Spectator stands Athens Football Stadium with a spectator 112
capacity of 33,500 after the Olympic Games in 2004
Illustration 43 Excerpt masterplan Beijing Olympic Park submitted as part of 113
the original bidding document of Beijing Organising Committee
for the Olympic Games in 2008
Illustration 44 Satellite picture Beijing Olympic Park (Olympic Green) with 114
Olympic Stadium, Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium
Illustration 45 Satellite picture of Beijing Olympic Stadium with swimming 115
stadium after the Olympic Games in 2008
Illustration 46 Beijing Olympic Stadium and Beijing Indoor Stadium 115
Illustration 47 Beijing Olympic Stadium with spectator capacity of 80,000 116
seats in preparation for the Olympic Games in 2008
Illustration 48 Satellite picture of Beijing Indoor Stadium and precinct 117
Illustration 49 Beijing Indoor Stadium during construction with Beijing 117
Olympic Stadium before the Olympic Games 2008
Illustration 50 Beijing Indoor Stadium with spectator capacity of 20,000 118
seats during the Olympic Games in 2008
Illustration 51 Satellite picture of Beijing Football Stadium after the 119
Olympic Games 2008
Illustration 52 Beijing Football Stadium with spectator capacity of 36,000 119
seats during construction of the new roof for the Olympic
Games in 2008
Illustration 53 Beijing Football Stadium with new roof structure (permanent 120
overlay) after the Olympic Games in 2008
Illustration 54 Satellite picture of Beijing Olympic Stadium site before start 123
of construction works for the Beijing Olympic Park
Illustration 55 Satellite picture of Beijing Olympic Stadium during construction 123
works for the Beijing Olympic Stadium and Olympic Park
Illustration 56 Satellite picture of Beijing Olympic Stadium after completion 123
of works and after the Olympic Games in 2008
Illustration 57 Existing Athens Olympic Stadium without roof in 1982 126
Illustration 58 Athens Olympic Stadium with new roof structure in 2004 126
ix
Illustration 59 Beijing Football Stadium before redevelopment 128
Illustration 60 Beijing Football Stadium after redevelopment 128
Illustration 61 Sydney Olympic Stadium with running tracks and temporary 134
seating for 30,000 spectators on the north and south spectator
stands during an event of the Olympic Games in 2000
Illustration 62 Sydney Olympic Stadium after removal of the 134
north and south spectator stands with new roofs
Illustration 63 Athens Football Stadium with open public access to all shops 153
and other facilities during events and non-events
Illustration 64 Athens Football Stadium with open public access to all shops 153
and other facilities during events and non-events
Illustration 65 Summary of all ratings for each stadium 163
Illustration 66 Evaluation results sub-categories Urban Integration and Urban 179
Context based on Summary chapter analysis
Illustration 67 Evaluation results sub-categories Building and Building 185
Services based on Summary chapter analysis
Illustration 68 Evaluation results sub-categories Usage Mix and Utilization 192
based on 6.4 ‘Summary chapter analysis’
Illustration 69 Evaluation results for the building type Olympic Stadium in 197
sub-categories Urban Integration, Urban Context, Building,
Building Services, Usage Mix and Utilization based on
Summary of chapter analysis
Illustration 70 Evaluation results for the building type Indoor Stadium in 198
sub-categories Urban Integration, Urban Context, Building,
Building Services, Usage Mix and Utilization based on
Summary of chapter analysis
Illustration 71 Evaluation results for the building type Football Stadium in the 199
sub-categories Urban Integration, Urban Context, Building,
Building Services, Usage Mix and Utilization based on
Summary of chapter analysis
Illustration 72 Wembley Stadium, London 201
Illustration 73 Template for comparative Evaluation Matrix 217
Illustration 74 Rating matrix Urban Category 218
Illustration 75 Rating matrix Environmental Category 219
Illustration 76 Rating matrix Urban Category 219-220
x
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to the International Olympic Committee, Olympic Studies Centre and
Information Management Department for the support and selection of this research
for a scholarship in the Postgraduate Research Grant Programme 2007.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the supervisor Prof. Phillip Jones,
my father Dr. Rolf-Günter Schmedes, my wife Dr. Ela Schmedes and son
Attila Maximilian Schmedes as well as Dr. Gisela Loehlein and Kemal Akay.
xi
ABSTRACT
Sports stadiums have a considerable impact on the urban, environmental and social
context. In particular, where several new stadiums are built within the same city for a
single mega-event like the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games or Soccer
World Cup the implications are significantly higher. Therefore the requirements for
operation of each stadium after the mega-event are of great importance to ensure
sustainable integration into the urban, environmental and social context as well as
maximized utilization on a long-term basis.
In the first part of this thesis a review of the subject is presented. A brief history of
the development of stadium design in the Olympic context, evolving requirements
for staging Olympic Summer Games, the structure of organizations involved,
existing literature research and certification methods are summarized.
In the second part the methodology and development of the bespoke research tool
based on existing certification systems such as BREEAM, LEED and DGNB is
described. Subsequently, case studies for three different stadium types (Olympic
Stadium, Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium) used for the Olympic Summer
Games in Sydney (2000), Athens (2004) and Beijing (2008) are analysed based on
literature research, field surveys and interviews. The comparative assessment of
each stadium type is conducted with an evaluation matrix in three denominations:
urban category, environmental category and social category. In each category two
indicators with two respective parameters are evaluated based on a five-point score
system. Subsequently the general applicability of the research tool is verified with an
example appraisal of Wembley Stadium which was used for the Olympic Summer
Games in London (2012).
Conclusions are drawn in the third part of the thesis, separately for each of the three
denominations urban category, environmental category and social category. In the
urban category sports stadiums built on a site previously used for sports venues or
adjacent to other existing venues are rated significantly higher, because existing
sites are already integrated into the urban context and located in proximity to the city
centre as well as other mixed-use areas resulting in synergy effects with extended
catchment areas and good connectivity.
1
In the environmental category sports stadiums are rated higher if specific
requirements for operation of the sports stadium after the Olympic Games are
already considered in the design to ensure maximised adaptability and flexibility.
Dismantle of the overlay (tailor-made structures/installations required for staging the
event) after the Olympic Games reduces energy consumption in subsequent
operation. Overlay designed for permanent usage or reuse at a different venue
further increases the level of sustainability. Usage of energy efficient systems with
power generation and water conservation preserves resources.
In the social category sports stadiums are rated higher if a balanced proportion of
sport usage and other usages is achieved. The long-term utilization of a sports
stadium correlates with the level of urban integration, urban context, building type
and usage mix. Sports stadiums utilized by more than one home team and
integration of other usages (e.g. retail, commercial, recreation, etc.) achieve a
significantly higher level of utilization.
The last chapter summarizes recommendations for stadium design in the Olympic
context. To ensure a long-term utilization of each sports stadium after the Olympic
Games it is suggested that applicant/candidate cities carry out comprehensive
feasibility studies in collaboration with an operator to develop a bespoke project brief
and business plan for operation of each venue at bidding stage. In order to enhance
the existing knowledge base it is further recommended to collect and compare
operational data (e.g. water, energy consumption etc.) from the different venues of
the hosting cities to allow an independent assessment of the level of sustainability
during long-term operation. Additional data to verify indicators relating to design
efficiency such as average construction area per seat as well as dead loads of
spectator stands and roof structures should be compared for establishment of
benchmarks to verify the efficiency of the structural elements for an even more
sustainable design of sports stadiums.
2
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Preamble
The Olympic Summer Games are staged every four years at different locations
worldwide. Though the project brief for the sports facilities remains generally
unchanged, the long-term utilization of the sports stadiums varies significantly
amongst the different hosting cities. Due to the consistent project brief the Olympic
Games could be considered as a repetitive urban field experiment which is aiming to
build venues for specific sports events at different locations. This thesis compares
case studies of the urban field experiments initiated by the Olympic Summer Games
in 2000, 2004 and 2008 with a particular focus on the Urban, Environmental and
Social Category.
The Olympic Summer Games are the largest sporting event in the world with 28
different competitions held almost simultaneously within 16 days at multiple venue
locations. “In the Olympics 2008 in Beijing 10,9421 athletes participated and
approximately 4,7 billion people worldwide were reached via television.”2
For the opening ceremony of the Olympic Summer Games 2008 in Beijing on
08.08.2008 it is estimated that more than 2 billion people worldwide watched the
event on television.3 The investments for the Summer Olympic Games in the 21st
century have increased considerably. An overview of the combined public and
private investments for the venues and infrastructure is given on the next page.
The costs for operation and maintenance of sports facilities after the Games are a
major expenditure, which in the long term is significantly higher than the initial
construction costs. To cover (at least) the running costs for maintenance and
operation a minimum number of events has to be held at each sports facility.
3
The diagram in Illustration 1 below shows the increasing Operational Costs of the
Olympic Organising Committees. The operational costs have escalated due to the
increasing complexity and security measures during the Games.
Previous examples of the Olympic Summer Games have shown the requirement to
develop new strategies in order to reduce operational costs and to achieve a higher
level of sustainable integration and utilization after the Games.
The legacy of the Olympic Games tends to be criticized subsequent to the Games.
One example is the Olympic Summer Games 2004 in Athens where the media
discovered that "A staggering 21 out of 22 venues lie abandoned.”9 This shows the
importance to understand the key drivers for sustainable urban integration and
economically sound operation of the stadiums in the post- Games stage.
Aims of this research are the analysis and comparative assessment of stadiums
used for the modern Olympic Summer Games in order to identify the key indicators
(parameters) influencing the level of sustainability in the denominations: Urban
Category, Environmental Category and Social Category.
4
The analysis is based on case studies of the most recent Olympic Summer Games,
hosted 2000 in Sydney (Australia), 2004 in Athens (Greece) and 2008 in Beijing
(China). The field research was carried out between 2010 and 2011. For the
comparative assessment three different types of venues are selected: Olympic
Stadium, Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium which are evaluated based on a
5-point score system.
The conclusions of this research could be considered for venues of future Olympic
Games or for other single mega-events like the Commonwealth Games or Soccer
World Cup in order to enhance the level of sustainability with a focus on the long-
term operation of the sports facilities after the mega-event. In addition the
conclusions could be incorporated for other stadiums developed independently of
such mega-events. Large scale infrastructure developments initiated by the Olympic
Summer Games, e.g. Olympic Summer Games 1992 in Barcelona, are not part of
this research since main focus is on the actual stadium building and urban context of
the precinct.
The objective of this research is to develop an Evaluation Matrix (Research Tool) for
a comparative assessment of the case studies in order to provide quantitative and
qualitative substantiated response to the following three research questions. The
development of the Evaluation Matrix and selection of the examined indicators
regarding the level of sustainability is carried out in consideration of existing
certification systems such as BREEAM, LEED and DGNB.
1. Which are the indicators influencing the level of sustainability in the Urban
Category, Environmental Category and Social Category?
2. How do the selected parameters influence the sustainability level of the case
studies in Sydney, Athens and Beijing with respect to the three categories?
3. Which stadium of the selected stadium type is more sustainable than the others
and what are the reasons?
5
1.5 Academic relevance of this research
Generally, theses are written with the intent to achieve ‘academic relevance’. As Dr.
Deryck D. Pattron in his publication ‘Research Methodology’ is stating “research is
an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.”10
The meaning of relevance can be “categorized into the three categories: value,
utility and importance of information. Value of information represents its internal
integrity, validity and reliability. This meaning can be related to a process with
emphasis on verification, authentication and credibility of information. Trust-
worthiness of the source and verity of information are also regarded as significant.
Utility narrows the extension of value towards a more concrete use of information.
Utility is embedded in the contexts of information use, namely in relation to topic,
problem solving and time. Importance expresses qualities of relevance such as
emphasis on the problem essence, priorities and the hierarchical division of
information.”11
Jela Steinerova describes the term ‘relevance’ and its interaction with the influencing
and defining parameters which are stated as characteristics, processes, emotions,
contexts, criteria and metaphors in Illustration 2.
6
The research article ‘The Relevance of Knowledge Management and Intellectual
Capital Research’ states that “currently, very few academic recommendations can
be directly used by practitioners. The ‘operational validity’ depends on the
practitioner’s ability to take academic findings and apply them. Consistent with prior
research (Ankers and Brennan, 2002), most respondents said that they could not
translate academic recommendations into reality either because they included
factors beyond their control or they ignored the constraints of real world settings.
Timing affects some topics more than others. So the longevity of research is a factor
of the topic covered. Articles that address topics of enduring interest to practitioners
will be always well received (Benbasat and Zmud, 1999). Academic training, prior
industry exposure, and current industry involvement form the awareness of business
reality that, in turn, shape the direction of scholarly research. It is stated that, in
extreme cases, some researchers had strong scholarly training but little, if any, prior
or current industry experience. As a result, their research was highly theoretical with
no applicable managerial insights: Most academics have not worked in business so
their lens of reality is less relevant and judgments to extrapolate context often
missing.’’13
The Lingayas Institute of Management and Technology refers to the term ‘research’
as “an art of scientific investigation” and an original contribution to the existing stock
of knowledge making for its advancement.”14 Therefore “an original work is one not
received from others nor one copied based on the work of others. It is a work
created with an unique style and substance.”15
In 2002 the IOC organised the ‘International Symposium on Legacy of the Olympic
Games: 1984-2000’ which in their conclusions calls for more attention to be paid to
the research of the legacy of the Games. “There is a clear need for more research of
a longitudinal nature into all aspects relating to Olympic legacy, beginning well
before the Games and lasting for a sustained period after their completion.”16
7
There are not many researches on the long term impacts of sports facilities used for
the Olympic Games. Most of the existing studies analyse the pre- and post effects of
the Olympic Games but there are no studies comparing the long-term impacts
among consecutive Olympic Summer Games with regard to Urban, Environmental
and Social Category.
“Several authors note that in the bid process it is common to overestimate the long-
term other benefits that accompany hosting the games, but none of the authors
completely answers the question of whether the Olympics are worthwhile for cities in
the long run. This demonstrates the need for further research on the experience of
cities years and decades after hosting the games.”17
The analysis and comparative assessment of selected stadiums used for the first
three Olympic Games in the 21st century in 2000, 2004 and 2008 provide new and
important results. This research is based on data obtained through the unique
opportunity to review the archives at the Olympic Studies Centre in Lausanne.
The author of this research was granted a scholarship by the Olympic Studies
Centre (OSC) of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as the subject of this
thesis was considered to be significant. For the 2007 Scholarship four out of 28
candidates from 18 countries were selected by a committee comprising renowned
experts. This research and three others were chosen “for their academic
excellence“18,19 on 21.02.2007 as per the standards of the Grant Programme
Selection Committee composed of experts, who are world-renowned for their
involvement in Olympic studies, the OSC officers and other professionals.
The sighted literature for this research is of exclusive and unrivalled value,
contributing to the thesis verity and trustworthiness, which are important criteria for
academic relevance. Furthermore, case studies were carried out for which the
author of this thesis inspected selected venues of previous Olympic Games. Three
consecutive Olympic Games countries were consciously selected to achieve the
aspect of longitudinal research. Through personal interviews with the operators an
utmost veritable evaluation of the field research with a clear as well as realistic
assessment is ensured.
8
The subject of this research is of great interest to the architectural community as the
phenomenon of staging the Olympic Games is an ‘evergreen’ and a recurrent event
with the characteristic longevity.
The conclusions of this thesis are essential for the understanding of long-term
impacts on the urban context with regard to Urban Category, Environmental
Category and Social Category. Especially the applied Evaluation Matrix has a
general validity as a prototype for assessment of the sustainability level of sports
venues during the design stage and operation.
The results of this research contribute also to the already existing knowledge for the
design of stadiums which are not necessarily linked to the Olympic Games or similar
events.
9
Chapter 4 ‘Development research tool’ describes Definition of sustainability, Method
of evaluation, Methodology development of research tool, Evaluation with rating
system, Description Evaluation Matrix and Criteria for selecting the case studies.
Chapter 5 ‘Case studies’ presents Analysis case studies, Overview selected venues
for the case studies, Selected venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in Sydney,
Selected venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens and Selected venues of the
Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing.
Chapter 9 ‘Example Olympic Games 2012’ applies the developed Evaluation Matrix
on Wembley Stadium and consists of Introduction Wembley Stadium, Application
sustainability indicators on Wembley Stadium, Evaluation Urban Category Wembley
Stadium, Evaluation Environmental Category Wembley Stadium and Evaluation
Social Category Wembley Stadium.
Chapter 11 ‘Appendix’ includes Template for Evaluation matrix, Rating matrix for
comparative assessment, Sydney 2000 event schedules, Athens 2004 event
schedules and Beijing 2008 event schedules.
Chapter 12 ‘References’ lists all sources and references used in this research.
10
Illustration 3: Flowchart thesis
i
1.4 Objectives of this research, page 5
11
The analytical research is based on a combined evaluation of “library research,
including historical research with utilization of historical sources like documents and
remains”20, as well as on a “field research including case studies and personal
interviews.”21 The analytical aspect is integral part of this thesis as “the researcher
had to use facts or information already available and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.”22
The field research criteria and related Evaluation Matrix for selecting suitable case
studies are based on the initial findings in the analytical research further described
in Chapter 4.5 ‘Description Evaluation Matrix’ which also elaborates the
development of the Evaluation Matrix.
The process for selection of the relevant case studies Sydney, Athens and Beijing is
summarized in Chapter 4.6 ‘Criteria for selecting the case studies’.ii During the
subsequent analysis of data the proposed criteria are verified and modified in order
to focus on the specific aspects of the research questions.
ii
4.6 Criteria for selecting the case studies, page 90-93
12
In the literature research evidence is received from primary sources supplemented
with secondary sources. The majority of literature was obtained from the Olympic
Studies Centre in Lausanne (Switzerland) as part of the scholarship.25 In addition
the literature research was complemented with a review of documents available in
other libraries and also on the Internet under consideration of published design
reviews.
As part of the analytical research the criteria for evaluation of the findings during the
literature research as well as the field research are prepared and summarized in
Chapter 4.5 ‘Description Evaluation Matrix’.iii Subsequent to the case studies the
Evaluation Matrix was refined and substantiated to identify only the most relevant
aspects of the research. For this purpose every research category was divided into
two sub-categories each consisting of two different parameters.
The Olympic Studies Centre (OSC) of the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
supports international research through its Postgraduate Researchers Scholarship
Programme. For the 2007 Scholarship four out of 28 candidates from 18 countries
were selected by a committee comprising renowned experts. This research and
three others were chosen “for their academic excellence”26,27 on 21.02.2007. The
scholarship allowed access to the Olympic Studies Centre in Lausanne which
provided unique collections of more than one million archived documents,
publications, official reports, photos and films. The programme included four weeks
of studies at the Olympic Studies Centre in Lausanne with access to all documents
in the Olympic Library and other institutions.
The analytical research is based on a literature research mainly obtained from the
Olympic Studies Centre in Lausanne (Switzerland) as part of the scholarship.28 In
addition the literature research was complemented with a review of documents
available in other libraries and on the Internet under consideration of the published
design reviews.
iii
4.5 Description Evaluation Matrix, page 74-89
13
The field research was carried out at the venues selected for the case studies. The
Evaluation Matrix was derived from other existing comparative qualitative and
quantitative assessment methods identified during the literature research further
described in Chapter 4 ‘Development Research Tool’.
The qualitative and quantitative results of the field research were documented with
site pictures, site plans and notes for the subsequent analysis of the data. During
the site visits in 2010 and 2011, each of about seven days duration, interviews with
the operators were conducted in order to verify the findings of the field research.iv
With exception of two venues in Beijing (Beijing Indoor Stadium and Beijing Football
Stadium) personal interviews with the operators of the stadium were carried out in
order to verify the findings of the site surveys and receive additional input for the
Evaluation Matrix.
This thesis is sub-divided into twelve chapters. The ‘Abstract’ summarizes the
results of the comparative assessment and conclusions. Chapter 1 ‘Introduction’
provides a brief overview of the requirement and importance of this research as well
as the aims along with the research questions. In addition the sources used for this
research as well as the structure of the research are summarized.
In Chapter 2 ‘Review of the subject’ the existing studies are summarized and the
historic background of the Olympic Games from 776 B.C. until 2010 A.D. is
reviewed. This includes a brief description of the organisations involved in the
Olympic Games as well as the election process of the hosting city and selected
initiatives of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) concerning the subject of
this research.
iv
Sydney 12.02.-19.02.2011, Athens 21.10-26.10.2010, Beijing 26.02.-05.03.2011
14
Chapter 4 ‘Development research tool’ describes and illustrates the methodology for
development of the research tool, evaluation system and evaluation criteria. The
general applicability of the Evaluation Matrix is demonstrated on Wembley Stadium
in Chapter 9.
‘Case Studies’ in Chapter 5 presents the selected venues used for Olympic Games
in Sydney (2000), Athens (2004) and Beijing (2008). Chapter 6 ‘Analysis’ comprises
the individual results of the evaluation for each venue. For comparison purposes all
results are listed and compiled in an Evaluation Matrix. In Chapter 7 ‘Discussion’ the
results of the case study analysis are discussed and deliberated.
In Chapter 8 ‘Comparative assessment’ the findings for each category as well as the
lessons learned are summarized.
A list of relevant data collected for analysis of ‘C Social Category’ and a template as
well as a rating matrix are compiled in Chapter 11 ‘Appendix’. All references used in
this thesis are listed in Chapter 12 ‘References’.
The Olympic Summer Games are the largest sporting event in the world with 28
different competitions held almost simultaneously within 16 days at multiple venue
locations. In addition to the significant construction costs, the costs for operation and
maintenance of the sports stadiums after the Games are a major expenditure, which
in the long term is significantly higher than the initial construction costs. To cover the
operational costs for maintenance and operation, a minimum number of events has
to be held at the sports stadium and/or alternative types of utilization are required to
generate income.
15
The aim of this research is the analysis, evaluation and comparative assessment of
three different types of sports stadiums used for the most recent modern Olympic
Summer Games in order to identify key parameters influencing the level of
sustainability in the Urban Category, Environmental Category and Social Category
after the Games.
With regard to academic relevance it was verified that this thesis is meeting the
expectations of a relevant academic contribution as value, utility and importance of
information are well accounted. Furthermore the subject itself is an ‘evergreen’ and
of current interest as the Olympics is a repeated mega-event which is celebrated
every four years. In 2002 the IOC organised the ‘International Symposium on
Legacy of the Olympic Games: 1984-2000’ which in its conclusions calls for more
attention to be paid to the research of the legacy of the Games. “There is a clear
need for more research of a longitudinal nature into all aspects relating to Olympic
legacy, beginning well before the Games and lasting for a sustained period after
their completion.”29
The analysis and comparative assessment of selected stadiums used for the first
three Olympic Games in the 21st century in 2000, 2004 and 2008 provide new and
important results. The author of this research was granted a scholarship from the
Olympic Studies Centre (OSC) as the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
considered the subject of this thesis to be significant. Accordingly the literature
review of this research is predominantly based on data and references obtained
through the unique opportunity to utilize the archives at the Olympic Studies Centre
in Lausanne. In addition the literature research was complemented with a review of
documents available in other libraries and also on the Internet under consideration
of published design reviews.
16
2 REVIEW OF THE SUBJECT
This chapter summarizes some of the most relevant literature on sustainable sports
venues developed for the Olympic Summer Games. In 2007, when the research for
this thesis was initiated, literature on this topic was limited. After the Beijing Olympic
Games in 2008 an increasing number of studies were initiated.
The German thesis ‘Die Bewerbung um die Spiele der XXVIII Olympiade 2004’
(‘Application for the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad 2004’) by Peter Schollmeier is a
comprehensive historic review of the election process in general and a detailed
analysis of the election process for the Olympic Games in 2004. The complex
criteria for the election of Athens are thoroughly analysed and discussed within the
historic context. Schollmeier’s assessment of the election concludes that the
reasons why Athens was selected in the 106. IOC Session were not only based on
rational, technical and economical criteria but also on “Emotional Criteria, which
become particularly important, in case the applicants like Athens and Rome are not
17
fundamentally different.”32 Another important conclusion is that the continuous
modifications of election procedures are required due to the increasing level of
complexity for hosting the Games as well as the economic impact for the Host City
and the IOC.
Peter Anthony Haxton has emphasized the role of community involvement with
regard to the Olympic Games in his thesis ‘The perceived role of community
involvement in the Mega-Event hosting process: a case study of the Atlanta 1996
and Sydney 2000 Olympic Games.’33 He summarizes that “the concept of hosting an
Olympics is often prompted by the perception that doing so will provide an
opportunity to promote economic development and urban redevelopment, fast track
the development of sporting facilities and other infrastructure and provide a legacy
of sport and recreation opportunities for locals. All of these perceived benefits are
promoted as contributing to overall community development, one of the major aims
of mega-event hosting. Following the floating of the initial idea, the model suggests
that concept initiators examine the proposed host city/region to determine the
compatibility of hosting the Olympics with the history, culture and values of the
potential host community. If considered compatible a preliminary situation analysis
may be undertaken and used, for example, to determine levels of community
support and the facilities and infrastructure required to successfully host the Games.
In addition a preliminary feasibility study, examining aspects such as the potential
economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts, may also be prepared. Such a
study also serves as a rough assessment of the affordability or profitability of hosting
the Games. As with the impacts of mega-events the opportunities created as a
result of hosting a mega-event may be perceptible for many years, even decades, to
come. Examples of opportunities created as a result of hosting an Olympic Game
include the long-term use of sporting facilities and related infrastructure.”34
18
exists, there is little evidence to support that the IOC will become systemic and use
its influences to help move society towards sustainability. If the decline of societal
and environmental capacity continues, at some point in the future, conditions will be
such that the staging of the Olympic Games will be difficult or even impossible.”36
19
awareness and knowledge among a range of professional and trades people,
suppliers, regulators and the public. This knowledge has been underscored by a
wealth of practical experience gained and retained by many of the hands-on partic-
ipants in planning, construction and operations.”39
20
assessment and certification of sustainable building quality of Olympic sports
venues by the IOC leads to effective implementation of sustainable sports venue
architecture on international level.”41 In accordance with Essig’s findings a bespoke
Evaluation Matrix for the specific assessment of sports facilities for the Olympic
Games has been developed in this thesis. Furthermore practical recommendations
leading to a more sustainable legacy of the Olympic Games derived from lessons
learned through insights of the case studies evaluations are compiled.
The book ‘Olympic Cities: Urban Planning, City Agendas and the World's Games,
1896 to the present’ is a compendium of essays by John R. Gold and Margaret M.
Gold published in 2007 which highlights “the relationship between the Olympic
Games and its host cities from the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 through
the early planning stages of London 2012, focusing mostly on the Summer
Olympics. The problem of sustainability after the Games is addressed. In his chapter
about London 2012, Graeme Evans predicts that London will experience post-
Games regeneration that is uneven and not beneficial to the local community, citing
previous regeneration efforts that were incomplete and the Millennium Dome that
remained unused for years. He also argues that unless the Olympics move toward a
less costly, less cumbersome Olympics and Olympics that would be more viable for
developing countries instead of the mega-events designed to put the host city on the
map of the global commercial and consumer economy then there needs to be a
body to keep tabs and ensure that the games live up to their regeneration promises.
In addition several authors note that in the bid process it is common to overestimate
the long-term other benefits that accompany hosting the games, but none of the
21
authors completely answers the question of whether the Olympics are worthwhile for
cities in the long run. This demonstrates the need for further research on the
experience of cities years and decades after hosting the games.”43
Markus Pfisterer’s Case study ‘Sustainable Icons for Mega Events: FIFA WC 2010,
UEFA EURO 2012, FIFA WC 2014’ examines the Moses Mabhida Stadium in
Durban as a FIFA venue for the South African World Cup 2010, the National
Stadium in Warsaw built for the UEFA EURO 2012 in Poland as well as the Arena
da Amazonia in Manaus built for the 20th FIFA World Championship 2014 in Brazil.
“The Arena de Amazonia will be one of the first LEED certified stadiums regarding
location, construction sequence, transportation routes and primary energy content of
all materials, water management, energy consumption, regulation and control
technology, waste management and ongoing monitoring of operations. Pfisterer
states that social value is aimed which transcends major events to earn social
acceptance, create regional identities, shape urban development or rather find
integration and increase the positive image of sporting events. In this context
sustainability is not limited to energy efficiency in operations and construction, but
also in the maximum of flexibility and long-term utilization of stadiums meeting
multifunctional requirements, not only for sports, but also for other mega events like
concerts etc. or for office use, hotel and other touristic or commercial purpose.
Pfisterer concludes that multifunctional purpose is crucial in terms of life-cycle,
attracting public interest and activities. Considering the ecological aspects as an
integral part of the design from the very beginning creates strong synergy between
technical demands of the Games and long-term responsibilities for future
generations.”44
Kay Killmann describes in his publication ‘Good, Better, Certified? How can green
building labels help planning sustainable buildings?’ that the idea of sustainability
governs the ecological, economic and social behaviour of most public and private
sectors. The most used common building certification systems DGNB, BREEAM
and LEED differ in the way they focus on the different aspects of the building
process and from experience it can be assumed that regardless of a factor’s
weighting within a given system each factor can have a powerful impact on costs
and environmental benefits. Killmann conducts an example for evaluation with the
three certification systems on the parameter potable water. He summarizes that
compared to the energy efficiency or materials, the importance of potable water
consumption seems relatively low. Nevertheless, buildings with a LEED or BREEAM
22
label use less water than an average building and therefore contribute to a more
responsible handling of a precious resource.”45
According to the Official Website of the Olympic Movement the “referred date as the
first written mention of the Olympic Games is 776 B.C.. The event was celebrated
for more than a millennium every four years, a time period known as an ‘Olympiad’.
The Games were held in Olympia near Athens, located in ancient Greece, which
was not only a sports complex but at the same time a sanctuary.
The Olympic Games were celebrated in honour of Zeus, the king of the gods. The
venue consisted of a sacred area including the majestic temple of Zeus, as well as
of a secular area. During the Olympics it is estimated that athletes, priests, staff and
merchants totalling to some 40,000 people were present on site.”46
The era of the ancient Olympic Games ended with the decree of Christian Emperor
Theodosius in 393 A.D. as he prohibited pagan cults.47
The modern Olympic Games were restored by Baron Pierre de Frédy de Coubertin
and in 1896 the first modern Olympics were held at their origin in Athens. Baron
Pierre de Frédy de Coubertin was a French educationalist and renowned humanist.
He wrote the founding texts of modern Olympism, including the Olympic Charter.48
The Factsheet of the Olympic Movement states that “The Olympic Movement and
the International Olympic Committee were officially established on 23. June 1894 at
the Paris International Congress which was organised by Coubertin at the
Sorbonne. Coubertin’s vision was to ennoble and strengthen sports, to ensure their
independence and duration, and thus to enable them better to fulfil the educational
role incumbent upon them in the modern world.”49
23
As per specification of the Olympic Charter the Summer Olympic Games are
celebrated in the first year of the Olympiad, defined as a period of four consecutive
calendar years while the Winter Olympic Games are held in its third year. The
celebration shall not exceed 16 days.51 Including the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing
a total of 26 Summer Olympic Games took place in 18 countries and 22 different
cities around the world.52
The requirements for staging the Games are defined by the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) in the manuals. Apart from defining outlines for the bidding
process the manuals are specifying the operational and technical requirements for
staging the Games. The requirements of all stakeholders in the Games e.g. athletes,
spectators, press and security for the last 26 Summer Olympic Games have
constantly increased compared to the previous Games. Accordingly the
specifications have been extended and further developed which is reflected in the
manual.
The manuals issued by the IOC for the Games in 2004 and 2008 have been further
developed and will be described in Chapter 2.6 ‘Sustainable urban development and
the Olympic Games’ as well as in Chapter 2.7 ‘Greening the Olympic Games’.
24
2.4 Election process of the host for the Olympic Games
According to the Official Website of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) the
election of the Host City for the Summer Olympic Games is one of the most
important decisions of the IOC which is taken every four years. The election takes
place seven years before the Olympic Games. The result of the election initiates a
transformation of the Host City over a period of seven years to meet the specifically
defined IOC requirements for staging the Olympic Games.
The IOC members (in 2009 consisting of 112 members, 28 honorary members and
1 honour member55) meet at least once a year for the so called ‘Session’. “The
quorum required for a Session is half the total membership of the IOC, plus one.
The choice of the Host City is the prerogative of the Session, which is considered
the IOC’s supreme organ. The election of a host city must take place in a country
not having a candidate for the Olympic Games in question. A city is declared elected
when it obtains the majority of the votes cast. If there is no majority, the city with the
fewest votes is eliminated and IOC members proceed to another round of voting.
The procedure is repeated until an absolute majority is obtained.”56
The IOC election process has been developed parallel to the constantly increasing
operational and technical requirements for staging the Games. There are various
examples showing that the IOC has transferred the ‘lessons learned’ into the bid
documents for the following Games.
In the following sections a historic overview on the election process is given and
subsequently the current 2-phase election process first used for the 2008 Beijing
Games is summarized.
25
educating youth people through sport practised in accordance with Olympism and its
values.”58 The construction and consolidation of the Olympic Movement was
essential for the existence and development of the modern Olympic Games. “Under
the supreme authority of the International Olympic Committee, the Olympic
Movement encompasses organisations, athletes and other persons who agree to be
guided by the Olympic Charter.”59
The Olympic Charter states that “the IOC is an international non-governmental not-
for-profit organisation, of unlimited duration, in the form of an association with the
status of a legal person, recognised by the Swiss Federal Council in accordance
with an agreement entered into on 1st November 2000.”60
“The mission of the IOC is to promote Olympism throughout the world and to lead
the Olympic Movement.”61 The International Sports Federations (IFs) “are
international non-governmental organisations recognised by the IOC as
administrating one or more sports at world level. When the IOC was established in
1894, only a very small number of IFs existed. There are 28 Summer IFs, 7 Winter
IFs, and 32 Recognised Sports Federations that are currently affiliated to the
Olympic Movement. The IFs are responsible for overseeing the technical aspects
and management of their sport at the Olympic Games. They also establish the
eligibility criteria for the competitions of the Games, in accordance with the Olympic
Charter. They likewise play an active role in the applicant and candidate city
evaluation process.”62
26
The 204 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) “belonging to the Olympic family are
essential ‘ambassadors’ of the Olympic Movement in their respective countries and
the tasks assigned to them are clearly stipulated under Rule 27 of the Olympic
Charter. The NOCs are responsible for sending participants to the Games and
endorsing potential future Olympic host cities within their countries. Furthermore,
they are assigned the task of promoting the Olympic Movement, its work, and its
fundamental principles in their day-to-day activities. The NOCs form five continental
associations, which are represented within the Association of National Olympic
Committees (ANOC).”63
“The organisation of the Olympic Games is entrusted by the IOC to the NOC of the
country of the host city as well as to the host city itself. The NOC forms, for that
purpose, an Organising Committee for the Olympic Games (OCOGs), which, from
the time it is constituted, communicates directly with the IOC, from which it receives
instructions.”64
The four following different phases with regard to the application and election
process of the host city can be seen since 1894.65 The general outlines were
described in the Thesis ‘Die Bewerbung um die Spiele der XXVIII Olympiade 2004’
(‘Application for the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad’) by Peter Schollmeier and are
briefly summarized below.
During the first phase from 1894 to 1939 Coubertin “appointed the Host Cities by
acclamation with the motivation that these cities should have certain qualifications
and preconditions to support the establishment of the Olympic Games. An election
procedure was introduced by the third IOC President Baillet-Latour for the Olympic
Games 1936. The first anonymous elected Host City was London for the Games in
1944.”66
The second phase from “1946 to 1963 is defined by a considerable increase of the
number of Applicant Cities. The spirit of time after World War II was affected by the
wish of international understanding which went well with the universal and global
character of the Olympic Games. The initial emphasis on ‘locations in the western
culture area’ came to an end with Tokyo in 1964.”67
27
The third phase from 1966 to 1981 shows a significant “decrease of the number of
Applicant Cities. The increasing costs and the political interference with several
boycotts discouraged potential Applicant Cities. Hosting the Olympic Games
became a task of national dimension representing a national status. The Olympic
Games in Los Angeles 1984 with a profit of 227,7 million USD, derived from an
Olympia related budget, put an end to the ‘spiral of increasing deficits’ and initiated a
turning point.”68
2.4.3 Current host city election process for the Olympic Games
“The election of any Host City is the prerogative of the Session.”70 In the 110th IOC
Session in December 1999 a 2-phase-system with a process duration of about two
years was initiated by the IOC. “The reforms have created an improved Host City
election process that clarified both the qualifications necessary to bid for the Games
and the responsibilities and obligations of all parties involved in the process. The
intention for introduction of the 2-phase system is to ensure that only interested
cities, that the IOC judges to be capable, are approved to proceed to the
candidature phase, thereby avoiding unnecessary expenditure for those cities which
are judged to be insufficiently prepared at the time.”71
The new bidding process has a total duration of 24 months and can be summarized
as following. The first phase is the Application: “Any application to host Olympic
Games must be submitted to the IOC by the competent public authorities of the
Applicant City together with the approval of the NOC of the country. Such authorities
and the NOC must guarantee that the Olympic Games will be organised to the
satisfaction of and under the conditions required by the IOC.”72 “The ‘Applicant
Cities’ have to fill out a questionnaire which contains various data regarding the
ability of the Applicant Cities including their countries to host, organise and stage
28
high level international multi-sports events.73 After a group of experts has studied
their answers, the IOC Executive Board decides which Applicant Cities will be
accepted as Candidate Cities.”74
The second phase is the Candidature: “The Candidate Cities have several months
in which to submit a file in response to a second IOC questionnaire. In line with the
IOC reforms of 1999, an Evaluation Commission, consisting of experts like IOC
members, representatives of International Federations (IFs), the NOCs, the IOC
Athletes’ Commission, is given the job of analysing the files submitted by the
Candidate Cities and making inspection visits to the cities (four days per city). The
Commission then produces a report for the IOC members to enable them to judge
the ability of the each city to host the Games. This report is made public no later
than one month before the start of the IOC Session, e.g. the general assembly of
IOC members, one of whose roles is to elect the Host Cities of the Olympic Games
(only the active members vote).”75 The first Host City which was elected in 2001
based on this 2-phase process was Beijing for the Olympic Games in 2008.
The idea of sharing and passing over the knowledge and experience to future
Games organisers led to the establishment of ‘IOC’s transfer of knowledge (TOK)
programme’ which was set up during the preparations for the Sydney Games in
2000 in cooperation with the Sydney Organising Committee (SOCOG). The TOK
programme was further enhanced in order to develop its knowledge management
initiatives and the IOC established an independent company called ‘Olympic Games
Knowledge Services’ (OGKS) in 2002. In 2005 these services were renamed to
‘Olympic Games Knowledge Management’ (OGKM). The OGKM works with the
OCOGs and the Bid Cities. Their programme is offering different activities such as
“observer programmes, interactive workshops, technical manuals, Games
evaluation, building knowledge capabilities, IOC debrief, OGKM extranet, cross-
cultural awareness and secondary programmes.”76
29
2.6 Sustainable urban development and the Olympic Games
Due to the increasing importance of environmental issues “the Olympic Charter was
amended in 1996 in order to include the following paragraph in Rule 2: The
International Olympic Committee (IOC) sees that the Olympic Games are held in
conditions which demonstrate a responsible concern for environmental issues and
encourages the Olympic Movement to take measures to reflect such concern in its
activities and educate all those connected with the Olympic Movement as to the
importance of sustainable development."77
30
The Olympic Movement elaborated an action programme in order to meet the
objectives of Agenda 21 with the following guidelines:
31
II. Conservation and management of resources for sustainable development
• “Methodology of environmental action for the Olympic Movement in the sense that
all the actions undertaken by the Olympic Movement must take place with due
respect for the environment and in the spirit of sustainable development, encourage
environmental education and allow specific activities to help preserving the
environment." 84
• Special effort for best possible use of existing sports facilities as well as to keep
them in good condition and to improve them by increasing safety and reducing their
environmental impact. The creation of new sports facilities must be confined to
cases in which demand cannot be satisfied by using or renovating existing facilities.
32
waters as water reserves are limited and form part of a closed system. They are
essential for farming activities, drinking and hygiene. In an increasing number of
regions of the world, the quantity and quality of water reserves are under threat.
• "Preserving the quality of the biosphere and maintenance of biodiversity. The earth
is our habitat, our biosphere, the only one we have. Our future is totally dependent
on the preservation of natural, physical and biological resources of the biosphere.”87
• Promoting the role of young people as they represent nearly one third of the
world’s population and are the population group most concerned by the environment
and development as well as by the practice of sport.”88
Sydney was one of the first cities to recognize and address the importance of eco-
friendly Games and invited Greenpeace to help create the outlines for an ‘eco-
efficiency guide for sports and recreation’. Consequently ‘Greening our Games’ by
David Chernushenko was published in 1994 as an United Nations Environmental
Programme.
33
The consideration and implementation of these guidelines had a great influence on
Sydney’s successful candidature for the Olympics in 2000. Twelve Principles for
Sustainable Sports have been developed:
"I. Conservation
Conservation of elements essential to the maintenance of life and health such as
clean air, clean water and good soil, as well as the animals and plants we require for
food, clothing and shelter. Modern societies have added to their list materials as
fossil fuels and minerals. Also to be conserved are such vanishing natural features
as forests, wetlands and other habitat- and most recently the ozone layer which
performs essential functions in keeping the biosphere and local ecosystems in
balance. The pillar of a sports conservation ethic, as Lillehammer environmentalist
Olav Myrholt argues in a submission to the IOC, is the recognition that ‘we are all in
the same arena which is planet earth. Any harm done by the sport industry to the
planet is thus a strike against the future of sport itself’.”90
"II. Stewardship
Environmental stewardship is the belief that all individuals, organizations,
companies and countries are stewards of the environment, and must be
responsible managers of those resources and regions on which our activities have
an impact. Good environmental stewardship is good management of resources,
restoration of resources, which we have despoiled, and the safe-keeping of
significant resources for posterity. ‘When in doubt refrain from doing!’”91
"III. Eco-Efficiency
The most economically efficient and environmentally responsible way to carry out
any task or make any product is to develop a system which minimizes the amount of
materials required as input, the amount of processing required for those materials
and the amount of non-productive output beyond the desired end product. The
ultimate eco-efficient system buys only what it needs, reuses material as many
times as possible and recycles or sells whatever may go unused. By producing no
unsellable waste and pollution disposal costs are avoided."92
"IV. Partnership
The idea of forming partnerships is to maximize the use of physical and intellectual
resources which is nothing new to the sports community with a tradition of groups
and individuals working together like sponsor an event or share a facility.
34
Appropriate innovative partnerships are now formed between non-traditional
partners and partnerships are becoming long-term arrangements being established
at an earlier stage in a project."93
"V. Leadership
The sporting industry can demonstrate leadership on any number of social issues by
showing that change is possible. We don't have to accept the Status quo if we're not
satisfied with it. ‘Whenever we are forced to change we often find potential
opportunities’."94
"VI. Quality
The sporting industry must shift its emphasis from size and quantity to quality if it
expects its events to continue to hold the interest of competitors, spectators and
sponsors. We can only go ‘higher, faster and stronger’ to a point. Athletic
performances cannot be pushed much beyond this point without unnatural, synthetic
and dangerous means. Similarly, events and facilities reach a point in size, with an
environmental impact where they may be doing more harm than good.”95
"VII. Responsibility
In any sphere the possession of power brings with it a responsibility. The institutions
of sport have become so highly regarded that top athletes have eclipsed politicians,
scientists and humanitarians as idols and role models in our society. Sport now has
an inordinate amount of influence, and with such influence comes responsibility: to
show leadership, to educate and motivate and to set a positive example in particular
for youth.”96
"VIII. Democratization
Typical decision issues include the allocation of money, design and location of
facilities, scheduling of events and hiring of coaches. One of the principal demands
of athletes is to be granted more direct involvement in decisions that affect them.
Although athletes do not want to become managers they do want to see that their
knowledge, experience and insight are taken seriously.”97
35
individual athletes. Funding can also be provided for restoring any natural sites
which may have been damaged by construction or heavy use.”98
"XI. Diversity
Any vibrant culture has in common diversity with any equally vibrant ecosystem. In
human society diversity and variety ensure that the needs of the majority of people
can be satisfied whether in language, career, entertainment or recreation. In the
natural world, biological diversity ensures that individual species are provided with
the conditions they need to survive, thus guaranteeing the viability of the ecosystem
as a whole. If that diversity in the natural world is removed as we have seen in
mono-cultural forestry and agriculture the risk is a complete collapse; remove
diversity and variety from human society and risk alienation, boredom and tunnel
vision. In sports if one or several forms of recreation dominate all others, the variety
and unpredictability of experience which are one of its principal attractions are likely
to be lost. In this case sports experiences are so uniform as to be described by
some athletes as sterile, non-distinct and the ultimate non-experience.”100
36
2.8 Certification methods
The most important certification methods are described in this chapter. Some criteria
used in the Evaluation Matrix in this thesis are developed in consideration of similar
criteria of the certification methods BREEAM, LEED, DGNB and GOBAS and further
discussed.
37
assessed, rated and certified.”103 A new version of the BREEAM environmental
performance standard shall be launched in 2014.104
“The Scheme Document is property of BRE Global Limited (part of the BRE Group)
which is an independent third party approval body offering certification of fire,
security as well as sustainability products and services to an international market.
BRE Global Limited’s mission is to protect people, property and the planet. Its scope
of work is researching and writing standards, testing and certification in the areas of
fire, electronics, security and sustainability, developing world leading sustainability
assessment methods, undertaking research and consultancy for clients and
regulators, promulgating standards and knowledge throughout the industry through
publications and events as well as developing and delivering training. BEEAM 2011
incorporates the majority of environmental performance measures proposed for
evaluation by CEN (European Committee for Standardisation) in CEN/TC 350
standards, together with a significant number of the social performance and some
economic measures. Obvious examples include using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
based data through the application of the Green Guide, Energy consumption in use
through the application of SBEM (Simplified Building Energy Model), the UK’s EPBD
(Energy Performance of Buildings Directive) compliant National Calculation
Methodology and water consumption through the BREEAM water calculator tools.
Outputs give KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) on Energy and Water in
compliance with the draft standards and BRE Global will be introducing others
following the final release of the CEN/TC 350 Standards.”105
38
parameters for establishment of indicators regarding the integration of major sports
facilities especially in the respective environmental but also urban and social
context. As per BREEAM definition “the assessment can be carried out for non-
domestic building types including Assembly and Leisure buildings (Indoor and
Outdoor Sports Facilities, Concert Hall, Conference Hall, Exhibition Hall), Non-
residential buildings (Museum), Retail buildings (Shopping Centre, Restaurants,
Cafes, Bars) which are in accordance with the sports facilities and their extended
mixed-use profile considered in the case studies."107
Overlay, Adaptability/Flexibility
With regard to environmental indicators for Building in this thesis the parameter
Overlay is assessed considering Overlay with post- Games removal and permanent
Overlay with post- Games utilization.vii The parameters Adaptability and Flexibility
are analyzed through the criteria Reconfiguration of the playing field, Retractable
seating and Removable turf.viii Illustration 4 shows that Innovation and New
technology, process and practices are factors of consideration for BREEAM.
BREEAM “aims to support innovation within the construction industry through the
recognition of sustainability related benefits which are not rewarded by standard
BREEAM issues. It considers approved innovation as any technology, method or
process that can be shown to improve the sustainability performance of a building’s
design, construction, operation, maintenance or demolition, and which is approved
as innovative by BRE Global.108
v
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.1 Location Type, page 76-78
vi
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter
A.2.1 Proximity, A.2.2 Connectivity, page 79-82
vii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay, page 82-83
viii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility, page 83-84
39
Energy Efficiency
Referring to Building Services in this thesis the parameter Energy Efficiency
including Renewable energy usage, Energy efficient air-conditioning, Energy
efficient lighting or Photovoltaic power as well as Environmentally friendly building
materials is assessed.ix Illustration 4 shows that Energy monitoring, Energy efficient
external lighting, Energy efficient equipment and Materials are also important criteria
in the BREEAM 2011 assessment scheme.
Water Conservation
With reference to parameter Water Conservation the factors Rainwater harvesting,
Water Recycling and Water-efficient appliances are evaluated in this thesis.x
Illustration 4 shows that Water consumption, Water monitoring and Water efficient
equipment are also important criteria in the BREEAM 2011 assessment scheme.
Other Usage
With regard to indicators in the social context the parameter Other Usage is
assessed through verification of the factors Retail, Commercial facilities and Tourist
attraction in this research.xi Illustration 4 shows that Proximity to amenities including
Amenities within assessed buildings are also important criteria in the BREEAM 2011
assessment scheme.
ix
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, pages 84-85
x
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, pages 85-86
xi
4.5.3 Classification C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.2
Other Usages, page 87
40
Illustration 4: BREEAM 2011 New Construction environmental sections and
assessment issues109
The 5-point evaluation score used in this thesis allows a general comparison with
the BREEAM rating benchmark system which is shown in Illustration 5 and
comprises a 5-scale assessment method (outstanding, excellent, very good, good,
41
pass). “BREEAM consists of forty nine individual assessment issues spanning the
nine environmental categories, plus a tenth category called ‘innovation’. Each issue
addresses a specific building related environmental impact or topic and has a
number of ‘credits’ assigned to it. Furthermore it adapts a balanced-score-card and
defines minimum standards.”110 Illustration 5 demonstrates the weighting applied in
‘Environmental Section’, Illustration 6 explains the benchmarks and Illustration 7
describes BREEAM Minimum standards.
The evaluation matrix of this thesis has no weighting because the relevance of the
12 parameters is considered to be equally important. The parameters were carefully
selected based on the assumption of providing objective evaluation through general
validity, relevance as well as measurable, objective and procurable data
acquisition.xii
xii
4.4 Evaluation with rating system, page 73
42
Illustration 7: Minimum BREEAM standards by BREEAM rating level113
43
2.8.2 Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design
“U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) invests over $30 million a year to maintain,
operate and improve LEED and its customer delivery. No other rating system has an
infrastructure that comes close to LEED. Behind the LEED program is an immense
infrastructure developed to support the leaders in the industry as they innovate and
create cutting-edge, high performance buildings, homes and neighbourhoods. LEED
certification provides assurance as a third-party, verifies that the project is designed,
built and operating the way it was intended. It is also a first step towards managing a
building through its entire lifecycle. 10 billion square feet of space has been certified
using LEED, with 1.7 million more square feet certifying daily. Furthermore the
ongoing performance of a building can be measured, ensuring continuation of
energy, water and money saving. LEED certification provides unrivalled visibility as
it is recognized across the globe as the premier mark of achievement in green
building. Overall it can be stated that LEED-certified buildings cost less to operate,
reducing energy and water bills by as much as 40%. Businesses and organizations
across the globe use LEED to increase the efficiency of their buildings, freeing up
valuable resources that can be used to create new jobs, attract and retain top talent,
expand operations and invest in emerging technologies.”115
LEED has established rating systems for five different building categories. “The first
category is Building Design and Construction (BD+C) which applies to buildings that
are being newly constructed or going through a major renovation with following
subcategories: New Construction, Core and Shell, Schools, Retail, Healthcare, Data
Centres, Hospitality, Warehouses and Distribution Centres. The second category is
Interior Design and Construction (ID+C) which applies to projects which are a
complete interior fit-out with following subcategories: Commercial Interiors, Retail
and Hospitality. The third category is Building Operations and Maintenance”116
44
"(O+M) which applies to projects which are existing buildings undergoing
improvement work or little to no construction with the following subcategories:
Existing Buildings, Data Centres, Warehouses and Distribution Centres, Hospitality,
Schools and Retail. The forth category is Neighbourhood Development (ND) which
applies to new land development projects or redevelopment projects containing
residential uses, non- residential uses or a mix. Projects can be at any stage of the
development process, from conceptual planning to construction with the following
subcategories: Plan, Project. The fifth category is Homes which applies to single
family homes, low-rise multi-family (one to three stories), or mid-rise multi-family
(four to six stories) with the following subcategories: Homes and Multifamily Lowrise,
Multifamily Midrise.”117
Although not applicable for the case studies of this thesis, as per definition LEED is
a specific green building tool as well as a third party verification for green buildings,
the LEED assessment criteria from 2009 with their continuous amendments and
updates in Addenda118 have been taken into consideration during the selection of
the evaluation criteria, parameters and establishment of indicators regarding the
integration of major sports facilities not only in the respective environmental but also
the urban and social context since the LEED program can be considered as a state
of the art standard. As per LEED definition the evaluation can be carried out for new
or existing building types including Retail and Hospitality buildings. In addition LEED
can be used for assessment of Neighbourhood Development which can be seen in
accordance with the sports facilities, their surroundings and the extended mixed-use
profile of the sports complex considered in the case studies. However, the LEED
assessment focuses on projects under development and not on existing projects
which have been developed in the past. LEED uses a credit system and assesses
the following main, additional and bonus categories.119 There are four levels of
certification. The number of points a project earns, determines the level of LEED
certification that the project will receive. Typical certification thresholds are: Certified
(40-49 Points), Silver (50-59 Points), Gold (60-79 Points) and Platinum (80+ Points).
• Water efficiency credits promoting smarter use of water, inside and out, to reduce
potable water consumption”120
45
• "Energy and atmosphere credits promoting better building energy performance
through innovative strategies
• Indoor environmental quality credits promoting better indoor air quality and access
to daylight and views
The interrelation between the LEED criteria and the parameters used for the
Evaluation Matrix in this thesis is described further below.
46
Building or Temporary Structure is assessed as an indicator for Urban Integration.xiii
As indicators regarding Urban Context the parameters Proximity and Connectivity
are evaluated through the linear distance of the stadium to mixed use areas (retail,
commercial, recreational or residential) within the urban context and the availability
of public transport with assessment of the linear distance to a metro station or
provision of bus connection.xiv With regard to indicators in the social context the
parameter Other Usage is assessed through verification of the factors Retail,
Commercial facilities and Tourist attraction.xv
“LEED has an integrative process credit ‘Materials and resources’ with the
parameter ‘Building life-cycle impact reduction’ which encourages adaptive reuse
and optimization of the environmental performance of products and materials. The
requirements therefore are to demonstrate reduced environmental effects during
initial project decision-making by reusing existing building resources or
demonstrating a reduction in material use through life-cycle assessment. This can
be achieved by historic building reuse, renovation of abandoned or blighted building
or building and material reuse. LEED assesses under the integrative process credit
‘Location & Transportation’ with parameter ‘LEED for Neighbourhood Development’
the location of the project with the intention to avoid development on inappropriate
sites and to reduce vehicle miles travelled as well as to enhance liveability and
improve human health by encouraging daily physical activity. The requirements
therefore are to locate the project within the boundary of a development certified
under LEED for Neighbourhood Development. Furthermore as parameter ‘High
priority land’ shows, there is the intention to encourage project location in areas with
development constraints and promote the health of the surrounding area for
example by use of a brownfield where soil or groundwater contamination has been
identified, and where the local, state, or national authority requires its remediation. In
consideration of parameter ‘Surrounding density and diverse use’ the intention is to
conserve land and protect farmland and wildlife habitat by encouraging development
in areas with existing infrastructure as well as to promote walkability, transportation
efficiency and reduce vehicle distance travelled. With parameter ‘Access to quality
transit’ the intention is to encourage development in locations shown to have
xiii
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.1 Location Type, Parameter A.1.2 Building Type, page 76-79
xiv
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter
A.2.1 Proximity, A.2.2 Connectivity, page 79-82
xv
4.5.3 Classification C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.2
Other Usages, page 87
47
multimodal transportation choices or otherwise reduced motor vehicle use, thereby
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and other environmental and
public health harms associated with motor vehicle use. The requirements therefore
are to locate any functional entry of the project within a ¼-mile (400-meter) walking
distance of existing or planned bus, streetcar, or rideshare stops, or within a ½-mile
(800-meter) walking distance of existing or planned bus rapid transit stops, light or
heavy rail stations, commuter rail stations or ferry terminals.”122
Overlay, Adaptability/Flexibility
With regard to environmental indicators for Building in this thesis the parameter
Overlay is assessed considering the criteria Overlay with post- Games removal and
permanent Overlay with post- Games utilization.xvi The parameters Adaptability and
Flexibility are analyzed through the criteria Reconfiguration of the playing field,
Retractable seating and Removable turf.xvii
Energy Efficiency
Referring to Building Services in this thesis the parameter Energy Efficiency
including Renewable energy usage, Energy efficient air-conditioning, Energy
efficient lighting or Photovoltaic power as well as Environmentally friendly building
materials is assessed.xviii “LEED has the integrative process credit ‘Energy &
atmosphere’ and parameter ‘Renewable energy production’ evaluates the intention
to reduce the environmental and economic harms associated with fossil fuel energy
by increasing self-supply of renewable energy. The requirements therefore are the
use of renewable energy systems to offset building energy costs. Furthermore the
integrative process credit ‘Indoor environmental quality’ with parameter ‘Daylight’
xvi
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay, page 82-83
xvii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility, page 83-84
xviii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, page 84-85
48
intends to connect building occupants with the outdoors, reinforce circadian rhythms
and reduce the use of electrical lighting by introducing daylight into the space.”124
Water Conservation
With reference to parameter Water Conservation the factors Rainwater Harvesting,
Water Recycling and Water-efficient appliances are evaluated in the thesis.xix “LEED
applies the integrative process credit ‘Water efficiency’ with parameter ‘Indoor waste
use reduction’ supporting the intention to reduce indoor water consumption. The
necessary requirements are defined fixtures and fittings, as applicable to the project
scope which reduce aggregate water consumption by 20% from the baseline. All
newly installed toilets, urinals, private lavatory faucets, and showerheads that are
eligible for labelling must be WaterSense labelled (or a local equivalent for projects
outside the U.S.). Also the installation of appliances, equipment, and processes
within the project scope that meet the requirements accordingly is intended.”125
DGNB has established three business areas which are the DGNB Academy with the
purpose to gain and pass on knowledge, the DGNB System developed in 2008 for
planning and assessment of sustainable buildings as well as the DGNB Navigator
which is an instrument for providing relevant information.127
The DGNB certification systems assess “up to 50 sustainability criteria from the
quality sections ecology, economy, socio-cultural aspects, technology, process work
flows and site. If a performance requirement is met, the DGNB awards the DGNB
certificate with a minimum of 35% of total performance index or further in bronze,
xix
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 85-86
49
silver and gold according to the total performance index of 50%, 65% or 80%.128 In
addition, there is the option of simple pre-certification in the planning phase.”129
The certification is conducted through an appointed auditor. DGNB uses for criteria
assessment a weighting scale which considers the following sections:
Environmental, Economic, Sociocultural and Functional as well as Technical Quality
with each 22,5% and Process Quality with 10% respective Site Quality which
contributes to Technical and Process Quality as shown in Illustration 8.131 An
overview of the criteria for buildings and urban districts is given in Illustration 9.
50
Illustration 9: Overview of the criteria for buildings and urban districts132
51
Illustration 9: Overview of the criteria for buildings and urban districts133
The DGNB scheme for Existing buildings includes Office and Administrative
buildings, Retail buildings, Industrial buildings and Residential buildings. The DGNB
scheme for New buildings comprises Educational facilities, Office and Administrative
buildings (with modernization measures), Retail buildings, Hotels, Industrial
buildings, Hospitals, Laboratory buildings, Tenant fit-out, Assembly buildings,
52
Residential buildings and Small residential buildings. The DGNB scheme for New
Districts applies to New urban districts, Industrial locations and New business
districts.134
Although not applicable for the case studies in this thesis, as DGNB was founded
only in 2008 and does not specifically include sports facilities as well as per
definition “assesses buildings and urban districts which demonstrate an outstanding
commitment to meeting sustainability objectives”135, the DGNB assessment criteria
have been taken into consideration during selection of the evaluation criteria,
parameters and establishment of indicators regarding the integration of major sports
facilities not only in the respective environmental but also urban and social context
since the DGNB program can be considered as a state of the art standard.
DGNB considers similar criteria in section Site Quality with parameter Site location
conditions, Access to Transportation, Access to Specific-use Facilities and
Connections to Utilities. In section Technical quality parameter Quality of Public
Transport Infrastructure is assessed. In section Sociocultural and Functional Quality
parameter Use of Existing Buildings is evaluated. In section Environmental Quality
parameter Land Use is reviewed.
xx
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.1 Location Type, Parameter A.1.2 Building Type, page 76-79
xxi
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter
A.2.1 Proximity, A.2.2 Connectivity, page 79-82
xxii
4.5.3 Classification C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.2
Other Usages, page 87
53
Overlay, Adaptability/Flexibility
With regard to environmental indicators for Building in this thesis the parameter
Overlay is assessed considering the criteria Overlay with post- Games removal and
permanent Overlay with post- Games utilization.xxiii The parameters
Adaptability/Flexibility are analyzed through the criteria Reconfiguration of the
playing field, Retractable seating and Removable turf.xxiv
In accordance DGNB is rating parameter Suitability for conversion and Occupancy.
Flexibility and Development Structure in section Sociocultural and Functional Quality
are evaluated.
Energy Efficiency
Relating to Building Services in this thesis the parameter Energy Efficiency including
Renewable energy usage, Energy efficient air-conditioning, Energy efficient lighting
or Photovoltaic power as well as Environmentally friendly building materials is
assessed.xxv
DGNB has equivalent evaluation in section Environmental Quality through
parameters Environmentally friendly Material Production, Consideration of possible
environmental impacts, Total Primary Energy Demand and Renewable Primary
Energy as well as Energy-Efficient Development Structure. Additionally in section
Technical Quality parameter Energy technology is evaluated.
Water Conservation
With reference to parameter Water Conservation the factors Rainwater Harvesting,
Water Recycling and Water-efficient appliances are evaluated in the thesis.xxvi
DGNB reviews in section Technical Quality parameter Rainwater Management.
xxiii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay, page 82-83
xxiv
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility, page 83-84
xxv
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, page 84-85
xxvi
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 85-86
54
DGNB provides similar investigation through parameter Social and Functional
Diversity, Site features, Social and Labour Infrastructure as well as Occupancy
Flexibility and Development Structure.
GOBAS addresses “two different aspects, which are the establishment of Green
Olympic building standards based on the green building concept and Olympic
building requirements as well as an operational assessment method that secures
the higher standards of Olympic buildings through design and construction. The
assessment process has four levels which are building planning, building design,
building construction and quality acceptance as well as building operation. Building
environment, energy, water resource, materials and internal environmental quality
are well examined in the process. GOBAS uses the Quality- load grading method
with a combination of assessments in two categories. The first category is Group Q
comprising parameters Site Quality, Services and Functions provided (Civil
infrastructure and facilities provision, Public transportation provision, Applicability of
the building) and External physical environment. Group L consists of parameters
Necessity study of the project (Necessity demonstration, Usage of temporary
facilities), Environmental Affect Analysis (Land resource control, Civil infrastructure
affect control), Energy Consumption Analysis (Energy planning), Materials and
Resources (Existing buildings, Building materials) and Water Resources (Water
planning, Rainwater control). Both groups are evaluated with a 5-point scale.
Importance related weightings are applied and a Q-L Green score is obtained.”137
xxvii
4.5.3 Classification C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.1
Sport Usage, Parameter C.1.2 Other Usages, Sub-category C.2, Parameter C.2.2 Diversity
of events, page 86-89
55
Although GOBAS was introduced for assessment of the Olympic Buildings in Beijing
2008 an implementation or assessment of results could not be found despite of
thorough research. This finding was also acknowledged by Natalie Essig in her
thesis ‘Nachhaltigkeit von Olympischen Sportbauten’ (‘Sustainability of Olympic
sports facilities’).138
In the literature review the existing studies, researches and certification systems are
summarized and discussed. The most relevant literature relating to the aims and
objectives of this thesis are briefly mentioned below.
The book ‘Olympic Cities: Urban Planning, City Agendas and the World's Games,
1896 to the present’ is a compendium of essays by John R. Gold and Margaret M.
Gold published in 2007. It states that “several authors note that in the bid process it
is common to overestimate the long-term and other benefits that accompany hosting
the games, but none of the authors completely answers the question of whether the
Olympics are worthwhile for cities in the long run. This demonstrates the need for
further research on the experience of cities years and decades after hosting the
games.”140
56
Subsequently the historic background of the Olympic Games and the outstanding
accomplishments of Baron Pierre de Frédy de Coubertin in founding the modern
Olympism in 1894 are reviewed and briefly summarized. In this context the
requirements for the hosting city for staging the Games, the election process with its
historic development as well as the introduction of a 2-phase-system in 1999 with a
process duration of about two years and the organisations involved are described.
Certification methods such as BREEAM, LEED, DGNB and GOBAS are reviewed
and described at the end of this chapter. It was noted that these complex
certification systems as a whole were not fully applicable for existing stadiums. In
consideration of the aims and objectives of this research, the relevant evaluation
criteria of BREEAM, LEED, DGNB and GOBAS and their implementation on the
case studies are identified. The selected criteria are considered for development of
the Research Tool further described in Chapter 4.
57
3 STADIUM DESIGN IN THE OLYMPIC CONTEXT
The review and analysis of the historic development of stadiums refers to sports
stadiums constructed for the modern Olympic Games from 1896 onwards. Focus is
on few selected examples specifically relating to the case studies in this thesis.
Illustration 10: Panathenaic Stadium143 built for the Olympic Games 1896 and also
used for the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens
The Panathinaiko Stadium was also venue for the Archery competition with a
reduced capacity of 7.500 seats and the Marathon finish with a capacity of 34,500
seats during the Olympic Games 2004. For this purpose "renovations that took
place under the responsibility of the General Secretariat of Sports and the Ministry
of Culture, included upgrades and modifications on its infrastructure, mainly in the
scope of restoration of the monument, configuration of the track and surrounding
areas, incorporation of lighting and establishment of fire-fighting systems." 144
58
3.1.2 Mono stadium for the Olympic Games 1908
The early mono stadium model was mainly hosting sports of “basic physical exertion
belonging to the oldest disciplines such as running, jumping, throwing and swimming
as well as sports of the so called civilised era with its conflicts and wars including
physical exercise in a battlefield manner such as archery, shooting, fencing, boxing,
judo and equestrianism. Later on especially the team played popular ‘ballgames’
such as football, basketball, hockey and lawn tennis created a dynamic spectacle
and a social phenomenon.”145
Liao is stating that “the infield of the Olympic Stadium was accordingly adapted to
the requirements with portable turf for the football tournament, set up with hurdles
and obstacles for the equestrian routine, erected with a demountable podium for
boxing, gymnastics, wrestling and weightlifting contests. In the event of the London
1908 and the Amsterdam 1928 Games the Olympic Stadium was even excavated
for a swimming pool or ringed by a cycling track.”146
The ‘White City’ Olympic Stadium of the London Games 1908 planed by architect
James Black Fulton was the first stadium specially developed for the Olympic
Games and designed as a monostadium with a capacity of approx. 68,000
spectators (including 20,000 covered seats) during the Olympic Games. “The
running track was surrounded by a 604-metre concrete cycling track, the playfield
was augmented by a swimming pool with dimensions of 17m by 100m and a special
collapsible tower was erected for the diving disciplines. Due to the space conditions
and increased density of activities a visualisation was difficult resulting in a lack of
contact between spectators and athletes.”147
Illustration 11 showing the Olympic Stadium 'White City Stadium', also referred to as
'The Stadium', demonstrates the big distance between the spectators and athletes.
This was considered a disadvantage, resulting in the development of dedicated
single-purpose sports stadiums rather than one multi-purpose stadium or a
monostadium. During the Olympic Games in 1908 the majority of competitions were
held at the monostadium 'White City Stadium' including: Archery, Athletics, Cycling
(Track), Diving, Field Hockey, Football, Gymnastics, Lacrosse, Rugby Union,
Swimming, Tug of War, Water Polo and Wrestling.
59
Illustration 11: 'White City Stadium' in London for 68,000 spectators (original
capacity 88,000 spectators) at Shepherd’s Bush (now called White City) built for the
Olympic Games 1908 in London 148
The crucial impulse for creating a new kind of sports venue was the time schedule.
The Olympic time was restricted to “16 days for the Los Angeles Games 1932 and
thereafter which made a simultaneous performance at different locations inevitable.
One of the first stadiums to be separated was the Natatorium. The Paris Games
1924 presented the first Olympic Swimming Stadium with filtering and heating
facilities. The establishment of the today known Velodrome began with the Helsinki
Games 1952 followed by the first ‘all-seated’ 15,000 spectator stadium in Rome in
1960 and the first indoor Velodrome in 1976 in Montreal. The first real equestrian
venue was designed for Helsinki 1952 with the final events being held in the
Olympic Stadium as a tradition until the 1980s. Subsequently other disciplines like
archery and shooting were moved to locations providing larger space and
gymnastics, wrestling, boxing or fencing became ‘indoor sports’ hosted in halls.
Today’s Olympic Stadium has the privilege to host only the classic athletic
disciplines as well as ceremonies and festivities.”149
Following the separation of the facilities for swimming events, cycling and equestrian
the Olympic Stadium remained the largest and most important venue in most cases,
staging the athletic competitions as well as the opening and closing ceremony.
Subsequent to the Olympic Games the playing field is usually used for soccer, union
rugby, American football and other non-sports events like concerts.
60
One example for a multi-purpose stadium is the Berlin Olympic Stadium, shown in
Illustration 12, which was built from 1934 to 1936. Architect Werner March designed
it for the Olympic Games 1936 in Berlin. The Olympic Stadium was constructed on
the remains of the National Stadium built by his father Otto March. “On December
14th 1933, Hitler himself decided to have the third design by the brothers March,
called ‘solution option B’, implemented. This plan called for the demolition of the
National Stadium. The new stadium was designed to be build ten metres below and
13 metres above the ground- creating a commanding, highly visible building. The
layout of the stands for the audience was planned above and below a circular
middle gallery on ground level. All of the architectural features actually built later,
can already be found in this initial plan: The Olympischer Platz, the Olympic Stadium
itself, the parade grounds with the so-called ‘Führerloge’ and the Bell Tower on the
East-West-Axis, the Coubertinplatz as well as the swimming pool stadium on the
North-South-Axis.”150
Illustration 12: Berlin Olympic Stadium built for the Olympic Games 1936 in Berlin 151
The trend to further utilize the stadium for additional functions by integrating facilities
for recreation, hotels, offices, retail and other functions started towards the end of
the 20th century. Main reason for adding and combining different functions is to
maximise the utilization of the building beyond sports events on a day-to-day ideally
24-hour basis. For this purpose and in order to comply with the FIFA requirements
the Berlin Olympic Stadium152 was completely refurbished and upgraded with a new
roof structure from 1999 to 2004 for the Soccer World Cup 2006 in Germany. It now
includes other functions such as a museum, chapel, fan shops and VIP boxes which
61
could be used as offices. In addition regular sight-seeing tours are organized on a
daily basis. “Since its reopening in August of 2004, more than 300.000 visitors from
around the world come to the Olympiastadion Berlin every year, thus making the
stadium one of the most frequented sights of Berlin."153
Schollmeier is stating in his thesis that “Coubertin associated the Olympic Games
and the Olympic Movement with the three major principles Internationality,
Continuity and Independence. The idea of Internationality is emphasized by the
election of multinational IOC members and the approach to celebrate the Olympic
Games in the world’s different capitals. From his point of view changing venues
allow the Olympic Games to remain independent regarding people, nations and
organisations involved in the process. Coubertin also believed that various places of
staging the Games would attract more and different groups of spectators.”154
This proposal called ‘Hellas Plan’ was rejected by the 84. IOC Session in Baden-
Baden with the following resolution: ‘The International Olympic Committee is deeply
grateful to the Greek People, its government, and above all, to the President of the
Republic of Greece, who offered a completely neutral region close to the ancient
Olympia as a permanent site for the Olympic Games of modern times, subject to the
control of the International Olympic Committee. Los Angeles has been chosen to
host the Olympic Games in 1984 and Seoul in 1988. Several Candidate Cities have
already been registered for 1992. We hope that the city which had the privilege to
organise the first Games of modern times, Athens, will be chosen for 1996.”156
62
3.3 Stadium design in the 21st century
Selected important facts referring to the development of stadium design in the 21st
century are highlighted below considering the aims and objectives of this research.
Building structures constructed for single non-reoccurring events, for instance trade
fairs like the World Exhibition EXPO157, which takes place every five years, shall be
utilized after the event to avoid vacancies. Recent concepts for future use of
buildings have been showcased at the EXPO 1998158 in Lisbon (Portugal) and
EXPO 2000159 in Hanover (Germany). The EXPO 1998 in Lisbon160 was built from
scratch covering 50 hectares. Every building was pre-sold for the use after the event
ensuring that the site would not be left abandoned, as it had happened with previous
exhibitions for instance at the EXPO 1992 in Seville, and to offset the costs for the
EXPO. “The EXPO 1998 attracted ten million visitors within 132 days and closed on
30. September 1998. Five months later in February 1999, the venue reopened as
‘Parque das Nações’ (Park of the Nations) as a free-access park. Most of the
buildings were re-used or converted into office or living space. The main entrance
(Sun Door) was converted into the ‘Centro Vasco da Gama’, a regional shopping
mall and the main exhibition pavilions were transformed into the ‘Feira Internacional
de Lisboa’ (Lisbon International Exhibition Fair). The ‘Utopia Pavilion’ was converted
to ‘Pavilhão Atlântico’, Lisbon's main multi-purpose indoor arena. The area
previously used for the EXPO 1998 is attracting approximately 18 million tourists per
year to its gardens, museums, commercial areas and has become permanent
residency for up to 150,000 people.”161 For the EXPO 2000 in Hanover the concept
for re-use of buildings has been further developed. One example is the ‘Christ
Pavilion’.162 The 2,000 sqm building complex was designed for the EXPO 2000 and
then re-used at a different location. The entire complex, with exception of the crypt,
colonnade and water basin was disassembled after the EXPO 2000 and
reassembled in the cloister of Volkenroda in 2001.
The key drivers for enhancing the adaptability of stadiums are the operational
requirements to stage different types of sports events and non-sports events with
differing and partly conflicting requirements at the same venue. One of the major
63
limitations for the adaptability of the largest venue out of the three selected venues
in this research, the Olympic Stadium, is the 400m running track which encircles the
natural turf field. Due to the dimensions of the track, the playing field inside can be
mainly utilized for soccer events (playing field 68m x 105m), union rugby (playing
filed max. 70m x 100m) and, with adjustments of the running track to fit in the 100
yard field, for American football (playing field 110m x 48m).
The requirements for the Olympic Games venues are defined by the International
Olympic Committee (IOC). Among other outlines the spectator capacities for the
different venues, sports disciplines and ceremonies are specified. The capacity of
the Olympic Stadium is defined with a minimum of 60,000 spectators. Most of the
recent Olympic Stadiums have a higher capacity for the Games like the Sydney
Olympic Stadiumxxviii with 115,600 spectators, Olympic Stadium Athensxxix with
71,030 spectators and Olympic Stadium Beijingxxx with 91,000 spectators which are
then reduced after the Games. One example for introduction of temporary seating is
Sydney Olympic Stadium163, which was the main stadium for the Sydney Olympic
Games 2000, with 115,600 spectators during the Games and was reconfigured to
80,000 seats after the Games.
The increasing importance to reduce the spectator capacity is also considered for
the Olympic Games 2012 in London where all athletic events as well as the opening
and closing ceremonies will take place in the Olympic Stadium.164,165 Out of the total
capacity of 80,000 spectator seats more than 65% are demountable. Accordingly
the stadium will have 25,000 permanent seats and 55,000 temporary seats. After
the Games the stadium shall be transformed into a venue with a smaller capacity of
25,000 seats for athletics, other sporting, community and educational usages.
Reasons for the reduced capacity are the differing long-term requirements for the
operation after the Games, usually resulting in a significantly lower demand. Another
important aspect for the smaller capacity is the reduction of operational and
maintenance costs. The large fraction of temporary demountable elements
proposed for the London Olympic Stadium has not been constructed before.
xxviii
5.3.2 Sydney Olympic Stadium, pages 99-101
xxix
5.4.2 Athens Olympic Stadium, pages 106-108
xxx
5.5.2 Beijing Olympic Stadium, pages 114-116
64
3.3.4 Temporary stadiums
For the Olympic Summer Games 2004 in Athens a temporary arena166, shown in
Illustration 13, for Taekwondo, Basketball, Baseball, Beach Volleyball, Softball,
Fencing, Hockey and Cycling with 45,000 seats was constructed.
Illustration 13: Athens Olympic Games 2004 temporary arena with 45,000 seats167
Another example for temporary constructions built for the XXVII Summer Olympic
Games 2000 in Sydney is displayed in Illustration14. For the competitions in Beach
Volleyball a temporary venue168 with 10,000 seats was constructed.
The modified table below, as Illustration 14, adopted from Hanwen Liao’s thesis ‘A
Framework for Evaluating Olympic Urban Development for Sustainability’ compares
the number of permanent venues and temporary venues. For certain sports
activities, required for the Olympic Games, but not common in the Host City, the
construction of temporary venues is an interesting alternative. However, temporary
sports venues are not subject of this thesis.
65
New built venues in
permanent venues
used in Host City
Temp. venues in
No. of venues in
No. of venues in
Existing venues
% of temporary
% of existing
Host City
Host City
Host City
% of new
venues
venues
total
City Games
Rome’60 24 17 12 5 29 4 24 47
Tokyo’64 30 25 14 11 44 4 16 40
Mexico’68 22 17 7 10 59 0 0 41
Munich’72 32 21 13 8 38 4 19 43
Montreal’76 26 17 10 7 41 0 0 59
Moscow’80 27 23 11 12 52 0 0 48
Los Angeles’84 33 23 7 16 70 2 9 22
Seoul’88 32 23 13 10 44 2 9 48
Barcelona’92 40 23 11 12 52 2 9 39
Atlanta’96 32 24 16 8 33 5 21 46
Sydney’00 37 33 26 7 21 3 9 70
Athens’04 39 33 22 11 33 3 9 58
Beijing’08 37 31 12 11 32 8 24 43
London’12 38 28 6 17 61 5 18 21
Average 32 24 13 10 44 3 12 45
Illustration 14: Extract from table prepared by Hanwen Liao: "The use of existing
and temporary venues, Rome ’60 to London ’12", here Information added for
Olympic Games 2004 in Athens, 2008 in Beijing and 2012 in London
accordingly169,170,171
66
3.4 Summary chapter stadium design in the Olympic context
In this chapter the historic development of sports stadiums is briefly reviewed and
summarized. Considering the fundamentally different requirements for the design
and operation of sports stadiums in the 21st century, especially with regard to urban,
social and environmental context, focus in the review of the historic evolution is on
aspects relevant for the analysis and assessment of the case studies. Referring to
the historic development the emphasis is on the evolving requirements for staging
the Olympic Games in consideration of the aims and objectives of this research.
For the early monostadium model the example of the ‘White City’ Olympic Stadium
of the London Games 1908 is given. The consecutive development of the multi-
purpose stadium took place following the separation of the facilities for swimming
events, cycling and equestrian. The Olympic Stadium remained the largest and most
important venue staging the athletic competitions as well as the opening and closing
ceremony. Subsequent to the Olympic Games the playing field is usually used for
soccer, union rugby, American football and other non-sports events like concerts.
The alternative to provide one permanent location for the Olympic Games in
Greece, known as the 'Hellas Plan', is mentioned with reference to the research of
Peter Schollmeier172 and it is described why this proposal was not accepted by the
International Committee.
The trend to further utilize the stadium for additional functions by integrating facilities
for recreation, hotels, offices, retail and other functions started towards the end of
the 20th century. Main reason for adding and combining different functions is to
maximise the utilization of the building beyond sports events on a day-to-day ideally
24-hour basis. One example for stadiums where additional facilities became integral
part of the stadium complex, but are operating independently, is the Olympic
Stadium in Berlin.173 This structure was built for the Summer Olympic Games 1936
in Berlin and completely refurbished as well as upgraded between1999 and 2004 for
the Soccer World Cup 2006 in Germany. It now includes a museum, chapel, fan
shops and VIP boxes which could be used as offices.
The stadium design of the 21st century is described with special attention to the key
drivers for enhancing the adaptability of stadiums to stage various types of sports
events and non-sports events with differing and partly conflicting requirements at the
67
same venue. The transformation of sports venues with reduction of the spectator
capacity as well as dismantle of the overlay to minimize operational and
maintenance costs is described with reference to the case studies.
In addition examples of temporary arenas and their use are shown as paradigms for
temporary venues at the Olympics 2000 in Sydney and 2004 in Athens. However,
temporary sports venues are not subject of this thesis.
68
4 DEVELOPMENT RESERACH TOOL
This chapter starts with a definition of the term 'sustainability'. Subsequently the
method of evaluation and methodology for development of the research tool in
consideration of the aims and objectives of this research are described. Reference
is made to the conclusions of Chapter 2, where relevant criteria of existing
certification systems such as BREEAM, LEED and DGNB were identified and
integrated in the bespoke Evaluation Matrix.
“The English word ‘sustain’ is based on the Latin word ‘sustenare’, meaning to
‘keep’ or ‘hold up’. The modern use of the word can be traced to German forestry
science of the 17th century, in which it was the precursor to today’s ‘sustainable
yield’: a level of resource extraction that can be maintained over time. The meaning
of the word ‘sustainable’ could be described with ‘capable of being maintained at a
certain level’".174
With reference to environmental issues the most commonly cited definition is from
the United Nations report ‘Our Common Future’, also known as the ‘Brundtland’
Report from 1987: "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.”175 This particular definition is consciously selected in this thesis as the
“‘Brundtland’ Report concept became one of the most successful approaches to be
introduced in many years. In fact, it helped to shape the international agenda and
the international community's attitude towards economic, social and environmental
development. An enormous amount of academic, administrative and political effort
has been put into trying to find a more precise definition of sustainable development
than the one put forward by the Brundtland Commission, but to no avail.”176 The
concept of sustainable development changed with time and according to the
circumstances “giving further emphasis to practical solutions that can be
implemented on the ground. Also the identification of key problem areas has
become more specific and the conclusions more action-oriented.” 177
The intent of this thesis is similarly to identify key drivers for a more sustainable
legacy of the Olympic Games, ideally through practical implementation of the
findings described in the comparative assessment and in consideration of the
conclusions.
69
4.2 Method of evaluation
In the interviews assumptions made during the literature review with regard to the
key drivers for sustainability were discussed. After completion of each field research
the results consisting of site pictures, drawings, site plans, maps, measurements,
etc. were analysed and evaluated. Based on the documentation for all three case
studies the comparative assessment was carried out using a bespoke Evaluation
Matrix with a 5-point score systemxxxiv further described in the following sections of
this chapter.
The requirement for development of a bespoke Evaluation Matrix resulted from the
fact that none of the existing certification methods could be fully applied as a whole
for sports stadiums already in use and from the difficulty that the required data, for
example documentation of the actual resources consumption (e.g. electricity bills),
for the application of such complex certification systems were not discretionary.
xxxi
4.5 Description Evaluation Matrix, pages 74-76
xxxii
Sydney 12.02.-19.02.2011, Athens 21.10-26.10.2010, Beijing 26.02.-05.03.2011
xxxiii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category, B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay, pages 82-83
xxxiv
4.4 Evaluation with rating system, page 73
70
Furthermore the editors of BREEAM intended to provide an evaluation only for New
Buildings constructed in the United Kingdom which are assessed based on “built
environmental performance” and optionally may get further certified with “excellent
or outstanding rating which represents best and exemplary practice in the design
and construction of new buildings in the UK”. LEED is a green building tool as well
as third party verification for green buildings. DGNB was founded only in 2008 and
does not specifically include sports facilities as well as per definition “assesses
buildings and urban districts which demonstrate an outstanding commitment to
meeting sustainability objectives”.xxxv
The Evaluation Matrix was used for the field researches in Sydney, Canberra,
Athens and Beijing. Findings of the site analysis and site surveys as well as
personal interviews were incorporated in the Evaluation Matrix for subsequent
evaluation and comparative assessment.
In consideration of the actual findings during the field research the assessment
method and Evaluation Matrix were refined and simplified. Sub-categories and
parameters where sufficient data could not be obtained were removed. Thereupon
the results of the case studies were analyzed with the revised Evaluation Matrix for
the Urban, Environmental and Social Category. Discussion and comparative
assessment of the results for each parameter of the respective stadium type was
undertaken subsequently.
xxxv
2.8 Certification methods, pages 37-56
71
For verification of the general applicability of the Evaluation Matrix for other sports
stadiums one additional case study of the London 2012 Olympic Games was carried
out and showed that no further refinement of the used Evaluation Matrix was
necessary. Lastly conclusions for each category with the respective stadium type
and lessons learned were drawn for the case studies in Sydney, Athens and Beijing.
72
4.4 Evaluation with rating system
A 5-point score system was elaborated (5= very good, 4= good, 3= fair, 2= poor, 1=
very poor) in order to assess the data in a most objective and unbiased way. The
decision for the 5-point score system was taken in consideration and referring to the
recommendations given in the publication ‘Rating the rating scale’ by Professor
Hershey H. Friedman and Taiwo Amoo. This scale seemed also appropriate after
consideration and review of the collected data as a finer scale with more points
would not have contributed to additional benefits or more significant insights.
“Ideally, a rating scale should consist of enough points to extract the necessary
information. There is evidence that the more scale points are used, the more reliable
the scale (Churchill and Peter 1984). Using too few points will result in a scale that is
less reliable. However, using more points than subjects can handle will probably
result in an increase in variability without a concomitant increase in precision. In a
literature review, Cox (1980) concluded that there is no single number of points for a
rating scale that is appropriate for all situations. In general, however, he suggested
the use of five to nine points. Friedman and Friedman (1986) conclude that
researchers should consider using anywhere from 5- to 11-point scales.”178 For the
assessment of the results of the case studies in this research a balanced rating
scale has been developed. The ratings are defined as following:
The three categories in this research, each with two sub-categories based on two
respective parameters, are described in the following chapters. The overall
weighting of each of the three categories is summarized below and the detailed
breakdown for the assessment and rating of the various parameters is shown in
Chapter 4.5 ‘Description Evaluation Matrix’.
73
4.5 Description Evaluation Matrix
The Evaluation Matrix is used for assessment and subsequent comparison of the
specific location conditions and other given factors at the different selected venues
used for the Olympic Games 2000, 2004 and 2008. The Evaluation Matrix and rating
system were developed as a research tool in preparation of the field research and
derived from other existing comparative qualitative and quantitative assessment
methods identified during the literature research.
74
individual score is multiplied by the appropriate criterion weighting. The total score is
then calculated for each option. The greater the score, the better the option satisfies
the criteria. Options that score within 10% of one another should be considered
relatively equal in satisfying the criteria.” 179
The Evaluation Matrix with the maximum number of points which can be achieved
for each denomination, category, sub-category and respective parameters is shown
on the following pages of this chapter with a comprehensive description of each
category, sub-category and respective parameters.
75
All ratings of the comparative assessment are summarized in a more detailed
Summary of Resultsxxxvi developed based on the Evaluation Matrix shown in
Illustration 16 above. The rating for each parameter is shown in Illustration 74 in
Chapter 11 ‘Appendix’, 11.2 ‘Rating matrix for comparative assessment’.
Urban Category is analysed based on the following two sub-categories: A.1 Urban
Integration (max. 10 points) and A.2 Urban Context (max. 10 points). The maximum
number of points allocated for A Urban Category is 20 points.
Existing Site: Usage of an Existing Site with existing infrastructure for access and
egress (e.g. public transport, road network, etc.) and utilities (e.g. electricity, water,
sewage, gas etc.). Utilization of an Existing Site with existing infrastructure is
considered to result in a higher sustainability level compared to a Brownfield or
Greenfield Site. The longer venues are operated at an Existing Site the higher is the
actual level of integration into the urban context. Accordingly a comparatively higher
sustainability level can be achieved. Therefore 4 or 5 points are allocated.
xxxvi
6.4 Summary of all ratings for each stadium, page163
76
Brownfield Site: Redevelopment of a Brownfield Site with construction of a new
stadium and new related infrastructure. The longer the Brownfield Site was unused
the more points are allocated. The redevelopment of a Brownfield Site is considered
to be less sustainable than an Existing Site but more sustainable compared to the
usage of a Greenfield Site which consumes undeveloped land. Therefore 2 or 3
points are allocated.
The parameter Location Type features also the basis for the BREEAM 2011
analysis. Illustration 4 shows that Site selection is an important criterion for
BREEAM 2011 assessment scheme.180
“LEED assesses under the integrative process credit ‘Location & Transportation’
with parameter ‘LEED for Neighbourhood Development’ the location of the project
with the intention to avoid development on inappropriate sites and to reduce vehicle
miles travelled as well as to enhance liveability and improve human health by
encouraging daily physical activity. The requirements therefore are to locate the
project within the boundary of a development certified under LEED for
Neighbourhood Development. Furthermore as parameter ‘High priority land’ shows,
there is the intention to encourage project location in areas with development
constraints and promote the health of the surrounding area for example by use of a
brownfield where soil or groundwater contamination has been identified, and where
the local, state, or national authority requires its remediation. In consideration of
parameter ‘Surrounding density and diverse use’ the intention is to conserve land
and protect farmland and wildlife habitat by encouraging development in areas with
existing infrastructure as well as to promote walkability, transportation efficiency and
reduce vehicle distance travelled.”181
77
DGNB considers similar criteria in the section Site Quality with parameter Site
location conditions, Access to Transportation, Access to Specific-use Facilities and
Connections to Utilities. In section Environmental Quality parameter Land Use is
reviewed.182
78
According to the above mentioned criteria the following classifications for
assessment of Building Type are defined:
The parameter Building Type features also the basis for the LEED assessment.
“LEED has an integrative process credit ‘Materials and resources’ with the
parameter ‘Building life-cycle impact reduction’ which encourages adaptive reuse
and optimization of the environmental performance of products and materials. The
requirements therefore are to demonstrate reduced environmental effects during
initial project decision-making by reusing existing building resources or
demonstrating a reduction in materials use through life-cycle assessment. This can
be achieved by historic building reuse, renovation of abandoned or blighted building
and material reuse.”183
Proximity is analysed with reference to the Urban Context surrounding the stadium.
For this purpose the linear geographical distance of the sports facility to urban areas
such as retail, commercial, recreational and residential areas is analysed. The linear
distance is measured by using Google Maps and was also verified during the site
visit of the respective venues.
79
It is assumed that commercial areas like the city centre, with mixed-use, residential
areas or other areas of attraction (e.g. public parks) are catchment areas with
potential users, which could positively affect the operation of the sports facility.
These areas act as a catalyst to attract more visitors to the stadium and vice versa
visitors of the stadium could utilize the areas before and/or after the event for
shopping, recreation, etc. resulting in a higher sustainability level.
Proximity to residential areas could result in positive effects allowing the users
convenient access, but also in negative effects due to traffic congestions, parking
issues and other disturbance during events (e.g. noise).
80
It is assumed that sufficient public transport systems, e.g. metro stations close to the
stadium, result in a higher sustainability level compared to transportation by bus, car
or other modes of transportation. According to the above mentioned criteria the
following classifications for assessment of Connectivity were defined:
The parameters Proximity and Connectivity feature also the basis for the BREEAM
2011 analysis. Illustration 4 shows that Proximity as well as Public transport
accessibility to the amenities are important criteria for BREEAM 2011 assessment
scheme.185
“LEED assesses under the integrative process credit ‘Location & Transportation’
with parameter ‘LEED for Neighbourhood Development’ the location of the project
with the intention to avoid development on inappropriate sites and to reduce
vehicles miles travelled as well as to enhance liveability and improve human health
by encouraging daily physical activity. The requirements therefore are to locate the
project within the boundary of a development certified under LEED for
Neighbourhood Development. Furthermore as parameter ‘High priority land’ shows,
there is the intention to encourage project location in areas with development
constraints and promote the health of the surrounding area for example by use of a
brownfield where soil or groundwater contamination has been identified, and where
the local, state, or national authority requires its remediation. In consideration of
parameter ‘Surrounding density and diverse use’ the intention is to conserve land
and protect farmland and wildlife habitat by encouraging development in areas with
existing infrastructure as well as to promote walkability, transportation efficiency and
reduce vehicle distance travelled.
With parameter ‘Access to quality transit’ the intention is to encourage development
in locations shown to have multimodal transportation choices or otherwise reduced
motor vehicle use, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and
other environmental and public health harms associated with motor vehicle use. The
requirements therefore are to locate any functional entry of the project within a ¼-
mile (400-meter) walking distance of existing or planned bus, streetcar, or rideshare
81
stops, or within a ½-mile (800-meter) walking distance of existing or planned bus
rapid transit stops, light or heavy rail stations, commuter rail stations or ferry
terminals. 186
DGNB considers similar criteria in section Site Quality with parameter Site location
conditions, Access to Transportation, Access to Specific-use Facilities and
Connections to Utilities. In section Technical quality parameter Quality of Public
Transport Infrastructure is assessed.187
The maximum number of points for each of the two parameters is 5 points resulting
in a maximum total number of 10 points in sub-category B.1 Building for each venue
of the respective Olympic Games.
Overlay of a venue is analysed with reference to the general design approach and
post- Games planning for the main components of the stadium. This includes a
review of the areas for circulation and special features of the stadium which have an
impact on the operation of the stadium. It is assumed that a venue with an Overlay
which is removed or modified after the Olympic Games, in order to meet the
requirements of home teams and of the respective day-to-day use, or a venue which
has been originally constructed as a perfect match for post- Games use has a
higher sustainability level. According to the above mentioned criteria the following
classifications for assessment of Overlay are defined:
82
Tailor-made Overlay with post- Games removal or perfect match 4-5 pt
Permanent Overlay with post- Games utilization 2-3 pt
No Overlay, no post- Games modifications or Overlay to disadvantage 1-2 pt
83
combination of innovation, pilot, and exemplary performance strategies to achieve
significant, measurable environmental performance using a strategy not addressed
in the LEED green building rating system.”190 Similarly DGNB is rating parameter
Suitability for conversion and Occupancy. Flexibility and Development Structure in
section Sociocultural and Functional Quality are evaluated.191
Usage of energy-efficient systems for power generation and conservation (e.g. solar
power, photovoltaic power, heating system with heat recovery, heat pumps, heat
storage), AC/Ventilation (e.g. natural ventilation), lighting (e.g. natural lighting,
automatic control for lighting devices, light fittings, etc.) and environmentally friendly
building materials (e.g. recycling materials, etc.) as well as technically advanced
materials are evaluated.
84
The context of parameter Energy Efficiency features also the basis for the BREEAM
2011 analysis. Illustration 4 shows that Energy monitoring, Energy efficient external
lighting, Energy efficient equipment and Materials are also important criteria in the
BREEAM 2011 assessment scheme.192
“LEED has the integrative process credit ‘Energy & atmosphere’ and parameter
‘Renewable energy production’ evaluates the intention to reduce the environmental
and economic harms associated with fossil fuel energy by increasing self-supply of
renewable energy. The requirements therefore are the use of renewable energy
systems to offset building energy costs. Furthermore the integrative process credit
‘Indoor environmental quality’ with parameter ‘Daylight’ intends to connect building
occupants with the outdoors, reinforce circadian rhythms and reduce the use of
electrical lighting by introducing daylight into the space.”193
Usage of systems for water conservation (e.g. rainwater harvesting) and reduction
of wastage of water (e.g. water recycling, separate systems for potable water and
grey water supply for toilet flushing, usage of grey water for irrigation of the
landscape) as well as water-efficient appliances are evaluated.
It is assumed that reduction of wastage of water and water recycling result in a
higher sustainability level. According to the above mentioned criteria the following
classifications for assessment of Water Conservation are defined:
85
Parameter Water conservation features also the basis for the BREEAM 2011
analysis. Illustration 4 shows that Water consumption, Water monitoring and Water
efficient equipment are also important criteria in the BREEAM 2011 assessment
scheme.195
“LEED applies the integrative process credit ‘Water efficiency’ with parameter
‘Indoor waste use reduction’ supporting the intention to reduce indoor water
consumption. The necessary requirements are defined fixtures and fittings, as
applicable to the project scope which reduce aggregate water consumption by 20%
from the baseline. All newly installed toilets, urinals, private lavatory faucets, and
showerheads that are eligible for labelling must be WaterSense labelled (or a local
equivalent for projects outside the U.S.). Also the installation of appliances,
equipment, and processes within the project scope that meet the requirements
accordingly is intended.”196 DGNB reviews in section Technical Quality parameter
Rainwater Management.197
Social Category is analysed based on the following two sub-categories: C.1 Usage
Mix (max. 10 points) and C.2 Utilization (max. 10 points). The maximum number of
points allocated for denomination C Social Category is 20 points.
Sub-category C.1 Usage Mix is analysed based on the following two parameters:
C.1.1 Sport Usage (1-5 points) and C.1.2 Other Usages. The maximum number of
points for each of the two parameters is 5 points resulting in a maximum total
number of 10 points in sub-category C.1 Usage Mix for each venue of the respective
Olympic Games.
The usage of the venue for sports events is evaluated based on the number of
home teams and number of different sports types. It is assumed that sports facilities
which are used by different home teams have more regular sports events. Options
for different sports types result in a higher number of events and therefore in a
higher level of sustainability.
86
According to the above mentioned criteria the following classifications for
assessment of Sport Usage are defined:
The utilization of the venue for other usages is evaluated based on the number of
different retail/commercial facilities and tourist attractions.
The context of parameter Other usage features also the basis for the BREEAM 2011
analysis. Illustration 4 shows that Proximity to amenities, including amenities within
assessed buildings, is also an important criterion in the BREEAM 2011 assessment
scheme.198
DGNB provides similar investigation through parameter Social and Functional
Diversity, Site features, Social and Labour Infrastructure as well as Occupancy
Flexibility and Development Structure.199
87
Sub-category C.2 Utilization
The average number of events is evaluated and compared based on the total
number of events per month resulting in an assessment of the post- Games usage
of the sports facility. Spectator occupancy per event and average occupancy for the
respective venue is given where available.
It is assumed that the higher the number of events hosted at a venue the better
post- Games usage is achieved resulting in a higher level of sustainability.
According to the above mentioned criteria the following classifications for
assessment of Average number of events are defined:
The Diversity of events is evaluated based on comparison of the ratio of sports and
non-sports events hosted at the venue. It is assumed that a balanced percentage of
sports events and non-sports events is indicating more variety with regard to usage
options ensuring different utilization alternatives and therefore results in a higher
level of sustainability. According to the above mentioned criteria the following
classifications for assessment of Diversity of events are defined:
88
Minimum 5% non-sports events 3 pt
Minimum 3% non-sports events 2 pt
No non-sports events 1 pt
The parameters indicating the utilization with special focus on post-Games usage in
this thesis were carefully selected in consideration that they have to be objective,
tangible, generally valid, timeless, easily obtainable and significant. Therefore the
parameters have been extracted from countable data such as event schedules with
specification of event types, home teams and sports types as well as the presence,
number and type of additional attractions.
“Legacy facilities are the permanent facilities which will remain and must be realistic
for long-term use and benefit to the community.”200
89
4.6 Criteria for selecting the case studies
For this research (field research was carried out between 2010 and 2011) the first
three Olympic Summer Games of the 21st century have been selected: Olympic
Games 2000 in Sydney, Olympic Games 2004 in Athens and Olympic Games 2008
in Beijing. The three hosts are located on different continents and have fulfilled the
requirements of the International Olympic Committee. The Winter Olympic Games
are not part of this research due to the significantly different climate requirements
and the limited number of locations worldwide where they can be held.
For the case studies three different types of permanent stadiums were selected,
each with a minimum spectator capacity of 15,000 spectators after the Olympic
Games: Olympic Stadium, Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium. The comparison of
three different stadium types shall provide more general conclusions than a focus
only on one type of stadium. Regarding the selection of the individual stadiums for
the case studies it is assumed that a minimum capacity of 15,000 spectators203 is
appropriate to provide measurable and tangible results for assessment of the
parameters in the respective sub-category.
For the selection of case studies it is differentiated between existing stadiums which
have been redeveloped204 for the Olympic Games and new stadiums specifically
built for the Olympic Games after election of the Host City by the International
Olympic Committee (IOC).
In order to assess different types of buildings, one new stadium as well as one
existing stadium redeveloped for the Olympic Games with a minimum capacity of
15,000 spectators is evaluated. In addition the Olympic Stadium with a minimum
capacity of 60,000 spectators is selected. The main stadium is considered to have a
significant impact on the urban context due to its size. The minimum capacity of
60,000 spectators is a requirement of the IOC since the Olympic Stadium is usually
the venue for the opening and closing ceremony.
90
4.6.2 Venues of the Olympic Games 2000, 2004 and 2008
With regard to the selection of the stadiums for each case study a comprehensive
chart of all venues built for the Olympic Games in Sydney, Athens and Beijing was
prepared based on the table in Hanwen Liao’s research ‘A Framework for
Evaluating Olympic Urban Development for Sustainability’.205 Illustration 17 below
summarises the spectator capacities of each sports stadium used for the Olympic
Games in Sydney, Athens and Beijing.
91
Sport Type Sydney 2000 Athens 2004 Beijing 2008 Remarks
218 219 220
Illustration 17: Extract of table ‘Seating capacity of Olympic venues from Rio' 60 to
Sydney 2000’ prepared by Hanwen Liao from the PhD thesis ‘A Framework for
Evaluating Olympic Urban Development for Sustainability’224
The sustainability indicators developed in this thesis for the Urban Category,
Environmental Category and Social Category shall be applied for an exemplary
evaluation of a stadium used for the most recent Olympic Games in 2012. A detailed
assessment is given in Chapter 9 ‘Example Olympic Games 2012’.
At Wembley Stadium in London, eight football matches including the finals during
the London 2012 Olympics225 were hosted and it was chosen as an additional
example to the three case studies Sydney 2000, Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008.
92
Purpose of this independent assessment is to verify the general applicability of the
selected indicators for other sports stadiums beyond the case studies.
In this chapter the term 'sustainability' is defined and further described with
reference to the United Nations report ‘Our Common Future’, also known as the
‘Brundtland’ Report. The methodology of this thesis is elaborated as a combined
assessment of the obtained knowledge on the subject, consisting of the findings of
the analytical research, which is based on an evaluation of literature review and field
research including case studies and personal interviews. In accordance with Dr.
Deryck D. Pattron’s publication ‘Research Methodology’ the applied research
methods in this thesis are qualitative as well as quantitative.
Other important parameters such as usage of low energy and low carbon materials,
energy/water consumption per seat and event or average construction area per seat
could not be evaluated due to the limited data available for the existing sports
venues.
The criteria 'spectator capacity' and 'building type' established for selection of the
venues of the three respective case studies in Sydney, Athens and Beijing are
elaborated. Subsequently an overview on all venues of the Olympic Games 2000,
2004 and 2008 is presented. In order to verify the applicability of sustainability
indicators developed for this thesis reference is made to the Wembley Stadium
rebuilt for the Olympic Games 2012 in London.
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5 CASE STUDIES
The majority of information was obtained from official bidding documents and other
reports of the Olympic Games provided by the Olympic Studies Centre in Lausanne
(Switzerland) as part of the Postgraduate Research Grant Programme 2007.226
The field research in Sydney, Athens and Beijing (each of about seven days
duration) was carried out for all nine venues between 2010 and 2011.xxxvii
Subsequent to the thorough assessment of the precinct of all nine stadiums an
additional survey was conducted together with an operator representative for seven
out of nine stadiums (except Beijing Indoor Stadium and Beijing Football Stadium).
xxxvii
Sydney 12.02.-19.02.2011, Athens 21.10-26.10.2010, Beijing 26.02.-05.03.2011
xxxviii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay, page 82-83
94
5.2 Overview selected venues for the case studies
Illustration 18 below summarizes the project brief of the selected Olympic Stadiums
used for the Olympic Games 2000 in Sydney, 2004 in Athens and 2008 in Beijing
and is further analysed in the case studies.
Illustration 18: Summary of key project information for Olympic Stadiums, sources/
references for the respective information are specified on page 99-101, 106-108 and
114-116.
95
5.2.2 Indoor Stadiums
Illustration 19: Summary of key project information for Indoor Stadiums sources/
references for the respective information is specified on pages 101-103, 108-110
and 116-118.
96
5.2.3 Football Stadiums
Illustration 20 below summarizes the project brief of the selected Football Stadiums
used for the Olympic Games 2000 in Sydney, 2004 in Athens and 2008 in Beijing
and further analysed in the case studies.
Illustration 20: Summary of key project information for Football Stadiums, sources/
references for the respective information are specified on pages 103-105, 110-112
and 118-120.
97
5.3 Selected venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in Sydney, Australia
Illustration 21: Excerpt masterplan for Sydney Olympic Park submitted as part of the
original bidding document of Sydney Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games
in 2000.227 Before redevelopment of the Brownfield Site various industries were
located in the Homebush Bay area e.g. State Abattoirs (1907-1988), the State
Brickworks (1911-1988) and the Navy’s armaments depot. Two of the selected
venues, Sydney Olympic Stadium and Sydney Indoor Stadium are located within the
Olympic Park. The following satellite picture in Illustration 22 shows the entire
precinct after redevelopment.
98
Illustration 22: Satellite picture of the Olympic Park with Sydney Olympic Stadium
and Sydney Indoor Stadium after the Olympic Games in 2000228
99
Tenants (continued) South Sydney Rabbitohs236, Pirtek Parramatta
Eels237, Sydney Thunder238
Capacity before Games 110,000 seats
Capacity during Games 115,600 seats
Capacity after Games 80,000 seats
Illustration 23: Satellite picture of Sydney Olympic Stadium with reduced spectator
capacity of 80,000 spectators after the Olympic Games in 2000239
Illustration 24: Sydney Olympic Stadium with maximum seating capacity of 115,600
during Olympic Games in 2000 with temporary seating capacity on the north and
south spectator stands240
100
Illustration 25: Sydney Olympic Stadium with reduced seating capacity of 80,000
after Olympic Games and new roofs above modified north and south spectator
stands241
101
Capacity before Games 21,000 seats
Capacity during Games Basketball: 20,000 seats,
gymnastics: 16,900 seats
Capacity after Games 21,000 seats
Illustration 26: Satellite picture of Sydney Indoor Stadium with parking structure
(centre) and Sydney Olympic Stadium (below) after the Olympic Games in 2000247
Illustration 27: Sydney Indoor Stadium with parking structure in front, background
Sydney Olympic Stadium with underground metro station in the far left during the
Olympic Games 2000248
102
Illustration 28: Sydney Indoor Stadium with 21,000 seats capacity after the Olympic
Games 2000. Red colour of seat covers selected for the Olympic Games is not ideal
for concerts and functions where black colour is preferred249
103
Use during Games Interstate football
Use after Games Same as before
Tenants Canberra Raiders Rugby253,
ACT Brumbies Rugby254
Seating capacity before Games 25,000 seats
Seating capacity during Games 40,000 seats
Seating capacity after Games 25,000 seats
Illustration 29: Satellite picture of Canberra Football Stadium after Olympic Games
2000255
Illustration 30: Canberra Football Stadium with spectator capacity of 25,000 seats
after completion Olympic Overlay (roof above grand stand as permanent overlay)256
104
Illustration 31: Canberra Football Stadium with roof above the grand stand with
8,000 covered seats constructed for the Olympic Games in 2000257
105
Illustration 33: Satellite picture of the Athens Olympic Park (Athens Olympic Sports
Complex) with metro station in the north after the Olympic Games in 2004259
106
Tenants (continued) intl. football competitions (e.g. 2007 UEFA
Champions League final), track and field events
(e.g. IAAF Athens Grand Prix) and concerts
Capacity before Games 75,000 seats
Capacity during Games265 71,030 seats (incl. 16 VIP suites, 3,000 press)
Capacity after Games 56,700 seats
Illustration 34: Satellite picture Athens Olympic Stadium with spectator capacity of
71,030 seats during construction. New Athens Indoor Stadium adjacent on the left266
Illustration 35: Athens Olympic Stadium with spectator capacity of 71,030 seats
during construction267
107
Illustration 36: Athens Olympic Stadium with a capacity of 72,000 seats and new
roof structure during the Olympic Games in 2004268
108
Tenants Panathinaikos BC272,
Hellenic Basketball Federation273
Capacity before Games 17,600 seats
Capacity during Games Basketball: 18,500 seats (incl. fan seats)
18,800 seats (incl. media seats)
19,250 seats (incl. media and VIP seats)
Seating capacity after Games 17,600 seats
Illustration 37: Athens Indoor Stadium (centre) adjacent to the Athens Olympic
Stadium (right) and Swimming Complex (left) after the Olympic Games in 2004274
Illustration 38: Athens Indoor Stadium (centre) with warm-up hall in the front and
Athens Olympic Stadium in the background before the Olympic Games in 2000275
109
Illustration 39: Athens Indoor Stadium with a spectator capacity of 19,250 seats
during the Olympic Games in 2004276
110
Illustration 40: Satellite picture Athens Football Stadium after the Olympic Games280
Illustration 41: Athens Football Stadium during construction on existing site before
the Olympic Games in 2004. The original stadium was constructed 1895-1896 on
this site for the world’s 1st Olympic Games 1896.xxxix Between 1952-1954 it was
replaced with another stadium which was then demolished for this new stadium.281
xxxix
2.2 Historic background of the Olympic Games, page 23-24
111
Illustration 42: Spectator stands Athens Football Stadium with a spectator capacity
of 33,500 after the Olympic Games in 2004282
112
5.5 Selected venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing, China
Two of the selected venues, Olympic Stadium and Indoor Stadium are located in the
Beijing Olympic Park (Olympic Green) which was developed for the Olympic Games
2008. The Masterplan in Illustration 43 was fully revised after Beijing was selected to
host the Games in 2008. The satellite pictures in Illustration 44 show the entire
precinct of the Olympic Park.
Illustration 43: Excerpt masterplan for Beijing Olympic Park submitted as part of the
original bidding document of the Beijing Organising Committee for the Olympic
Games in 2008283
113
Illustration 44: Satellite picture Beijing Olympic Park (Olympic Green) with Olympic
Stadium (centre), Indoor Stadium (left, above swimming stadium) and Football
Stadium (right below). Metro with stops for Beijing Olympic Stadium and separately
for Beijing Football Stadium is underground284
114
Use after Games286 Football, track and field, concerts, Ice and Snow
Festival, sports meetings, functions
Tenants No tenants
Seating capacity before Games -
Seating capacity during Games 91,000 seats including 11,000 temporary seats
Seating capacity after Games 80,000 seats
Illustration 45: Satellite picture of Beijing Olympic Stadium with swimming stadium
(left) after the Olympic Games in 2008287
Illustration 46: Beijing Olympic Stadium (front), Beijing Indoor Stadium (far right) 288
115
Illustration 47: Beijing Olympic Stadium with spectator capacity of 80,000 seats in
preparation for the Olympic Games in 2008289
116
Illustration 48: Satellite picture of Beijing Indoor Stadium (centre) and precinct with
swimming stadium below291
Illustration 49: Beijing Indoor Stadium during construction (front) with Beijing
Olympic Stadium (behind) before the Olympic Games 2008292
117
Illustration 50: Beijing Indoor Stadium with spectator capacity of 20,000 seats during
the Olympic Games in 2008293
118
Illustration 51: Satellite picture of Beijing Football Stadium after the Olympic Games
2008295
Illustration 52: Beijing Football Stadium with spectator capacity of 36,000 seats
during construction of the new roof for the Olympic Games in 2008296
119
Illustration 53: Beijing Football Stadium with new roof structure (permanent overlay)
after the Olympic Games in 2008297
In this chapter the relevant key project information are compiled in a table separately
for each stadium type. Subsequently the project brief along with three pictures
(satellite picture, exterior view and interior view) for each of the selected three
stadium types (Olympic Stadium, Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium) used for the
respective Olympic Summer Games in 2000, 2004 and 2008 is summarized.
The project brief presented for each venue comprises of the following details:
Selection Criteria
Architect
Location
Location Type
Construction period
Year of opening
Cost of construction
Cost of Olympic overlay
Operator after the Games
120
Use before the Games
Use during the Games
Use after the Games
Tenants
Capacity before the Games
Capacity during the Games
Capacity after the Games
The majority of information was obtained from official bidding documents and other
reports of the Olympic Games provided by the Olympic Studies Centre in Lausanne
(Switzerland) as part of the Postgraduate Research Grant Programme 2007.298 In
addition other information from documents available in libraries, publications and on
the Internet as well as documents collected during the field survey (e.g. maps, site
plans, site pictures, etc.) is presented in this chapter.
The field research in Sydney, Athens and Beijing was carried out for all nine venues
between 2010 and 2011. Subsequent to the assessment of the precinct of all nine
stadiums from outside and inside an additional survey was conducted together with
an operator representative for seven out of nine stadiums (except Beijing Indoor
Stadium and Beijing Football Stadium). Following the site survey, personal
interviews with operator representatives at senior management level were held in
order to discuss and verify the findings of the literature review as well as the field
research and also to obtain first-hand information about the Overlayxl and day-to-day
operation of the venue.
The findings were incorporated into the Evaluation Matrix for subsequent analysis,
evaluation and assessment described in the following Chapter 6. In consideration of
the actual findings during the field research the assessment method and Evaluation
Matrix were refined and simplified. Sub-categories and parameters where sufficient
data could not be obtained were removed. Subsequently the findings of the case
studies were integrated into the revised Evaluation Matrix.
xl
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay, page 82-83
121
6 ANALYSIS
In this chapter the analysis for each sports stadium is presented in the respective
category, sub-category and parameters. The sequence for the comparative analysis
is first Olympic Stadium, second Indoor Stadium and third Football Stadium. The
comparative evaluation and assessment of the venues is carried out for two
parameters in each sub-category. Based on the Evaluation Matrix developed in
Chapter 4 ’Development research tool’ (please also refer to Illustration 74-76 Rating
matrix) each parameter is evaluated in comparison with the respective parameters
of the nine different venues and subsequently weighted based on the 5- point score
system. The total number of points for each sports stadium is summarised in
Chapter 6.4 ‘Summary chapter analysis’.
122
because the site was developed less than 30 years ago, this is a considerably
shorter period of time and therefore less sustainable compared to Athens Football
Stadium, which is in use for sports venues since more than 100 years.
Illustration 54: Satellite picture of Beijing Olympic Stadium site dated 09.05.2002
before start of construction works for the Beijing Olympic Park301
Illustration 55: Satellite picture of Beijing Olympic Stadium dated 18.08.2005 during
construction works for the Beijing Olympic Stadium and Olympic Park302
lllustration 56: Satellite picture of Beijing Olympic Stadium dated 28.06.2009 after
completion of works and after the Olympic Games in 2008303
123
Beijing Olympic Stadium and Beijing Indoor Stadium were constructed on a
Greenfield Site. The satellite pictures in Illustration 54, Illustration 55 and Illustration
56 show that the green open space- partially used for agriculture with several
existing building structures- was demolished for the construction of the new
stadiums.
Evaluation result: Considering that a Greenfield Site partially used for agriculture
was utilized for Beijing Olympic Stadium and Beijing Indoor Stadium a total of 1
point out of 5 points is allocated.
124
A.1.1 Athens Football Stadium 5 out of 5 points
The original stadium was constructed 1895-1896 on this site. The stadium was used
as a velodrome for the world’s 1st Olympic Games of the modern era in 1896.xli
In 1952-1954 the original stadium was demolished and a new stadium with track
and field was constructed. In preparation for the Olympic Games 2004 the existing
stadium was demolished and in 2003-2004 the new Athens Football Stadium304 was
constructed.
Evaluation result: Considering that an Existing Site of more than 100 years is used
for Athens Football Stadium a maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is allocated.
xli
2.2 Historic background of the Olympic Games, page 23-24
125
A.1.2 Athens Olympic Stadium 4 out of 5 points
Redevelopment of Athens Olympic Stadium with upgrade and redevelopment of the
existing stadium built in 1979-1982, various modifications for the Olympic overlay
e.g. resizing of the press room facilities (the original press rooms were bigger before
the Olympic Games) and construction of a new roof structure above the existing
spectator stands. In preparation for the Olympic Games in 2004 the roof structure305
was constructed in 2002-2004 to cover all seats as per the requirements of the
International Olympic Committee (IOC). Illustration 57 and Illustration 58 below
show Athens Olympic Stadium after completion without roof in 1982 (left) and after
redevelopment with the new roof in 2004 (right).
Evaluation result: Considering that Athens Olympic Stadium as an existing stadium
was redeveloped and upgraded but was constructed less than 30 years ago, which
is a considerably shorter period of time and therefore less sustainable in comparison
to Canberra Football Stadium a total of 4 points out of 5 points is allocated.
Illustration 57, left: Existing Athens Olympic Stadium without roof in 1982306
Illustration 58, right: Athens Olympic Stadium with new roof structure in 2004307
126
Evaluation result: Considering that Sydney Indoor Stadium is a new structure on a
Brownfield Site and underwent major changes after the Olympic Games a total of 2
points out of 5 points is allocated.
127
A.1.2 Athens Football Stadium 3 out of 5 points
The existing stadium was constructed in 1952-1954 and demolished for construction
of Athens Football Stadium as a new building on an Existing Site in 2003-2004.
Evaluation result: Considering that Athens Football Stadium is a new building and
remained mostly unchanged after the Olympic Games a total of 3 points out of 5
points is allocated.
128
providing a significant number of different options for recreation and entertainment.
Olympic Park is surrounded by residential areas which have been built in parallel
construction and further developed subsequent of its completion.
Evaluation result: Considering that the location of Sydney Olympic Stadium and
Sydney Indoor Stadium is within the immediate urban context of mixed-use areas
e.g. commercial, retail, recreational and residential areas located in a linear distance
of approximately 0-2 km the maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is allocated.
129
A.2.1 Canberra Football Stadium 1 out of 5 points
The linear distance between Canberra Football Stadium and Central Railway
Station, which is Canberra Station in Kingston, is approximately 16 km. The linear
distance to a major tourist destination e.g. National Gallery Australia is
approximately 12 km.
Evaluation result: Considering that Canberra Football Stadium is a comparatively
isolated venue with a distance to mixed-use areas of more than approximately 4 km
a total of 1 point out of 5 points is allocated.
130
6.1.4 A Urban Category
Sub-category A.2 Urban Context
Evaluation Parameter A.2.2 Connectivity
131
A.2.2 Sydney Indoor Stadium 3 out of 5 points
The access of Sydney Indoor Stadium via city rail network is good. The station
‘Olympic Park’ connects the area with the City Centre. The distance to the closest
public transport station e.g. metro is approximately 560m. For Sydney Indoor
Stadium an integrated car park with a total of 2,300 car parking spaces is allocated
in a separate structure adjacent to the stadium.
Evaluation result: Considering the connectivity of Sydney Indoor Stadium via metro
system but the relative far linear distance of approximately 560m to the next metro
station a total of 3 points out of 5 points is allocated.
132
A.2.2 Athens Football Stadium 5 out of 5 points
The access to Athens Football Stadium is very good as it is connected via metro
system and bus. The connection between metro station and stadium is convenient
with two pedestrian bridges and direct access to the upper concourse and spectator
stands. Distance to the next public transport station e.g. metro is approx. 62m.
About 1,600 parking spaces are available close to the stadium. An empty plot of
land (owned by a third party), reserved for construction of an office building, is
currently utilised for additional parking. Once the new office building is constructed
the currently available parking sites will be reduced by approximately 40%.
Park&Ride facilities are generally not provided.
Evaluation result: Considering the connectivity of Athens Football Stadium via metro
system and linear distance of 62m to the next metro station the maximum of 5 points
out of 5 points is allocated.
133
stands (seating capacity 15,000 spectators each) were constructed as temporary
seating without roof. These 30,000 temporary seats were leased from the contractor
(M/s. Multiplex/Obiashi) and after removal from Sydney Olympic Stadium in October
2001 the seats were reinstalled at another stadium in New Zealand. Subsequently
the roof structures (steel members covered with polycarbonate panels with UV-
protection) were constructed to cover the remaining seats on the north and south
spectator stands. After removal of the running tracks the lower tiers of all spectator
stands were extended and partially converted into retractable seating reducing the
distance to the playing field to approximately 15 metres as shown in Illustration 61
and Illustration 62.313 The Overlay was removed after the Olympic Games over a
period of approximately 2.5 years and completed in 2003 with an estimated overall
cost of approximately 80 million Australian Dollars (approximately 62 million
EUR).314
Evaluation result: Considering the conversion of Sydney Olympic Stadium through
removal of the Overlay after the Olympic Games in order to meet the operational
requirements e.g. retractable spectator stands for different types of sport and
avoidance of spare spectator capacities the maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is
allocated.
Illustration 61, left: Sydney Olympic Stadium with running tracks and temporary
seating for 30,000 spectators (without roof) on the north and south spectator stands
during an event of the Olympic Games in 2000315
Illustration 62, right: Sydney Olympic Stadium after removal of the north and south
spectator stands with new roofs. Subsequent to the removal of running tracks the
lower spectator stands of all spectator stands were extended and partially converted
into retractable spectator stands reducing the distance to the playing field to
approximately 15 metres. 316
134
B.1.1 Athens Olympic Stadium 3 out of 5 points
For the Overlay a permanent new roof was constructed structurally independent to
the existing spectator stands of Athens Olympic Stadium. The new roof structure
was necessary to provide cover for all seats as per the requirements of the IOC.
“The roof was mainly prefabricated off-site, then assembled and installed on-site to
reduce on-site personnel and equipment.”317 The west arc was assembled approx.
72m and the east arc approx. 65m from their final position. Both arcs slid later into
place. The roof is designed for a wind speed up to 120 km/h. “The bearing structure
of each arc is tubular steel joined by cables to a torque tube, which supports a
series of transverse ribs spaced at 5m (16.5ft) intervals. A system of secondary
cables transfers the weight from the ends of the ribs and stabilizes the arc. The span
of the arc is 304m (997ft), rising to a height of 72m (236ft) and the average width of
the roof is some 50m (165ft).”318 The surface covered by roof consisting of approx.
5,000 polycarbonate panels is approx. 23,500sqm and the total weight of the
structure is approx. 18,000-19,000 tons.319 The height between the roof structure
and the last seat row on the upper spectator stands varies significantly between the
sides and the centre where the highest point of the arc is located. The operator
confirmed that the distance between the roof and the spectator stands causes
discomfort during wind and rain, particularly for the upper seat rows. The big
distance between the football playing field and spectators due to the running tracks
was considered as a constraint since this increases viewing distances for football
games.
Evaluation result: Considering that the roof structure of Athens Olympic Stadium,
constructed as part of Overlay, became a permanent installation enhancing the
quality and usability of the existing stadium a total of 3 points out of 5 points is
allocated. Reason why no additional points are allocated is the missed opportunity
to remove the running tracks after the Olympic Games which compromises the
usability of Athens Olympic Stadium for the two existing home teams.
135
Evaluation Result: Considering that Beijing Olympic Stadium had no Overlay and no
provisions for adopting other usages subsequent to the Olympic Games a total of 1
point out of 5 points is allocated. The reason why the lowest number of points is
allocated, is based on the fact that no modifications of the existing structure were
undertaken to allow for a more regular usage for sports as well as non-sports
events.
136
playing field Australian rules football (AFL) cannot be played anymore at Canberra
Football Stadium. After the Olympic Games in 2000 other parts of Overlay were
partially removed and the following modifications were executed: Removal of media
centre, combination of VIP boxes into a combined club box, installation of CCTV,
additional office space, new sign boards and additional security office.
Evaluation Result: Considering that Canberra Football Stadium has not removed
Overlay of the playing field resulting in a disadvantage for the operation of the
stadium for other sports than football a total of 1 point out of 5 points is allocated.
137
Blues (rugby), Sydney Swans (rugby), Bulldogs (rugby), South Sydney Rabbitohs
(rugby), Pirtek Parramatta Eels (rugby), Qantas Socceroos (football) and Sydney
Thunder (cricket) have to be considered. Therefore the lower spectator stands are
retractable in order to meet the requirements of five different professional sporting
codes played at Sydney Olympic Stadium: rugby league, rugby union, Australian
rules football, football and cricket. “The stadium ranks among the best outdoor
venues in the world. It received a number of awards for excellence and was chosen
as best new commercial building by Master Builders because of its versatility and
the ease of a possible conversion into a multi-functional facility.”320 For rugby league
and football played as per FIFA standards a rectangular playing field is necessary.
Contrary to this the regulations for AFL, rugby and cricket require an oval shaped
playing field. In order to meet these variable requirements the east and west
spectator stands are retractable. Each spectator stand has a weight of
approximately 1,300 t and is moved with 14 hydraulic motors by 15 m. The
procedure to change the shape of the playing field from oval to rectangular or vice
versa needs 50 people and approximately eight hours. The maximum duration to
maintain the rectangular shape is approximately 36 hours otherwise the turf will be
affected due to insufficient natural daylight and ventilation. The turf is constructed in
removable modules of 2 m x 2 m. For cricket games the centre part can be
exchanged with the wickets. Since the Olympic Games the turf has been exchanged
three times (2000, 2005 and 2010).
Evaluation Result: Considering the Adaptability/Flexibility of Sydney Olympic
Stadium with reconfiguration of the playing field for five different types of sport (e.g.
rugby league, rugby union, Australian rules football, football and cricket) as well as
retractable seating and removable turf a maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is
allocated.
138
selected modular turf system did not fulfil the operational requirements and was then
replaced with the permanent turf which limits the Adaptability/Flexibility of the
playing field.
139
B.1.2 Beijing Indoor Stadium 1 out of 5 points
Limited information is available about the further usage of Beijing Indoor Stadium.
Based on an elaborate research it appears that there are no provisions for
Adaptability/Flexibility to modify the playing field or spectator stands for other types
of sports or non-sports events in Beijing Indoor Stadium.
Evaluation Result: Considering the assumption that there is only limited Adaptability/
Flexibility in Beijing Indoor Stadium for other types of events a total of 1 point out of
5 points is allocated.
140
6.2.3 B Environmental Category
Sub-category B.2 Building Services
Evaluation Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency
141
B.2.1 Athens Olympic Stadium 1 out of 5 points
Currently no systems for renewable resources are used at Athens Olympic Stadium.
The operator indicated that options for installation of a photovoltaic system of 2
megawatt are investigated. Once implemented the photovoltaic system shall be
used to produce the power for day-to-day use.
Evaluation result: Considering that Athens Olympic Stadium has no provisions for
energy efficient systems or environmentally friendly building materials a total of 1
point out of 5 points is allocated.
142
was introduced as well as maximum use of natural light and natural ventilation in the
building design was implemented. These initiatives have resulted in major
environmental achievements such as a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by
about 10,000 tonnes a year compared to similar facilities.”333
Evaluation Result: Considering that Sydney Indoor Stadium has renewable energy
usage, energy efficient air-conditioning, energy efficient lighting and environmentally
friendly building materials the maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is allocated.
143
keeping office air-conditioning use to a minimum. With regard to light it is ensured
that the stadium's playing field lights are only turned on out of necessity.”336
Evaluation Result: Considering that Canberra Football Stadium has renewable
energy usage a total of 3 points out of 5 points is allocated.
144
(WRAMS). Sewage generated from Olympic venues and facilities is collected,
treated and cleansed for non-potable reuse. Reclaimed water is used for toilet
flushing in venues, facilities and the Olympic Village as well as for irrigation across
Sydney Olympic Park. WRAMS is designed to save 850 million litres of water
annually that would otherwise be drawn from Sydney's main water supply, providing
a permanent environmental and economic benefit and a useful model for other
developments. As well, Olympic venues conserve water through water-efficient
appliances, including water flow reduction valves and shower roses, roof-fed
rainwater tanks and drip irrigation systems.”339 “Rain water from the roof is collected
in 4 tanks. The total capacity of rainwater harvesting is 3.2 million litres.”340
“Australian native trees and shrubs have been planted across Sydney Olympic Park
to reduce water needs.”341
Evaluation result: Considering that Sydney Olympic Stadium has rainwater
harvesting and water recycling as well as water-efficient appliances the maximum of
5 points out of 5 points is allocated.
145
treated and cleansed for non-potable reuse. Reclaimed water is used for toilet
flushing in venues, facilities and the Olympic Village as well as for irrigation across
Sydney Olympic Park. WRAMS is designed to save 850 million litres of water
annually that would otherwise be drawn from Sydney's main water supply, providing
a permanent environmental and economic benefit and a useful model for other
developments. As well, Olympic venues conserve water through water-efficient
appliances, including water flow reduction valves and shower roses, roof-fed
rainwater tanks and drip irrigation systems. Australian native trees and shrubs have
been planted across Sydney Olympic Park to reduce water needs.”343
Evaluation result: Considering that Sydney Indoor Stadium has rainwater harvesting
and water recycling as well as water-efficient appliances the maximum of 5 points
out of 5 points is allocated.
146
B.2.2 Beijing Football Stadium 3 out of 5 points
346
At Beijing Football Stadium “Waste water recycling was achieved.”
Evaluation result: Considering that Beijing Football Stadium has water recycling a
total of 3 points out of 5 points is allocated.
xlii
11.4.1 Athens Olympic Stadium event schedules, page 241-251
147
average. However, there is no regular usage schedule. The facilities are mainly
utilized as a tourist attraction with 20.000 to 30.000 visitors per day.347 In
comparison with the average number of visitors mentioned before, during the
interview, the operator stated that between October 2008 and February 2011
approximately 15 million people348 (approximately 517,240 visitors per month)
visited the Olympic Stadium for an entrance fee which created a total income of 350
million RMB (approximately 43 million EUR). This is equivalent to an average of
approximately 17,241 visitors per day.
Evaluation result: Considering that Beijing Olympic Stadium is not used by a home
team and has rarely sports events a total of 1 point out of 5 points is allocated.
xliii
11.4.2 Athens Indoor Stadium event schedules, page 252-257
148
C.1.1 Canberra Football Stadium 3 out of 5 points
Canberra Football Stadium is used by two local rugby clubs Canberra Raiders
(NRL) and ACT Brumbies (Super 14). The stadium was used 22 times per year in
2012.351
Evaluation result: Considering that Canberra Football Stadium is used by two home
teams of the same sports type a total of 3 points out of 5 points is allocated.
xliv
11.4.3 Athens Football Stadium event schedules, pages 258-263
149
(approximately 23 EUR). Furthermore the ‘Gantry’ guided tour, which is a walk on
the steel mesh walkway, was introduced in 2011 with great success. This tour is
operating once daily except Thursdays, public holidays and special events. The
entrance fee is 49 Australian Dollars (approximately 38 EUR).353 Regarding day-to-
day use by citizens the operator stated that this opportunity for additional revenue
has been not addressed during the design. In consideration of the further
development of Sydney Olympic Park the options for adding other facilities is
currently under investigation.
Evaluation result: Considering that Sydney Olympic Stadium integrates a fan shop
as one retail/commercial facility as well as guided tours and a cultural aspect with
the ‘Hall of Champions’ as a tourist attraction a total of 2 points out of 5 points is
allocated.
150
provided: one restaurant, four Food & Beverage stores, three shops, four souvenir
shops, one Walt Disney Shop, one money exchange. Regarding the day-to-day use
by citizens it is noted that the precinct of the Olympic Stadium is utilized by the local
community e.g. for Taijiquan, skating as well as kite flying. The stadium itself is only
accessible for sightseeing purposes with payment of entrance fees and therefore not
utilized on a daily basis by the local community.
Evaluation result: Considering that Beijing Olympic Stadium integrates 14
retail/commercial facilities and a museum as a tourist attraction the maximum of 5
points out of 5 points is allocated.
151
C.1.2 Canberra Football Stadium 1 out of 5 points
The operator has initiated extensive investigations for upgrading of Canberra
Football Stadium through Populous Architects. Currently the idea to build a hotel
and convention centre is discussed with the authorities.
Evaluation result: Considering that Canberra Football Stadium provides no
additional attraction a total of 1 point out of 5 points is allocated.
152
Illustration 63, Illustration 64: Athens Football Stadium with open public access to all
shops and other facilities (located below the lower spectator stand) during events
and non-events
Evaluation result: Considering that Sydney Olympic Stadium hosts in average three
events per month a total of 4 points out of 5 points is allocated.
153
C.2.1 Athens Olympic Stadium 4 out of 5 points
At Athens Olympic Stadium in average 3 football games per month are played (270
games in 84 months equals to 3 games per month) and including non-sports events
a total of 3 events (282 events in 84 months equals to 3 events per month) are held.
The main users FC Panathinaikos confirmed an average spectator capacity of
40,000 and FC AEK of 15,000 spectators per game. The operator confirmed that the
Government is providing power and water supply for Athens Olympic Stadium free
of charge. The costs for security inside the stadium have to be covered by the
respective user. Costs for police outside the stadium premises are covered by the
Government. As per the documentation made available by the operator of the venue
in average the following events were held.
154
The operator stated that between October 2008 and February 2011 approximately
15 million people357 (517,240 visitors per month) visited the Olympic Stadium for an
entrance fee which created a total income of 350 million RMB (approximately 43
million EUR). According to the operator around 80 million people (2,758,600 visitors
per month) visited the precinct of the Olympic Stadium which is free of charge.358
The operational costs per year are estimated with 75 million RMB (approximately 9
million EUR). In addition the loan has to be paid by the operator. Due to the
significant number of tourists visiting Beijing Olympic Stadium approximately 70% of
the revenue is generated by tourists.
Evaluation result: Considering that Beijing Olympic Stadium hosts in average only
one event per month but provides an ice ring for two months per year and is also a
major tourist attraction a total of 4 points out of 5 points is allocated.
The operator stated that in 2010 in average 85 to 110 events per year were held at
Sydney Indoor Stadium. The exact number is confidential. Approximately 90% of the
events were concerts which generate 80% of the revenue. The operator stated
further that in previous years approximately 75 events per year with 5 sports events
out of these were held. This would accumulate to 6 events per month (considering
the lowest number of 75 events stated by the operator), out of which 93% are non-
sports events and the remaining 7% are sports events. There is no documentation
made available by the operator of the venue. For reference purposes the list of the
TOP 100 indoor stadiums around the world has been reviewed.359 The ranking is
done based on the number of spectators per year. “Sydney Indoor Stadium
(Allphones Arena) consistently rates in the world’s top 10 most successful concert
arenas and at the end of June 2011 was number two in the world after the O2 in
London and ahead of Madison Square Garden.”360
Evaluation result: Considering that Sydney Indoor Stadium hosts in average more
than six events per month the maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is allocated.
155
C.2.1 Athens Indoor Stadium 3 out of 5 points
Athens Indoor Stadium hosts in average 2 events per month (146 events in 84
months equals to 2 events per month). As per the documentation made available by
the operator of the venue in average the following events were held as listed below.
Evaluation result: Considering that Athens Indoor Stadium hosts 2 events per month
a total of 3 points out of 5 points is allocated.
156
2001 31x sports events
2000 5x sports events
157
6.3.4 C Social Category
Sub-category C.2 Utilization
Evaluation Parameter C.2.2 Diversity of events
Evaluation result: Considering that Sydney Olympic Stadium hosts 96% sports
events and 4% non-sports events (total 192 events, 184 sports events, 8 non-sports
events) a total of 2 points out of 5 points is allocated.
158
Evaluation result: Considering that Athens Olympic Stadium hosts 97% sports and
3% non-sports events (total 282 events, 275 sports events, 7 non-sports events) a
total of 2 points out of 5 points is allocated.
Evaluation result: Considering that Beijing Olympic Stadium hosts 59% sports
events and 41% non-sports events (total 39 events, 23 sports events with 4 Ice &
Snow Festivals as long-term events, 16 non-sports events) a total of 4 points out of
5 points is allocated.
159
previous years approximately 75 events per year with 5 sports events were hosted
resulting in 93% non-sports events and 7% sports events. Based on a
comprehensive internet research it was noted that primarily concerts and music
award functions are held at Sydney Indoor Stadium (e.g. ‘Hillsong’ Conference is an
annually repeated event since 2001). Occasionally the stadium hosts basketball
games, roller skating, tennis and boxing as well as once a bull riding event.
However, the following list of events acquired through online research is incomplete,
as schedules of previous events were not made available by the operator.
Evaluation result: Considering that according to the operator Sydney Indoor Stadium
hosts 7% sports events and 93% non-sports events (total 75 events, 5 sports
events, 70 non-sports events) the maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is allocated.
160
Evaluation result: Considering that Athens Indoor Stadium hosts 94 % sports and
6% non-sports events (total 146 events, 137 sports events, 9 non-sports events) a
total of 3 points out of 5 points is allocated.
Evaluation result: Considering that Canberra Football Stadium hosts 97% sports and
3% non-sports events (total 280 events, 273 sports events, 7 non-sports events) a
total of 2 points out of 5 points is allocated.
161
146x Football, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010
12x Concert, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010
33x Cinema, 2005
Evaluation result: Considering that Athens Football Stadium hosts 63% sports and
27% non-sports events (total 201 events, 146 sports events, 55 non-sports events)
a total of 4 points out of 5 points is allocated.
The chapter analysis elaborates the findings obtained through literature review, site
visits and operator interviews for nine respective venues of the Olympic Games
2000 in Sydney, 2004 in Athens and 2008 in Beijing. Each stadium of the three
different stadium types is presented in detail. The sequence is Olympic Stadium,
Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium according to the denominations A Urban
Category, B Environmental Category and C Social Category with their respective
sub-categories and parameters. Points are allocated according to the specifically
developed Research Tool illustrated in Chapter 4.5 ‘Description Evaluation Matrix’.
The evaluation and assessment is carried out following the predefined
classifications in sections 4.5.1, 4.5.2 and 4.5.3.
162
Illustration 65 below summarises all ratings of each stadium in the respective
category, sub-category and related parameter with the overall rating of the host city.
Olympic Stadium
Olympic Stadium
Football Stadium
Football Stadium
Football Stadium
Indoor Stadium
Indoor Stadium
Indoor Stadium
A Urban Category
A.1 Urban Integration () 5 5 9 8 7 8 3 3 8 10
A.1.1 Location Type 3 3 4 4 3 5 1 1 4 5
A.1.2 Building Type 2 2 5 4 4 3 2 2 4 5
A.2 Urban Context () 9 8 3 5 5 10 7 7 6 10
A.2.1 Proximity 5 5 1 2 2 5 3 3 2 5
A.2.2 Connectivity 4 3 2 3 3 5 4 4 4 5
Sub-total 14 13 12 13 12 18 10 10 14 20
B Environmental Cat.
B.1 Building () 10 6 2 4 4 8 2 2 2 10
B.1.1 Overlay 5 2 1 3 1 5 1 1 1 5
B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility 5 4 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 5
B.2 Building Services () 10 10 5 2 2 4 9 6 6 10
B.2.1 Energy Efficiency 5 5 3 1 1 3 5 3 3 5
B.2.2 Water Conservation 5 5 2 1 1 1 4 3 3 5
Sub-total 20 16 7 6 6 12 11 8 8 20
C Social Category
C.1 Usage Mix () 7 2 4 4 3 7 6 2 2 10
C.1.1 Sport Usage 5 1 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 5
C.1.2 Other Usages 2 1 1 1 1 5 5 1 1 5
C.2 Utilization() 6 10 5 6 6 8 8 2 2 10
C.2.1 Average no. events 4 5 3 4 3 4 4 1 1 5
C.2.2 Diversity of events 2 5 2 2 3 4 4 1 1 5
Sub-total 13 12 9 10 9 15 14 4 4 20
163
A simplified Evaluation Matrix along with the corresponding Rating Matrix has been
developed as a template for independent assessment of other sports venues and is
compiled in Chapter 11. These templates allow an assessment of sports venues or
potential sites where more detailed data is either not available or not accessible.
164
7 DISCUSSION
In this chapter the results of the analysis are discussed and the ratings for the
different stadium typesxlv Olympic Stadium, Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium of
the Olympic Games 2000, 2004 and 2008 in response to the research questions of
the thesis are compared. The ratings are discussed separately for each of the three
denominations ‘A Urban Category’, ‘B Environmental Category’ and ‘C Social
Category’ with reference to the respective sub-categories and parameters.
xlv
4.6.2 Venues of the Olympic Games 2000, 2004 and 2008, page 91-92
xlvi
6.1.1-6.1.2 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.1 Location Type and Parameter A.1.2 Building Type, page 122-128
xlvii
6.1.3-6.1.4 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Context, Parameter
A.2.1 Proximity and Parameter A.2.2 Connectivity, page 128-133
xlviii
6.1.1 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.1 Location Type, page 122-125
xlix
6.1.2 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.2, Building Type, page 125-128
165
Parameter A.1.1 Location Type
With regard to parameter ‘A.1.1 Location Type’ venues of the Olympic Games 2004
in Athens are rated with the highest score because two stadiums, Athens Olympic
Stadium (built 1979-1982) and Athens Football Stadium (built 1996-1998), are
existing venues with existing infrastructure for access and egress resulting in a very
good level of integration into the Urban Context. The third stadium, Athens Indoor
Stadium, is built on a Greenfield Site but since it is located adjacent to Athens
Olympic Stadium in a linear distance of 100m, the new stadium is utilizing the
already existing infrastructure constructed for Athens Olympic Stadium resulting in a
fair level of integration into the Urban Context.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in
Sydney two of the three stadiums, Sydney Olympic Stadium and Sydney Indoor
Stadium, are both newly constructed on a Brownfield Site resulting in a fair level of
integration into the Urban Context. The third stadium, Canberra Football Stadium
(built 1974-1977), is located on an Existing Site indicating a very good level of
integration into the Urban Context. In further comparison with the selected three
venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing two stadiums, Beijing Olympic
Stadium and Beijing Indoor Stadium, were both constructed on a Greenfield Site
resulting in a comparatively very poor level of integration into the Urban Context.
The third stadium, Beijing Football Stadium (built 1990 and redeveloped 2006), is an
existing venue resulting in a good sustainability level.
With regard to parameter ‘A.1.2 Building Type’ venues of the Olympic Games 2004
in Athens are rated with the highest score because two stadiums, Athens Olympic
Stadium (built 1972-1982) and Athens Indoor Stadium (built 1996-1998), are
existing buildings which were redeveloped and upgraded for the Olympic Games
resulting in a good sustainability level. The third stadium, Athens Football Stadium,
is a new building on an Existing Site, which is in use for sports venues since more
than 100 years, resulting in a fair sustainability level.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in
Sydney two stadiums, Sydney Olympic Stadium and Sydney Indoor Stadium, are
new buildings resulting in a comparatively poor sustainability. The third stadium,
Canberra Football Stadium (built 1974-1977), is an existing building resulting in a
very good level of sustainability. In further comparison with the selected three
166
venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing two stadiums, Beijing Olympic
Stadium and Beijing Indoor Stadium, are both new buildings resulting in a
comparatively poor sustainability level. The third stadium, Beijing Football Stadium
(built 1990 and redeveloped 2006), is an existing building resulting in a good
sustainability level.
With regard to parameter ‘A.2.1 Proximity’ venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in
Sydney are rated with the highest score because two stadiums, Sydney Olympic
Stadium and Sydney Indoor Stadium, are considered as integrated venue locations
and part of a community centre resulting in a very good level of Proximity. The third
stadium, Canberra Football Stadium, is considered as an isolated venue location at
the outskirts of Canberra resulting in a comparatively very poor level of Proximity.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens
two stadiums, Athens Olympic Stadium and Athens Indoor Stadium, are considered
as adjoining venue locations without direct Proximity to catchment areas, but with
mainly residential surroundings and only very few commercial elements resulting in
a comparatively poor level of Proximity. The third stadium, Athens Football Stadium,
is considered as an integrated venue location resulting in a very good level of
Proximity. In further comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic
Games 2008 in Beijing the locations of all three stadiums are considered as
adjoining venue locations with a linear distance of 500-800m between the venues.
l
6.1.3 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter A.2.1
Proximity, page 128-130
li
6.1.4 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter A.2.2,
Connectivity, pages 131-133
167
Beijing Olympic Stadium and Beijing Indoor Stadium have indirect Proximity to
mixed-use commercial, retail, recreational as well as residential areas resulting in a
fair level of Proximity. Beijing Football Stadium is not in direct Proximity to
catchment areas resulting in a comparatively poor level of Proximity.
With regard to parameter ‘A.2.2 Connectivity’ venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in
Beijing are rated with the highest score because all three stadiums, Beijing Olympic
Stadium, Beijing Indoor Stadium and Beijing Football Stadium, have a good
connection with a linear distance of 500m, 350m and 320m to the next metro station
resulting in a good level of Connectivity.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens
for two stadiums, Athens Olympic Stadium and Athens Indoor Stadium, the linear
distance to the next metro station is 800m and 520m resulting in a fair level of
Connectivity. The third stadium, Athens Football Stadium, has a very good
connection within a linear distance of 62m to the next metro station resulting in a
very good level of Connectivity.
In further comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in
Sydney, Sydney Olympic Stadium has a good connection with a linear distance of
320m to the next metro station resulting in a good level of Connectivity. Sydney
Indoor Stadium has a fair connection with a linear distance of 560m to the next
metro station resulting in a fair level of Connectivity. Canberra Football Stadium has
a comparatively poor connection only by bus service resulting in a comparatively
poor level of Connectivity.
lii
6.2.1-6.2.2 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay and Parameter B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility, page 133-140
liii
6.2.3-6.2.4 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency and Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 141-147
168
7.3.1 Discussion results B Environmental Category
Sub-category B.1 Building
With regard to parameter ‘B.1.1 Overlay’ venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in
Sydney are rated with the highest score because the first of the three stadiums,
Sydney Olympic Stadium, has a tailor-made Overlay planning with post- Games
removal of the running tracks and new retractable spectator stands resulting in a
very good sustainability level. The second stadium, Sydney Indoor Stadium, has
only a non-significant Overlay and no post- Games modifications which would
enhance operations, resulting in a comparatively poor sustainability level. The third
stadium, Canberra Football Stadium, has an Overlay with lowering and conversion
of the playing field, which is a disadvantage for post- Games use resulting in a
comparatively very poor sustainability level.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens
the first of the three stadiums, Athens Football Stadium, has been constructed as
per the requirements of the IOC, but at the same time in full consideration of the
requirements for post- Games use by the home team as well as day-to-day use with
integration of other usages resulting in a very good sustainability level. The second
stadium, Athens Olympic Stadium, has a roof structure as a permanent Overlay
enhancing post- Games utilization of the stadium resulting in a fair sustainability
level. The third stadium, Athens Indoor Stadium, has no Overlay and no post-
Games modifications resulting in a comparatively very poor sustainability level. In
further comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in
Beijing all three stadiums, Beijing Olympic Stadium, Beijing Indoor Stadium and
Beijing Football Stadium do not have an Overlay or post- Games modifications
resulting in a comparatively very poor sustainability level.
liv
6.2.1 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter B.1.1
Overlay, page 133-137
lv
6.2.2 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter B.1.2
Adaptability/Flexibility, page 137-140
169
Parameter B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility
lvi
6.2.3 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, page 141-144
lvii
6.2.4 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 144-147
170
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency
With regard to parameter ‘B.2.1 Energy Efficiency’ venues of the Olympic Games
2000 in Sydney are rated with the highest score because two stadiums, Sydney
Olympic Stadium and Sydney Indoor Stadium, have renewable energy usage,
energy efficient air-conditioning, energy efficient lighting and environmentally friendly
building materials resulting in a very good level of Energy Efficiency. The third
stadium, Canberra Football Stadium, has renewable energy usage resulting in a fair
level of Energy Efficiency.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing
one stadium, Beijing Olympic Stadium, has renewable energy usage, energy
efficient air-conditioning, energy efficient lighting and environmentally friendly
building materials resulting in a very good level of Energy Efficiency. The other two
stadiums, Beijing Indoor Stadium and Beijing Football Stadium, have renewable
energy usage and environmentally friendly building materials resulting in a fair level
of Energy Efficiency. In further comparison with the selected three venues of the
Olympic Games 2004 in Athens one stadium, Athens Football Stadium, has energy
efficient provisions for power control of air-conditioning and lighting in specific units
resulting in a fair level of Energy Efficiency. The other two stadiums, Athens Olympic
Stadium and Athens Indoor Stadium, have no provisions for energy efficiency
systems or environmentally friendly materials resulting in a comparatively very poor
level of Energy Efficiency.
With regard to parameter ‘B.2.2 Water Conservation’ venues of the Olympic Games
2000 in Sydney are rated with the highest score because two stadiums, Sydney
Olympic Stadium and Sydney Indoor Stadium, have rainwater harvesting and water
recycling as well as water-efficient appliances resulting in a very good level of Water
Conservation. The third stadium, Canberra Football Stadium, has only water-
efficient appliances resulting in a poor level of Water Conservation.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing
one stadium, Beijing Olympic Stadium, has rainwater harvesting and water recycling
resulting in a good level of Water Conservation. The other two stadiums, Beijing
Indoor Stadium and Beijing Football Stadium, have water recycling resulting in a fair
level of Water Conservation. In further comparison with the selected three venues of
the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens all three stadiums Athens Olympic Stadium,
171
Athens Indoor Stadium and Athens Football Stadium, have no provisions for water
conservation resulting in a comparatively very poor level of Water Conservation.
In sub-category ‘C.1 Usage Mix’ consisting of two parameters ‘C.1.1 Sport Usage’lx
and ‘C.1.2 Other Usages’lxi venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens are rated
with the highest score of 14 points followed by venues of the Olympic Games 2000
in Sydney with 13 points and venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing with 10
points out of maximum 30 points.
With regard to parameter ‘C.1.1 Sport Usage’ venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in
Sydney are rated with the highest score because the first stadium, Sydney Olympic
Stadium, is used by nine home teams for three different sports types resulting in a
very good level of Sport Usage. The second stadium, Canberra Football Stadium, is
used by two home teams for the same sports type resulting in a fair level of Sport
Usage. The third stadium, Sydney Indoor Stadium, has no home team and therefore
rarely sports events are held, resulting in a comparatively very poor level of Sport
Usage.
lviii
6.3.1-6.3.2 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.1
Sport Usage and Parameter C.1.2 Other Usages, page 147-153
lix
6.3.3-6.3.4 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Parameter C.2.1
Average number of events, Parameter C.2.2 Diversity events, page 153-162
lx
6.3.1 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.1 Sport
Usage, page 147-149
lxi
6.3.2 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.2 Other
Usages, page 149-153
172
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens
one stadium, Athens Olympic Stadium, is used by two home teams for the same
sports type resulting in a fair level of Sport Usage. The other two stadiums, Athens
Indoor Stadium and Athens Football Stadium, are used by one home team each for
one sports type resulting in a comparatively poor level of Sport Usage.
In further comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in
Beijing two stadiums, Beijing Indoor Stadium and Beijing Football Stadium, do not
have a home team and therefore no regular sports events are held, resulting in a
comparatively very poor level of Sport Usage. The third stadium, Beijing Olympic
Stadium, has no home team and therefore no regular sports events are staged.
However, it is noted that there are regular annual Snow & Ice Festivals held at the
Beijing Olympic Stadium for a duration of two months. These events can be
considered as sports events for public participation in the broader sense and
therefore points are allocated in sub-category C.2 Utilization. Nevertheless the result
is still a comparatively very poor level of Sport Usage.
With regard to parameter ‘C.1.2 Other Usages’ venues of the Olympic Games 2004
in Athens and venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing are rated with the
highest score. Venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens have one stadium,
Athens Football Stadium, which integrates eight retail/commercial facilities as well
as various other temporary attractions like a cinema, children’s playing field and a
permanent museum resulting in a very good level of Other Usages. The two other
stadiums, Athens Olympic Stadium and Athens Indoor Stadium, provide no
additional attractions resulting in a comparatively very poor level of Other Usages.
Venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing have one stadium, Beijing Olympic
Stadium, which integrates 14 retail/commercial facilities and an Olympic Museum as
a tourist attraction resulting in a very good level of Other Usages. The two other
stadiums, Beijing Indoor Stadium and Beijing Football Stadium, provide no
additional attractions resulting in a comparatively very poor level of Other Usages. In
further comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2000 in
Sydney one stadium, Sydney Olympic Stadium, has one retail/commercial facility
and guided tours as a tourist attraction resulting in a comparatively poor level of
Other Usages. The other two stadiums, Sydney Indoor Stadium and Canberra
Football Stadium, provide no additional attractions resulting in a comparatively very
poor level of Other Usages.
173
7.4.2 Discussion results C Social Category
Sub-category C.2 Utilization
With regard to parameter ‘C.2.1 Average number of events’ venues of the Olympic
Games 2000 in Sydney are rated with the highest score because the first stadium,
Sydney Indoor Stadium, hosts six events per month resulting in a very good level of
Average number of events. The second stadium, Sydney Olympic Stadium, hosts
three events per month resulting in a good level of Average number of events and
the third stadium, Canberra Football Stadium, hosts 2 events per month resulting in
a fair level of Average number of events.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens
two stadiums, Athens Olympic Stadium and Athens Football Stadium, host three
events per month resulting in a good level of Average number of events. The third
stadium, Athens Indoor Stadium, hosts two events per month resulting in a fair level
of Average number of events. In further comparison with the selected three venues
of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing one stadium, Beijing Olympic Stadium, hosts
three events per month resulting in a good level of Average number of events. The
other two stadiums, Beijing Olympic Stadium and Beijing Indoor Stadium, have no
regular events resulting in a comparatively very poor level of Average number of
events. However, it is noted that Beijing Olympic Stadium attracted approximately
15 million people between October 2008 and February 2011 creating a major tourist
destination.
lxii
6.3.3 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Parameter C.2.1
Average number of events, page 153-157
lxiii
6.3.4 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Parameter C.2.2
Diversity of events, page 158-162
174
Parameter C.2.2 Diversity of events
With regard to parameter ‘C.2.2 Diversity of events’ venues of the Olympic Games
2000 in Sydney and venues of the Olympic Games in Athens are rated with the
highest score. Venues of the Olympic Games in Sydney have one stadium, Sydney
Indoor Stadium, which hosts 93% non-sports events resulting in a very good level of
Diversity of events. The other two stadiums, Sydney Olympic Stadium and Canberra
Football Stadium, host 3% non-sports events resulting in a comparatively poor level
of Diversity of events. Venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens have one
stadium, Athens Football Stadium, which hosts 23% non-sports events resulting in a
good level of Diversity of events. The second stadium, Athens Indoor Stadium, hosts
6% non-sports events resulting in a fair level of Diversity of events and the third
stadium, Athens Olympic Stadium, hosts 3% non-sports events resulting in a
comparatively poor level of Diversity of events.
In comparison with the selected three venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing
the first stadium, Beijing Olympic Stadium, hosts 39% non-sports events resulting in
a good level of Diversity of events. The other two stadiums, Beijing Indoor Stadium
and Beijing Football Stadium, have no regular non-sports events resulting in a
comparatively very poor level of Diversity of events.
The results of the discussion with the respective ratings for each Category, Sub-
category and Parameter are summarized below.
lxiv
6.1.1-6.1.2 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.1 Location Type and Parameter A.1.2 Building Type, page 122-128
lxv
6.1.3-6.1.4 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2 Urban Context, Parameter
A.2.1 Proximity, Parameter A.2.2 Connectivity, page 128-133
175
In sub-category ‘A.1 Urban Integration’ consisting of two parameters ‘A.1.1 Location
Type’lxvi and ‘A.1.2 Building Type’lxvii venues of the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens
are rated with the highest score of 23 points followed by venues of the Olympic
Games 2000 in Sydney with 19 points and venues of the Olympic Games 2008 in
Beijing with 14 points out of maximum 30 points.
lxvi
6.1.1 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter A.1.1
Location Type, page 122-125
lxvii
6.1.2 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.2, Building Type, page 125-128
lxviii
6.1.3 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter A.2.1
Proximity, page 128-130
lxix
6.1.4 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter A.2.2,
Connectivity, page 131-133
lxx
6.2.1-6.2.2 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay and Parameter B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility, page 133-140
lxxi
6.2.3-6.2.4 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency and Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 141-147
lxxii
6.2.1 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter B.1.1
Overlay, page 133-137
lxxiii
6.2.2 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter B.1.2
Adaptability/Flexibility, page 137-140
lxxiv
6.2.3 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, page 141-144
176
2000 in Sydney are rated with the highest score of 25 points followed by venues of
the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing with 21 points and venues of the Olympic
Games 2004 in Athens with 8 points out of maximum 30 points.
lxxv
6.2.4 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 144-147
lxxvi
6.3.1-6.3.2 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter
C.1.1 Sport Usage and Parameter C.1.2 Other Usages, page 147-153
lxxvii
6.3.3-6.3.4 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Parameter C.2.1
Average number of events and Parameter C.2.2 Diversity events, page 153-162
lxxviii
6.3.1 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.1
Sport Usage, pages 147-149
lxxix
6.3.2 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.2
Other Usages, page 149-153
lxxx
6.3.3 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Parameter C.2.1
Average number of events, page 153-157
lxxxi
6.3.4 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Parameter C.2.2
Diversity of events, page 158-162
177
8 COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT
In section 8.5 the results of the comparative assessment are summarized separately
for each sports stadium type (Olympic Stadium, Indoor Stadium, Football Stadium)
which are also illustrated with metric graphs.
Athens Football Stadium is rated with the highest score in denomination ‘A Urban
Category’.lxxxii For three out of four parameters, ‘Location Type’, ‘Proximity’ and
‘Connectivity’, the stadium is allocated the maximum of 5 points and for one
parameter ‘Building Type’ it is allocated 3 points. Although Athens Football Stadium
is a new building, it is constructed on an Existing Site which has been used for
sports venues for more than 100 years. Therefore the site is fully integrated into the
Urban Context. Due to additional facilities and provisions within the Football Stadium
an independent usage is created. Accordingly the Connectivity of the stadium is
excellent as the connection between the metro station and the stadium is convenient
with two pedestrian bridges and direct entry to the upper concourse for access to
the spectator stands is provided.
A high sustainability level is achieved with ‘Location Type’ ideally being an Existing
Site, with ‘Building Type’ ideally being an Existing Building, which correlates with a
very good ‘Proximity’ within the Urban Context and excellent ‘Connectivity’. This
lxxxii
6.4 Summary chapter analysis, page 162-164
178
result can be explained with synergetic effects due to already existing infrastructure
and utilities of a site which is already integrated into the Urban Context.
The graph in Illustration 66 below shows a metric to quantify evaluation results in the
sub-category A.1 Urban Integration against the respective parameters A.1.1
Location Type and A.1.2 Building Type as well as in the sub-category A.2 Urban
Context with the parameters A.2.1 Proximity and A.2.2 Connectivity.
lxxxiii
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter
A.1.1 Location Type, page 76-78
lxxxiv
6.1.1 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Evaluation
Parameter A.1.1 Location Type, page 122-125 (125)
lxxxv
2.2 Historic background of the Olympic Games, page 23-24
179
In 1952-1954 the original stadium was demolished and a new stadium with track
and field was constructed. In preparation for the Olympic Games 2004 the existing
stadium was demolished and in 2003-2004 the new Athens Football Stadium was
constructed.363
Statement: Utilization of an Existing Site with existing infrastructure for access and
egress such as public transport, road network and existing utilities like electricity,
water, sewage, gas, etc. results in a higher sustainability level compared to a
Brownfield or Greenfield Site. The longer venues are operated at an Existing Site
the higher the actual level of integration into the Urban Context. With reference to
the case studies of Athens Football Stadium and Athens Olympic Stadium it was
noted that the longer an existing site is used for sports venues the better Urban
Integration is achieved.
These findings are in accordance with Agenda 21 which suggests that the “Sports
activities, facilities and events must be so arranged as to ensure the protection of
conservation areas, the countryside, the cultural heritage and natural resources as a
whole.”364
lxxxvi
6.1.2 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Evaluation
Parameter A.1.2 Building Type, page 125-128 (127)
180
additional elements like a new roof structure, hospitality facilities, athlete’s areas,
etc. are needful. Depending on the specific conditions of the existing building the
refurbishment/renovation of an existing sports facility is generally considered to
result in a higher sustainability level compared to construction of a new sports facility
which consumes significantly more resources.
These findings are in accordance with Agenda 21 which suggests “Special effort
shall be undertaken for best possible use of existing sports facilities including to
keep them in good condition and to improve them by increasing safety and reducing
their environmental impact. The creation of new sports facilities must be confined to
cases in which demand cannot be satisfied by using or renovating existing
facilities.”367
The linear distance between Sydney Olympic Stadium as well as Sydney Indoor
Stadium and the City Centre e.g. Central Station is considerably long with
approximately 14 km and the distance to Sydney Opera House is approximately 17
km. However, the stadiums are fully integrated within the Olympic Park, an area of
640 acres, which is providing a significant number of different options for recreation
and entertainment. The Olympic Park is surrounded by residential areas which have
been developed in parallel and also subsequent completion of the Olympic Games.
The linear distance between Athens Football Stadium and the City Centre e.g.
Central Station is approximately 12 km and the distance to Acropolis is
approximately 8 km. The additional facilities and provisions integrated within the
lxxxvii
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter
A.2.1 Proximity, page 79-82
lxxxviii
6.1.3 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Context, Evaluation
Parameter A.2.1 Proximity, page 128-130 (128-129)
lxxxix
6.1.3 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Context, Evaluation
Parameter A.2.1 Proximity, page 128-130 (128-129)
xc
6.1.3 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Context, Evaluation
Parameter A.2.1 Proximity, page 128-130 (130)
181
Football Stadium are creating an independent usage area. Residents of the
surrounding areas use the integrated supermarket and gym on a daily basis. The
visitors of the adjacent Velodrome regularly use the bars, cafés, and restaurants of
the Athens Football Stadium before and after events.368 Residential areas are
located adjacent and the Metropolitan Hospital is in the vicinity of the sports facility.
Statement: Commercial areas like the city centre with mixed-use, residential areas
or other points of attraction are catchment areas where potential users are positively
affecting the operation of the sports facility. These areas act as a catalyst to attract
more visitors to the stadium and, vice versa, visitors of the stadium could utilize the
areas before or after the event for shopping, recreation, etc. resulting in a higher
sustainability level. Proximity to residential areas results in positive effects allowing
the users convenient access, but could also lead to negative effects due to traffic
congestions, parking issues, noise and other disturbance during events.
The access to Athens Football Stadium is very good as it is connected via metro
system and bus. The connection between the metro station and the stadium is
convenient with two pedestrian bridges and direct exit to the upper concourse for
access to the spectator stands. Almost all circulation areas on ground floor have
been allocated as public areas. This system has the benefit that they can be used
by the public during non operation of the stadium. Although many security check
points are required (35 entrances) to access the spectator stands, this is considered
to be an efficient design allowing maximum usage of the circulation areas during
non-events. There are approximately 1,600 parking spaces available close to the
stadium.
xci
4.5.1 Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.2, Urban Context, Parameter A.2.2
Connectivity, page 80-82
xcii
6.1.4 Evaluation A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Context, Evaluation
Parameter A.2.2 Connectivity, page 131-133 (133)
182
Statement: Sufficient public transport systems, e.g. metro stations close to the
stadium within a linear distance of less than 500m, result in a higher sustainability
level compared to transportation by bus, car or other modes of transportation. In
addition the usage of public transport systems is more environmentally friendly
compared to cars.
These findings are in accordance with Agenda 21 which emphasizes that “Non-
polluting means of transport and public transport shall be promoted as it contributes
beneficially to various environmental problems, including air pollution, the
consumption of non-renewable energy and excessive use of land for highways and
parking areas.”369
The level of sustainability of sports facilities built on a site previously used for sports
venues (A.1.1 Athens Football Stadium) or adjacent to other existing venues is
significantly higher because already existing infrastructure (e.g. roads, public
transport, utilities, etc.) can be utilized and further developed.
183
8.3 Comparative assessment B Environmental Category
An Overlay which ideally is removed after the Olympic Games in order to meet the
requirements of home teams and of the respective day-to-day use or venues which
have been originally constructed as a perfect match for post- Games use are an
important coefficient for sustainability. At the same time in terms of Adaptability/
Flexibility venues ideally shall have provisions for reconfiguration of the playing field,
retractable seating and removable flooring/modular turf resulting in a more frequent
usage of the sports facility for different event types. These factors combined with a
state-of-the-art technologically advanced concept relating to ‘Energy Efficiency ‘and
‘Water Conservation’ which preferably include usage of energy-efficient systems for
power generation and conservation, environmentally friendly building materials and
systems for water conservation as well as reduction of wastage of water through
water recycling and water-efficient appliances result in a higher sustainability level.
The graph in Illustration 67 below shows a metric to quantify evaluation results in the
sub-category B.1 Building against the respective parameters B.1.1 Overlay and
B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility as well as in the sub-category B.2 Building Services
with the parameters B.2.1 Energy Efficiency and B.2.2 Water Conservation.
xciii
6.4 Summary chapter analysis, pages 162-164
184
Illustration 67: Evaluation results sub-categories Building and Building Services
based on 6.4 ‘Summary chapter analysis’
xciv
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.1 Overlay, page 82-83
xcv
6.2.1 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Evaluation
Parameter B.1.1 Overlay, page 133-137 (133-134)
xcvi
6.2.1 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Evaluation
Parameter B.1.1 Overlay, page 133-137 (137)
185
constructed to cover the remaining seats on the north and south spectator stands.
After removal of the running tracks the lower tiers of all spectators stands were
extended and partially converted into retractable seating, significantly reducing the
distance to the playing field to approximately 15 metres.371 The Overlay was
removed after the Olympic Games over a period of approximately 2.5 years and
completed in 2003 with an estimated overall cost of approximately 80 million
Australian Dollars (approximately 62 million EUR).372
During the bidding stage the consortium for the ANZ Stadium consisted of the
architect, consultants, investors and operators (Octagon). Accordingly, the operation
of the stadium after the Olympic Games was the main focus. The consortium was
selected to design, build and operate the stadium on a 30-year-lease basis. The
agreement with the operator Octagon was limited to 10 years and after 9 years the
personnel of the operator was taken over by the government.
One of the key factors for the successful conversion of Sydney Olympic Stadium
after the Games was this long term approach of an expert bidding team and direct
legitimate interest of the operator.
Athens Football Stadium has been constructed as per the requirements of the IOC
but at the same time in full consideration of post- Games use for football by the
home team as well as day-to-day use by integration of other usages. There has
been no temporary Overlay considered and hence Athens Football Stadium
remained generally unchanged after the Olympic Games in 2004. Olympiacos CFP
undertook in April 2003 the responsibility to build a new football-only ground for the
2004 Olympic Games. In return, Olympiacos was granted exclusive use of the
stadium until 2052. The club has to cover all maintenance costs and also pay 15%
of revenue to the State.373 For the design, construction and operation of the new
stadium a private consortium was appointed. This was the first stadium project in
Greece financed, designed, built and operated by a private consortium.
Statement: Venues with an Overlay which is removed after the Olympic Games in
order to meet the requirements of home teams and of the respective day-to-day use
or venues which are constructed as a perfect match for post- Games use have a
higher sustainability level compared to venues with a permanent Overlay for limited
post- Games utilization or venues with Overlay resulting in disadvantages for post-
Games utilization.
186
8.3.2 Comparative assessment Sub-category B.1 Building
Parameter B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility
Statement: Provisions for reconfiguration of the playing field, retractable seating and
removable flooring/modular turf result in a more frequent usage accommodating
different requirements and therefore in a higher sustainability level.
xcvii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Parameter
B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility, page 83-84
xcviii
6.2.2 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building, Evaluation
Parameter B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility, page 137-140 (137-138)
187
8.3.3 Comparative assessment Sub-category B.2 Building Services
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency
xcix
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, page 84-85
c
6.2.3 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building Services,
Evaluation Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, page 141-144 (141)
ci
6.2.3 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building Services,
Evaluation Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, page 141-144 (142-143)
cii
6.2.3 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.1, Building Services,
Evaluation Parameter B.2.1 Energy Efficiency, page 141-144 (142)
188
the Olympic Boulevard, providing light for major events at the Olympic Stadium and
Sydney Indoor Stadium, both in the lead up to, and during, the Sydney 2000 Games
and a permanent clean energy legacy for the site. With regard to building materials,
no PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyl) were used in the developments and the use of
PCA was minimised. At the same time extensive use of recycled building materials
was introduced as well as maximum use of natural light and natural ventilation in the
building design was implemented. These initiatives have resulted in major
environmental achievements such as a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by
about 10,000 tonnes a year compared to similar facilities.”380
189
8.3.4 Comparative assessment Sub-category B.2 Building Services
Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation
ciii
4.5.2 Classification B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 85-86
civ
6.2.4 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Evaluation Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 144-147 (144-145)
cv
6.2.4 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-category B.2, Building Services,
Evaluation Parameter B.2.2 Water Conservation, page 144-147 (145-146)
190
8.3.5 Summary comparative assessment Environmental Category
Athens Football Stadium is rated with the highest score in denomination ‘C Social
Category’.cvi For the parameter ‘Other Usages”, the stadium is allocated the
maximum of 5 points, for two further parameters ‘Average number of events’ and
‘Diversity of events’ each 4 points and for the parameter ‘Sport Usage’ 2 points.
Athens Football Stadium is used by two home teams for the same sports type. The
stadium integrates eight retail/commercial facilities and various other temporary
attractions like a cinema, children’s playing field as well as a permanent museum
resulting in a very good level of Other Usages. Furthermore it hosts three events per
month and has 23% non-sports events.
cvi
6.4 Summary chapter analysis, pages 162-164
191
facility during non-events significantly. Incorporation of tourism and cultural aspects
e.g. with sightseeing tours is adding value by creating an independent attraction.
Furthermore it is noted that the higher the number of events hosted at a venue the
better post- Games usage is achieved. Ideally the events shall have a high
percentage of non-sports functions, which is allowing more variety for usage options
and different utilization alternatives especially for venues with less sports events.
The graph in Illustration 68 shows a metric to quantify evaluation results in the sub-
category C.1 Usage Mix against the respective parameters C.1.1 Sport Usage and
C.1.2 Other Usages as well as in the sub-category C.2 Utilization with the
parameters C.2.1 Average number of events and C.2.2 Diversity of events.
Illustration 68: Evaluation results sub-categories Usage Mix and Utilization based on
6.4 ‘Summary chapter analysis’
cvii
4.5.3 Classification C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.1
Sport Usage, page 86-87
cviii
6.3.1 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Evaluation Parameter
C.1.1 Sport Usage, page 147-149
192
different home teams which use the stadium for three different sports types: Qantas
Wallabies (rugby), HSBC Warathas (rugby), NWS State of Origin Blues (rugby),
Sydney Swans (rugby), Bulldogs (rugby), South Sydney Rabbitohs (rugby), Pirtek
Parramatta Eels (rugby), Qantas Socceroos (football) and Sydney Thunder (cricket).
Statement: Sports facilities which are used by different home teams have more
regular sports events. Options for different sports types result in a higher number of
events and therefore a higher sustainability level.
At Beijing Olympic Stadium the following facilities are provided: one restaurant, four
Food & Beverage stores, three shops, four souvenir shops, one Walt Disney Shop
and one money exchange. Regarding the day-to-day use by citizens it was noted
that the precinct of the Olympic Stadium is utilized by the local community e.g. for
Taijiquan, skating as well as kite flying. The stadium itself is only accessible with
payment of entrance fees and therefore not utilized on a daily basis by the local
community. The exhibition area was added after the Olympic Games. The operator
mentioned that the museum should be extended soon. During the survey it was
noted that the exhibition itself is relatively basic. The operator stated that feasibility
studies are undertaken to integrate a hotel within Beijing Olympic Stadium in future.
At Athens Football Stadium the following facilities are provided: fan shop, three
coffee shops, two bars, one supermarket and one gymnasium, which are located
below the spectator stands and are open as well as fully accessible seven days per
week for the public. In average there are 2,000 visitors for sightseeing purposes per
year, therefore the revenue generated by guided tours is limited. Accordingly the
operator is not promoting guided tours. The museum388 of the local team
Olympiacos is located below the spectator stands and is accessible for the public. It
cix
4.5.3 Classification C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Parameter C.1.2
Other Usages, page 87
cx
6.3.2 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Evaluation Parameter
C.1.2 Other Usages, pages 149-153
cxi
6.3.2 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.1, Usage Mix, Evaluation Parameter
C.1.2 Other Usages, pages 149-153
193
is open six days per week (except Mondays) with approximately 5,000 visitors per
year for an entrance fee of 2 EUR. It was noted that the museum is mainly relating
to the local football club Olympiacos. Accordingly schools are not fully utilising the
museum since the level of general information about the sports history and stadium
history is limited.389. In 2010 the operator converted certain parking areas adjacent
to the stadium into a playing field for children. The permission for conversion of the
land usage is pending.
Statement: The higher the number of events hosted at a venue the better post-
Games usage is achieved resulting in a high sustainability level.
cxii
4.5.3 Classification C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Parameter C.2.1
Average number of events, page 88-89
cxiii
6.3.3 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Evaluation Parameter
C.2.1 Average number of events, pages 153-157 (155)
194
8.4.4 Comparative assessment Sub-category C.2 Utilization
Parameter C.2.2 Diversity of events
These findings are in accordance with the Olympic Charter which states that
“Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the
qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sports with culture and education,
Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the
educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical
principles. The practice of sport is a human right. Every individual must have the
right of practising sport without discrimination in any kind and in the Olympic spirit,
which requires mutual understanding with a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair
play. The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious
development of humankind, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned
with the preservation of human dignity.”390
cxiv
4.5.3 Classification C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Parameter C.2.2
Diversity of events, page 88-89
cxv
6.3.4 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Evaluation Parameter
C.2.2 Diversity of events, pages 158-162 (159-160)
195
8.4.5 Summary comparative assessment Social Category
Sustainability results from a balanced Usage Mix consisting of Sport Usage and
Other Usages which provide a broad mix of activities for the community and the
public. Sports facilities utilized by more than one home team and integration of
various other usages (e.g. retail, commercial and recreation) achieve a significantly
higher level of sustainability (C.1.2 Athens Football Stadium). Exception is Beijing
Olympic Stadium where the usage is mainly resulting from sightseeing rather than
sports events or other events.
Utilization of a sports facility correlates with the level of Urban Integration (Location
Type, Building Type), Urban Context (Proximity, Connectivity), Building (Overlay,
Adaptability/Flexibility) and Usage Mix (Sport Usage, Other Usages). A high rating in
these sub-categories results in a high Average number of events and high Diversity
of event types. Sports facilities where a private operator was involved at the
beginning of the project and specific operational requirements have been already
integrated in the project brief and design (C.2.1 Sydney Indoor Stadium) achieved a
significantly higher sustainability.
In consideration of the specific aspects relating to the particular sports stadium type
a separate comparative assessment of the parameters is carried out in this section.
The evaluation results for the building type Olympic Stadium for each sub-category
are shown in the graph as Illustration 69. Sydney Olympic Stadium is rated with the
highest total score of 47 points followed by Beijing Olympic Stadium with 35 points
and Athens Olympic Stadium with 29 points.
The Olympic Stadium is usually the centre piece of the Olympic Park and therefore
an integral part of the case study analysis. Lessons learned for both, the Olympic
Park and the Olympic Stadium, are summarized separately for Sydney, Athens and
Beijing. These insights are derived from site inspections and surveys as well as from
personal interviews with the operators.
196
Illustration 69: Evaluation results for the building type Olympic Stadium in sub-
categories Urban Integration, Urban Context, Building, Building Services, Usage Mix
and Utilization based on 6.4 ‘Summary chapter analysis’cxvi
For Sydney Olympic Park the operator stated that the focus for future development
is extended from a sports culture to a more diverse culture with an emphasis on
ordinary daily events rather than extraordinary events and the intent to enhance the
usage mix for utilization. Facilities for single-use are converted into multi-use
facilities with development of finer grain and hierarchy of public spaces rather than
the existing large public areas. Sydney Olympic Stadium was modified after the
Olympic Gamescxvii. However, the costs allocated for modification of the stadium for
operation after the Games were underestimated. One operational requirement which
was not considered at design stage was the provision of permanent cabling for the
media to reduce time for installation. Another important aspect which is resulting in
comparatively high operational costs is the manpower of 50 workers required for
modifying the spectator stands.cxviii
The Olympic Park in Athens is rarely utilized, neither for sports nor for non-sports
activities. One of the key reasons is the lack of integrated masterplanning for
utilization of the precinct after the Olympic Games. The absence of suitable
landscaped areas in the precinct of the Olympic Stadium and Indoor Stadium does
cxvi
6.4 Summary chapter analysis, page 162-164
cxvii
6.2.1 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-Category B.1, Building, Evaluation
Parameter B.1.1 Overlay, page 133-137 (133-134)
cxviii
6.2.2 Evaluation B Environmental Category, Sub-Category B.1, Building, Evaluation
Parameter B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility, page 137-140 (137-138)
197
not provide space for recreation. Furthermore no restaurants or coffee shops were
allocated anywhere in the precinct. 'Event Areas' for usage before and after games
are not considered in the masterplanning for the Olympic Park. During the visit to an
event, it was also noted that motorbikes use the entire precinct including pedestrian
paths to access the stadium which is a safety concern.
For the Beijing Olympic Stadium the operator stated that it would have been
beneficial to integrate more VIP boxes and meeting rooms which could have been
used on a daily basis. Lastly, it was recommended to generally consider a
retractable roof in order to maximize utilization for events such as concerts.
The evaluation results for the building type Indoor Stadium in each sub-category are
shown in the graph as Illustration 70. Sydney Indoor Stadium is rated with the
highest total score of 41 points followed by Athens Indoor Stadium with 27 points
and Beijing Indoor Stadium with 22 points.
Illustration 70: Evaluation results for the building type Indoor Stadium in sub-
categories Urban Integration, Urban Context, Building, Building Services, Usage Mix
and Utilization based on 6.4 ‘Summary chapter analysis’.cxix
cxix
6.4 Summary of chapter analysis, pages 162-164
198
Lessons learned for Sydney Indoor Stadium are mainly relating to operational
requirements which have not been considered at the design stage. The operator
recommended that all interiors of the Indoor Stadium (including ceiling, walls and
seating) should be in black colour to create a better ambient for concerts. In addition
it was observed that loading docks for trucks should be without slope in order to
avoid a gradient of the floor in the truck. In the original design for the Olympic
Games no separate power grid was available for the catwalks without connection
points for lighting used for operations. Furthermore it was suggested that the venue
should be equipped with curtain systems. For Athens Indoor Stadium one of the
most important operational limitations relates to the removable flooring system.
Though designed to be removed for non-sports events, the reassembly was found to
be too complicated. Therefore, events where the existing sports flooring system
would have to be removed are not preferred. Another improvement which may be
considered for future projects is to increase the number of retractable seating in
order to maximize the flexibility of the playing field. There was no data available for
the Beijing Indoor Stadium and an interview with the operator could not be arranged
despite of various attempts. At the site inspection it was observed that the venue
has not been used for an extended period of time. Therefore no information on
potential lessons learned is available.
The evaluation results for the building type Football Stadium in each sub-category
are shown in the graph below as Illustration 71. Athens Football Stadium is rated
with the highest total score of 45 points followed by Sydney Football Stadium with
28 points and Beijing Football Stadium with 26 points.
199
Illustration 71: Evaluation results for the building type Football Stadium in the sub-
categories Urban Integration, Urban Context, Building, Building Services, Usage Mix
and Utilization based on 6.4 ‘Summary of chapter analysis’cxx
Lessons learned for Athens Football Stadium are mainly relating to provision of
additional VIP Boxes and additional areas for VIP Services. In order to minimize
security a separate independent access to the restaurant is preferred. For
improvement of the energy efficiency and water conservation a Building
Management System was implemented after the Olympic Games.
In this chapter the high level findings are summarized separately for each of the
three denominations A Urban Category, B Environmental Category and C Social
Category. In addition the insights of the comparative assessment for each specific
sports stadium type (e.g. Olympic Stadium, Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium)
are described. It was noted that the overall ratings for the Sydney Olympic Stadium,
Sydney Indoor Stadium and Athens Football Stadium are higher compared to the
other venues. Lessons learned from the operator’s point of view as well as
observations during the site visits for the respective stadiums are presented. In
summary, the lessons learned are relating either to specific operational
requirements (e.g. additional areas to generate higher revenue with VIP boxes) or to
limitations of options for future development of the sports stadiums (e.g.
enhancement of usage mix and diversity of events).
cxx
6.4 Summary of chapter analysis, pages 162-164
cxxi
4.3 Methodology development of research tool, page 70-72
200
9 EXAMPLE OLYMPIC GAMES 2012
The sustainability indicators and research tool developed in this thesis for the Urban
Category, Environmental Category and Social Category shall be applied for an
exemplary evaluation of a stadium used for the most recent Olympic Games in
2012. The results shall be summarized accordingly at the end of this chapter. At
Wembley Stadium in London, shown in Illustration 72, eight football matches during
the London 2012 Olympics391 were hosted and it was chosen as an additional
example to the three case studies Sydney 2000, Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008.
Purpose of this independent assessment is to verify the general applicability of the
selected indicators for other sports stadiums beyond the case studies.
The evaluation of Wembley Stadium in London is carried out based on a desk study
using the same Evaluation Matrix described in Chapter 4.5 with reference to the
categories and sub-categories defined in Chapter 4.5.1, 4.5.2 and 4.5.3. However, it
201
is important to note that no site survey or interview with the operator was conducted.
It can be assumed that the comparative assessment in Chapter 9 ‘Example Olympic
Games 2012’ demonstrates the general applicability of the sustainability indicators
developed in this thesis independently of venue location.
“Originally built for the British Empire Exhibition of 1924, and in turn the site of the
Olympic Games in 1948 and the football World Cup Final in 1966, the old Wembley
Stadium was the most important sports and entertainment venue in Britain. The
challenge in reinventing it for a new century was to build on its extraordinary
heritage and yet create a venue that would be memorable and magical in its own
right. With 90,000 seats, standing almost four times the height and covering twice
the area of the original, the new stadium is the largest covered arena in the
world.”393
Evaluation result: Considering that an Existing Site used for sports venues for 83
years has been redeveloped for Wembley Stadium the maximum of 5 points out of 5
points is allocated.
Demolition of the existing stadium (built 1924) and construction of Wembley Stadium
as a new stadium on an Existing Site. Constructed in 2002-2007 with a seating
capacity of 90,000.
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium is a new structure as a perfect
match without necessity for major changes after the Olympic Games a total of 3
points out of 5 points is allocated.
202
9.3.3 A Urban Category
Sub-category A.2 Urban Context
Evaluation Parameter A.2.1 Proximity
The linear distance between Wembley Stadium and City Centre e.g. Central Station
in London is approximately 14 km. The distance to a major tourist destination e.g.
Big Ben is approximately 14 km. In June 2004 the Brent Council and the private
developer Quintain both unveiled plans for the area that is supposed to deliver
thousands of jobs and homes with improved local facilities. “Planning permission
was granted for an ambitious mixed-use development proposal covering some 50
acres of land surrounding the stadium. Quintain Estates and Development has
started work on site to develop the land around the stadium and their plans look set
to create a vibrant development that will provide new jobs, homes, leisure facilities,
shops, bars, restaurants, offices, a hotel and major new public spaces.”394 Now 70
shops, 9 cafes, a cinema, a square, a hotel, an activity centre and a library as well
as new residences surround the Stadium.395
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium can be described as an
Integrated venue location with mixed-use areas e.g. retail, commercial, recreational
and residential areas within the immediate urban context of the stadium in a linear
distance of approximately 0-2 km the maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is
allocated.
The access via underground and overground to Wembley Stadium is good. There
are three stations servicing Wembley Stadium. The distance to the closest public
transport station e.g. metro is approximately 600m. Additionally there is a regular
bus connection, bus shuttle from the station to the stadium on event days as well as
a “dial-a-ride” option for disabled visitors and car parking provisions for blue badge
holders.396
Evaluation result: Considering the connectivity of Sydney Olympic Stadium via
metro system and linear distance of approximately 600m to the next metro station a
total of 3 points out of 5 points is allocated.
203
9.4 Evaluation B Environmental Category
“The stadium's facilities are designed to maximise spectator enjoyment. The seats
are larger than before, with much more leg-room, the highest tiers are easily
accessed via escalators, and the concourse that wraps around the building can
provide catering for 40,000 spectators at any one time. One of the things that make
the stadium special is the retractable roof, which ensures that the spectator
experience is comfortable in all weathers. When the roof is open it ensures that the
turf receives sufficient sunlight and air to keep it in perfect condition, while in poor
weather it can be closed to cover the entire seating bowl. The roof is supported
structurally by a 133-metre-high arch that soars above the stadium. An iconic
replacement for the old building's twin towers, floodlit at night it is a strong symbol
204
for Wembley and an instantly recognisable London landmark. The venue for the
2012 Olympics football finals, the stadium is designed to be ideal for the sport. Its
geometry and steeply raked seating tiers ensure that everyone has an unobstructed
view of the game. To recreate the intimate atmosphere and the distinctive 'Wembley
roar' for which the old stadium was famous, the seats are located as close to the
pitch as possible. Yet the building has also been consciously future proofed, with the
ability to be adapted to host a variety of events, including international track and field
events up to Olympic standard if required.”398 “A ‘platform system’ has also been
designed to convert the stadium for athletics use; however installation of the
platform decreases the stadium's capacity to approximately 60,000.”399
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium has an option for adaptation
to host a variety of events (in 2013 Football, American Football, Rugby,
Conferences, Concerts and Balls), including international track and field activities,
which can be rated as reconfiguration of the playing field the maximum of 5 points
out of 5 points is allocated.
“Wembley Stadium faces the challenge of being a large venue with correspondingly
high energy demands. Despite this the energy consumption was reduced by 28% to
date and a purchase of 100% of the electricity is from the supplier’s green tariff.
Wembley Stadium is a ‘zero waste to landfill’ venue with around 60% of waste being
recycled. The remainder is sent to a ‘waste to energy’ plant where energy produced
is returned to the national grid. As a result of the environmental activity so far,
Wembley Stadium is proud to have won a Platinum Award from the Mayor of
London’s Green500 Programme, achieved the Carbon Trust Standard and the
Industry Green standard for venues.”400 Furthermore with regard to lighting “the vast
majority of the lighting at Wembley Stadium is fully controlled by a centrally operated
lighting control system. By creating stricter guidelines for lighting requests by
internal and external stakeholders, electricity has been saved in the following ways:
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2. The catering contractor has to submit lighting requests with start and finish time
for many of the areas required across the Stadium.
3. The lighting requirements for the Stadium Tours have been refined.
4. PIR3 occupancy detection has been installed in all main office areas across the
Stadium.
5. Working with Brent Council, emergency lighting has been reduced on event-day
egress staircases on non-event days.
6. Lighting controls for the Stadium are monitored from offsite locations allowing
unnecessary lights to be switched off at any time.
7. The security team have received training on the lighting control system and
have been briefed on how to action lighting requests.
8. Lighting in 25 lift cars has been upgraded from 20 Watt Halogen lamps to 9
Watt LED lamps. These lights are on 24 hours a day so the change of lamp has
had maximum effect; 19,272 kWh per year have been saved through this
initiative.”401
“Wembley has become one of the first national stadiums to be certified to ISO
14001, the international standard for the implementation of Environmental
Management Systems. The work carried out by the stadium's 'Green Team' has
helped recycling rates on event days reach highs of 82%. Electricity consumption
was reduced by 32% from 2007-2012. Including reductions in gas consumption,
total energy savings for the Stadium is close to £4m. Building on its environmental
certification, Wembley Stadium is committing to implementing ISO 20121, the
international standard for event sustainability management systems by the end of
2015.”402
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium has an energy efficient
lighting system as well as an option of ‘waste to energy’ for renewable energy and
many environmental certifications the maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is
allocated.
“At Wembley the main water challenge is the consumption of potable water. 600,000
litres of water are stored and processed on site. The stadium’s water consumption
is, unsurprisingly, greatest on event days when up to 90,000 people use the”403
206
"facilities. On non-event days, maintenance activities such as cleaning, jet-washing
and watering the pitch consume a significant amount of non-potable water. The
Green Team continues to trial a number of water-saving initiatives around the
Stadium.”404
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium has a provision for water
storage and processing most probably collected through rain harvesting a total of 3
points out of 5 points is allocated. However, it is important to note that there was no
detailed information provided by the operator.
Wembley Stadium is used by five different Event holders. “The Football Association
(FA) runs the England Teams, the FA Cup, the FA Community Shield, Women's
Football, the FA Youth Cup and a range of other competitions. Every year the
stadium hosts all home, senior England International games, the FA Cup final and
semi-finals, the FA Community Shield and the FA Vase and Trophy Finals.
Wembley National Stadium Limited, the company that operates Wembley Stadium,
is a fully owned subsidiary of the Football Association. The Rugby Football League
administers the Superleague, Rugby League Division 1, the National Conference
and the Challenge Cup. The Challenge Cup Final, traditionally held in August has
been held at Wembley Stadium since 1929. It returned to the new stadium in August
2007. The Football League stages its five showpiece finals at Wembley Stadium:
The Capital One Cup Final, the Johnstone's Paint Trophy Final and the three Play-
Off finals. The National Football League (NFL) is a professional American football
league composed of 32 teams. The NFL has been staging regular season
International Series games every year at Wembley since 2007 and will continue to
do so until at least 2016. Saracens are a professional rugby union team based in
London. Saracens usually play home games at the Allianz Park in Hendon but have
played two home games at Wembley every season since 2009.”405
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium is used by five Event holder
teams with three different sports types the maximum of 5 points is allocated.
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9.5.2 C Social Category
Sub-category C.1 Usage Mix
Evaluation Parameter C.1.2 Other Usages
Wembley Stadium offers a tour daily between 10am to 4pm and tickets cost 9-45
GBP.406 The Stadium has 5 restaurants, box catering, 8 F&B outlets, coffee kiosks,
5 bars and a store.407 Furthermore there is an educational/cultural initiative, the
‘Learning Zone’, “which offers a range of fun day activities, six-week courses and
bespoke programmes, as well as being a venue for workshops, conferences and
celebrations. Equipped with a multitude of desktop computers, laptops, digital
cameras, camcorders, Lego Mindstorms (robotics), Lego mechanics and renewable
energy kits, scratching desks, arts and crafts materials, STIXX machines and a
kitchen the Learning Zone tailors every experience to the specific needs of individual
groups. With direct access to the inner workings of the stadium, each visit is a
mixture of educational activities and inspirational walks inside this iconic
landmark.”408
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium integrates 5 restaurants, 8
food outlets, coffee kiosks, 5 bars and a store as well as daily guided tours and an
educational/ cultural programme the maximum of 5 points out of 5 points is
allocated.
Since the Olympic Games in 2012 Wembley Stadium hosted in average 3 events
per month (35 events in 12 months equals to 3 events per month). As per the
documentation made available by the operator the following events were held.
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium hosts in average three events
per month a total of 4 points out of 5 points is allocated.
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9.5.4 C Social Category
Sub-category C.2 Utilization
Evaluation Parameter C.2.2 Diversity of events
Wembley Stadium is mainly used for football matches. Other sports events are
occasionally rugby and American football matches. As non-sports events concerts
are the main functions. A ball and Poker event were held once.
Evaluation result: Considering that Wembley Stadium hosts 80% sports events and
20% non-sports events (total 35 events, 28 sports events, 7 non-sports events) a
total of 3 points out of 5 points is allocated.
The sustainability indicators developed in this thesis for the Urban Category,
Environmental Category and Social Category have been applied for an exemplary
evaluation of a stadium used for the most recent Olympic Games in 2012.410 This
additional case study was conducted in order to verify the general applicability of the
Evaluation Matrix for other sports stadiums.
For the additional case study the London Wembley Stadium, which hosted eight
football matches including the finals during the London 2012 Olympics, was chosen
as an independent example to the three case studies Sydney 2000, Athens 2004
and Beijing 2008. The result of this independent assessment shows that the
Evaluation Matrix is generally applicable for other sports stadiums beyond the case
studies. Following the verification of the method and Evaluation Matrix in this
chapter the conclusions for the case studies are drawn based on the comparative
assessment and presented in the following chapter 10.
209
The London Wembley Stadium was evaluated as a primary desk study. The
respective findings are obtained through an indirect and therefore different approach
which is considered sufficient to verify the general applicability of the Evaluation
Matrix. The accurateness, depth and precision of the insights of the inspected
venues and personally conducted case studies represent a different level of
assessment and therefore cannot be directly compared with the results of the desk
study. Accordingly the London Wembley is presented separately in this chapter. The
results are briefly summarized below.
The Wembley example furthermore shows that the highlighted key factors for a
good post-Games legacy were reconfirmed through the approach of creating a
multi-purpose stadium with options for adaptability and reconfiguration leading to a
satisfactory usage by five event holder teams with three different sports types.
The fact that Wembley has become one of the first national stadiums to be certified
to ISO 14001, the international standard for the implementation of Environmental
Management Systems, proves that the environmentally friendly approach is applied
to enhance the level of sustainability.
210
In sub-category ‘B.2 Building Services’, consisting of two parameters ‘B.2.1 Energy
Efficiency’ and ‘B.2.2 Water Conservation’ Wembley Stadium is rated with a score of
8 points out of 10 points.
In sub-category ‘C.1 Usage Mix’, consisting of two parameters ‘C.1.1 Sport Usage’
and ‘C.1.2 Other Usages’ Wembley Stadium is rated with a score of 10 points out of
10 points.
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10 CONCLUSIONS
In response to the aims and objectives of this research the final conclusions are
drawn and presented in this chapter. For the comparative assessment of the case
studies the research tool was developed. The indicators influencing the level of
sustainability in the Urban Category, Environmental Category and Social Category
were selected in consideration of existing certification systems such as BREEAM,
LEED and DGNB. On this basis the key differences between the selected venues
for the Olympic Games in Sydney, Athens and Beijing with respect to the three
categories were identified for the comparative assessment. Before drawing
conclusions based on the comparative assessment the general applicability of the
Evaluation Matrix for other sports stadiums was verified with one additional case
study (desk study) of the London Olympic Games 2012 in the previous chapter. The
result of this independent assessment shows that the Evaluation Matrix is generally
applicable for other sports stadiums beyond the case studies.
The conclusions for the case studies of the Olympic Summer Games in Sydney
(2000), Athens (2004) and Beijing (2008) are described in this chapter with
recommendations for sustainable stadium design in the Olympic context.
In the Urban Category, existing sites previously used for sports venues or adjacent
to other existing venues are more sustainable because these sites are already
integrated into the Urban Context with existing infrastructure, Connectivity and
Proximity to existing mixed-use areas resulting in synergy effects and extended
catchment areas.
212
In the Social Category, a balanced, diversified usage consisting of regular sports
events, cultural events and other usages/functions provides a broad mix of activities
for the community/public, resulting in a higher utilization of the sports stadium. The
utilization of a sports stadium correlates positively with a high rating of the
indicators: Urban Integration, Urban Context, Building and Usage Mix.
Thus, the development strategy for utilization of future sports stadiums should not
only consider sport-related activities, but also the implementation of a diverse Usage
Mix with integration of other functions for long-term operation. Emphasis should be
on day-to-day utilization with ordinary daily activities/events in addition to the weekly
events of the home team rather than on potential extraordinary events. This type of
mixed usage allows the community and public to benefit continuously from sports
stadiums built for Olympic Games creating a positive and long-lasting legacy.
In the Urban Category, the level of sustainability of sports stadiums built on a site
previously used for sports venues (e.g. Athens Football Stadium) or adjacent to
other existing venues is significantly higher because already existing infrastructure
(e.g. roads, public transport, utilities, etc.) can be utilized and further developed.
Utilization, redevelopment, and modernization of an existing sports stadium (e.g.
Canberra Football Stadium) are generally more sustainable because resources are
preserved and material consumption reduced. Existing sites of sports stadiums are
also more sustainable because the sites are usually already integrated into the
Urban Context and therefore in close Proximity to existing mixed-use areas (e.g.
retail, commercial, recreation, residential, etc.) resulting in synergy effects and
extended catchment areas (e.g. Athens Football Stadium). The level of Connectivity
between an existing site and the city centre as well as other mixed-use areas is
better compared to a new site- unless the new site is part of a city redevelopment
project, like Sydney Olympic Park, where the Urban Context and infrastructure were
created as part of an overall masterplan.
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the Olympic Games reduces consumption of energy, water and other resources in
the subsequent operation of the stadium. Major structures for the Overlay like a new
roof structure designed for permanent usage (e.g. Athens Olympic Stadium) or an
Overlay which is reused at a different venue (e.g. Sydney Olympic Stadium)
increase the level of sustainability. Adaptability and Flexibility of the sports stadium
maximize utilization of the venue (e.g. Sydney Olympic Stadium) and avoid usage of
new resources for construction of additional sports facilities. The level of
sustainability is significantly enhanced by usage of energy efficient systems (e.g.
natural ventilation, natural lighting, etc.), power generation (e.g. photovoltaic, heat
pumps, etc.), water conservation (e.g. rainwater harvesting, water recycling, etc.)
and environmentally friendly building materials (e.g. Sydney Indoor Stadium).
In the Social Category, the long-term utilization of sports stadiums results from a
good balance consisting of Sport Usage and Other Usages, thus providing a broad
Usage Mix of different activities for athletes and the public. Sports stadiums utilized
by more than one home team with integration of various other usages (e.g. retail,
commercial, recreation, etc.) achieve a significantly higher level of sustainability
(e.g. Athens Football Stadium). The exception is Beijing Olympic Stadium, which is
mainly used as a tourist attraction for sightseeing purposes rather than for sports
activities. Utilization of a sports stadium correlates with the level of sustainability
regarding Urban Integration (Location, Building), Urban Context (Proximity,
Connectivity), Building (Overlay, Adaptability/Flexibility) and Usage Mix (Sport
Usage, Other Usages). A high rating in these sub-categories results in a
comparatively higher Number of events and a higher Diversity of event types. The
results of the case study for Athens Football Stadium prove that Other Usages can
be successfully integrated to utilize the venue on a daily basis.
Sports stadiums where a (private) operator was involved at the inception of the
project achieved a significantly higher level of sustainability because specific
operational requirements were already integrated during the design stage (e.g.
Sydney Olympic Stadium).
During the election process of the host city for the Olympic Games the impact of
permanent sports stadiums on the urban, environmental and social context tends to
214
be underestimated, while the opportunities for utilization of the venues after the
Olympic Games seem to be overestimated by the applicant/candidate cities.
Therefore, it is recommended that the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
establishes more specific guidelines for preparation of the project brief and feasibility
studies in order to verify and assess the proposed level of sustainability of each
sports stadium in the Urban Category, Environmental Category and Social
Category.
With reference to the bidding documents for the Olympic Games 2008 it was noted
that the candidate city Beijing did not fully address the long-term utilization of the
built legacy for the Olympic Games. The bidding documents did not include a long-
term concept for operating each of the sports stadiums (e.g. Beijing Indoor Stadium)
after the Olympic Games. Apart from the significant success as a tourist attraction
Beijing Olympic Stadium was used for only 23 sports events (including the regular
annual Beijing Ice and Snow Festival with a duration of 63 days) since the Olympic
Games between 2008 and 2012.cxxii Therefore it is recommended that the long-term
operation of each sports stadium shall become an integral part of the bidding
document for an independent assessment of its feasibility including the Usage Mix
and Utilization. This approach could ensure a satisfactory post- Games utilization of
the sports stadium and ultimately a positive legacy of the Olympic Games in the
long-term.
During the field research for the case studies it was further noted that only limited
information was made available to monitor the implementation of commitments of
the candidate city at bidding stage. Data for the actual analysis and assessment
cxxii
6.3.4 Evaluation C Social Category, Sub-category C.2, Utilization, Evaluation Parameter
C 2.2 Diversity of events, page 158-162 (159)
215
regarding sustainability indicators such as electricity and water consumption as well
as accurate numbers of events and spectators per year were only available in
fragments for selected sports stadiums. For further information on this topic the data
collected in this research is compiled in Chapter 11.
Other indicators relating to design efficiency such as average construction area per
seat and average dead loads of spectator stands and roof structures could be added
to the Evaluation Matrix. A comparative assessment of these parameters could
provide important benchmarks to verify the efficiency of the structural elements for
an even more sustainable design of sports stadiums.
216
11 APPENDIX
The Evaluation Matrix developed as a research tool for this thesis is shown in
Illustration 73 below. The Rating matrix for the comparative assessment is
presented in Illustration 74.
A B C
Venue Type 1
Venue Type 2
Venue Type 3
Venue Type 1
Venue Type 2
Venue Type 3
Venue Type 1
Venue Type 2
Venue Type 3
Max. points
A Urban Category
A.1 Urban Integration () 10
A.1.1 Location Type 5
A.1.2 Building Type 5
A.2 Urban Context () 10
A.2.1 Proximity 5
A.2.2 Connectivity 5
Sub-total 20
B Environmental Cat.
B.1 Building () 10
B.1.1 Overlay 5
B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility 5
B.2 Building Services () 10
B.2.1 Energy Efficiency 5
B.2.2 Water Conservation 5
Sub-total 20
C Social Category
C.1 Usage Mix () 10
C.1.1 Sport Usage 5
C.1.2 Other Usages 5
C.2 Utilization() 10
C.2.1 Average no. events 5
C.2.2 Diversity of events 5
Sub-total 20
Total each Venue Type 60
217
This template could be used for independent assessment of sports venues or
potential sites where an evaluation with a more complex certification system such as
BREEAM, LEED or DGNB is either not intended or where detailed data is not
available. Where additional data is available, other important parameters such as
usage of low energy and low carbon materials or average energy and water
consumption per seat could be included in the Evaluation Matrix. Other indicators
relating to design efficiency such as average construction area per seat and average
dead loads of spectator stands and roof structures could be added to the Evaluation
Matrix. A comparison of these parameters could provide benchmarks to verify the
efficiency of different designs.
For a simplified assessment of different project sites during feasibility stage the
Evaluation Matrix has been modified. The table shown in Illustration 74 below could
be used where no sufficient data is available for a more detailed assessment.
A Urban Category
A.1 Urban Integration () Max. 10
A.1.1 Location Type Max. 5
Existing Site 4-5
Brownfield Site 2-3
Greenfield Site 1-2
A.1.2 Building Type Max. 5
Existing Building 4-5
New Building 2-3
Temporary Structure 1-5
A.2 Urban Context () Max. 10
A.2.1 Proximity Max. 5
Integrated venue location 4-5
Adjoining venue location 2-3
Isolated venue location 1
A.2.2 Connectivity Max. 5
Metro station in less than 100m 5
Metro station in less than 500m 4
Metro station in less than 800m 3
No metro connection but bus connection 2
No public transport provided on a daily basis 1
Sub-total Max. 20
218
B Environmental Category
B.1 Building () Max. 10
B.1.1 Overlay Max. 5
Tailor-made Overlay with post- Games removal or perfect match 4-5
Permanent Overlay with post- Games utilization 2-3
No post- Games modif. or Overlay to disadvantage 1-2
B.1.2 Adaptability/Flexibility Max. 5
Reconfig. playing field, retractable seating, remov. flooring/turf 5
Retractable seating, removable flooring/turf 4
Removable flooring/turf 3
Option for modifications but out of use 2
No options for modifications 1
B.2 Building Services () Max. 10
B.2.1 Energy Efficiency Max. 5
Renew. energy, energy eff. a/c, lighting, env. friendly materials 5
Energy efficient a/c, lighting, env. friendly materials 4
Energy efficient lighting, env. friendly materials 3
Environmentally friendly building materials 2
No provisions for energy efficiency or env. friendly materials 1
B.2.2 Water Conservation Max. 5
Rainwater harvesting, water recycling, water-efficient appliances 5
Rainwater harvesting, water recycling 4
Rainwater harvesting 3
Water-efficient appliances 2
No provisions for water conservation 1
Sub-total Max. 20
C Social Category
C.1 Usage Mix () Max. 10
C.1.1 Sport Usage Max. 5
Minimum 4 home teams, 3 sports types 5
Minimum 3 home teams, 2 sports types 4
Minimum 2 home teams, 1 sports type 3
Minimum 1 home team, 1 sports type 2
No home team, rarely used for sports events 1
C.1.2 Other Usages Max. 5
Minimum 4 retail/commercial facilities and tourist attraction 5
Minimum 3 retail/commercial facilities and tourist attraction 4
Minimum 2 retail/commercial facilities and tourist attraction 3
Minimum 1 retail/commercial facility and tourist attraction 2
No additional attractions 1
219
C.2 Utilization() Max. 10
C.2.1 Average no. events Max. 5
Minimum 4 events per month 5
Minimum 3 events per month 4
Minimum 2 events per month 3
Minimum 1 event per month 2
Less than 1 event per month 1
C.2.2 Diversity of events Max. 5
Minimum 50% non-sports events 5
Minimum 25% non-sports events 4
Minimum 5% non-sports events 3
Minimum 3% non-sports events 2
No non-sports events 1
Sub-total Max. 20
Total Max. 60
220
11.3 Sydney 2000, Games of the XXVII Olympiad
The following sports events of the home teams Qantas Wallabies411, HSBC
Waratahs412, Qantas Socceroos413, NSW State of Origin Blues414, Sydney Swans415,
Bulldogs416, South Sydney Rabbitohs417, Pirtek Parramatta Eels418 and non-sports
events419 were held at Sydney Olympic Stadium between 18.02.2006-31.12.2010.
The event schedules are based on publicly available data from the operator,
respective home teams, event managers and other sources.
221
List of events at Sydney Olympic Stadium 2006-2010
Date Type of events Spectators
14.12.2010 Concert, U2, ‘360° Tour‘ N/A
13.12.2010 Concert, U2‚ ‘360° Tour‘ N/A
03.12.2010 Motorcar Race, Sydney Telstra 500 (3 days) N/A
23.10.2010 Rugby NRL, Sydney Rabbitohs v/s Penrith Panthers N/A
03.10.2010 Rugby NRL, Illawarra Dragons v/s Sydney Roosters 82,334
25.09.2010 Rugby NRL, Illawarra Dragons v/s Wests Tigers 71,212
11.09.2010 Rugby, Qantas Wallabies v/s All Blacks 70,288
30.08.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Penrith Panthers 13,794
27.08.2010 Rugby NRL, South Sydney Rabb. v/s Parramatta Eels 19,098
14.08.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Canberra Raiders 10,116
07.08.2010 Rugby NRL, South Sydney Rabbit. v/s Wests Tigers 23,298
31.07.2010 Rugby AFL, Sydney Swans v/s Geelong Cats 30,710
30.07.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s South Sydney Rabbitohs 15,312
25.07.2010 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s New Zealand Warriors 13,895
23.07.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Pirtek Parramatta Eels 34,662
16.07.2010 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Illawarra Dragons 22,238
10.07.2010 Football, Sydney FC v/s Everton 40,446
07.07.2010 Rugby NRL, Aussie Blues v/s Queensland Maroons 61,259
26.06.2010 Rugby AFL, Sydney Swans v/s Collingwood 43,585
19.06.2010 Rugby, Qantas Wallabies v/s England 48,392
07.06.2010 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s North Queensl. Cowboys 9,688
04.06.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Wests Tigers 11,837
30.05.2010 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Penrith Panthers 11,108
26.05.2010 Rugby NRL, Aussie Blues v/s Queensland Maroons 68,753
14.05.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s St George Illawarra Dragons 37,773
02.05.2010 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Manly Sea Eagles 15,459
30.04.2010 Rugby NRL, Pirtek Parramatta Eels v/s Bulldogs 31,991
23.04.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Brisbane Broncos 17,014
18.04.2010 Rugby NRL, Pirtek Parramatta Eels v/s Rabbitohs 25,152
10.04.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s New Zealand Warriors 17,095
05.04.2010 Rugby NRL, South Sydney Rabbitohs v/s Bulldogs 30,120
28.03.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Sydney Roosters 19,738
27.03.2010 Rugby AFL, Sydney Swans v/s St Kilda Saints 31,330
222
Date Type of events Spectators
19.03.2010 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Gold Coast Titans 10,943
14.03.2010 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Sydney Roosters 23,149
13.03.2010 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Newcastle Knights 18,110
27.02.2010 Rugby NRL, Rabbit. v/s St George Illawarra Dragons 27,221
22.02.2010 Concert, AC/DC, ‘Black Ice World Tour’ 66,896
20.02.2010 Concert, AC/DC, ‘Black Ice World Tour’ 75,867
18.02.2010 Concert, AC/DC, ‘Black Ice World Tour’ 70,282
17.01.2010 Cricket, RTA SpeedBlitz Blues v/s South Australia 26,406
13.01.2010 Cricket, RTA SpeedBlitz Blues v/s Queensland 29,743
04.10.2009 Rugby NRL, Melbourne Storm v/s Parramatta Eels 82,538
12.09.2009 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Newcastle Knights 21,369
30.08.2009 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s New Zealand Warriors 41,835
29.08.2009 Rugby NRL, South Sydney Rabbitohs v/s St George 19,918
24.08.2009 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Sydney Roosters 12,298
22.08.2009 Rugby, Qantas Wallabies v/s New Zealand 80,228
15.08.2009 Rugby AFL, Sydney Swans v/s Geelong Cats 40,261
14.08.2009 Rugby NRL, Sydney Rabbitohs v/s Gold Coast Titans 11,977
08.08.2009 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Canberra Raiders 13,310
02.08.2009 Rugby NRL, South Sydney Rabbitohs v/s Bulldogs 24,217
27.07.2009 Rugby NRL, Sydney Rabbitohs v/s Sydney Roosters 11,031
25.07.2009 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Parramatta Eels 31,664
10.07.2009 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Penrith Panthers 9.017
04.07.2009 Rugby NRL, South Sydney Rabbit. v/s Wests Tigers 14,856
27.06.2009 Rugby, Qantas Wallabies v/s Giteau 43,588
26.06.2009 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s North Queensland Cowboys 13,461
24.06.2009 Rugby NRL, State of Or. II NSW Aussie Blues v/s QLD 80,459
20.06.2009 Rugby AFL, Sydney Swans v/s Collingwood 41,042
19.06.2009 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Panthers 13,992
10.06.2009 Football, Australia v/s Bahrain 39,540
01.06.2009 Rugby NRL, Raiders v/s Rabbitohs 9,805
22.05.2009 Rugby NRL, Eels v/s Rabbitohs 10,670
16.05.2009 Rugby AFL, Sydney Swans v/s West Coast Eagles 33,079
03.05.2009 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Wests Tigers 25,622
21.03.2009 Rugby, Waratahs v/s Crusaders 32,496
223
Date Type of events Spectators
27.11.2008 Concert, Andre Rieu, ‘World Stadium Tour’ 35,402
05.10.2008 Rugby NRL, Telstra Premiership Grand Final 80,388
06.09.2008 Rugby NRL, Swans v/s Nth Melbourne 19,127
31.08.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Broncos 7,685
30.08.2008 Rugby NRL, Dragons v/s Eels 17,103
24.08.2008 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Raiders 10,128
23.08.2008 Rugby NRL, Wests Tigers v/s Sea Eagles 27,564
17.08.2008 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Sea Eagles 11,114
16.08.2008 Rugby NRL, Swans v/s Geelong 44,995
03.08.2008 Rugby NRL, Tigers v/s Bulldogs 16,121
02.08.2008 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Warriors 9,276
28.07.2008 Rugby NRL, Dragons v/s Bulldogs 7,802
26.07.2008 Rugby NRL, Wallabies v/s All Blacks 78,944
20.07.2008 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Tigers 21,818
19.07.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Warriors 12,973
12.07.2008 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Eels 17,897
07.07.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Rabbitohs 15,562
05.07.2008 Rugby NRL, Sydney Swans v/s Collingwood 59,202
02.07.2008 Rugby NRL, NSW v/s QLD 78,751
28.06.2008 Rugby NRL, Qantas Wallabies v/s France 48,899
23.06.2008 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Titans 9,827
22.06.2008 Football, Australia v/s China 70,054
21.06.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Raiders 9,845
20.06.2008 Rugby NRL, Dragons v/s Panthers 9,032
15.06.2008 Rugby NRL, Wests Tigers v/s Eels 22,107
07.06.2008 Rugby NRL, Knights v/s Bulldogs 9,565
01.06.2008 Rugby NRL, Dragons v/s Rabbitohs 12,978
26.05.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Sharks 9,289
21.05.2008 Rugby NRL, NSW v/s QLD 67,620
18.05.2008 Rugby NRL, Sydney Swans v/s Essendon 34,604
17.05.2008 Rugby NRL, St. George Illawarra v/s Melbourne 16,313
11.05.2008 Rugby NRL, Parramatta v/s St. George Illawarra 16,313
10.05.2008 Rugby NRL, Penrith v/s Bulldogs 10,257
04.05.2008 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Cowboys 9,818
224
Date Type of events Spectators
03.05.2008 Rugby NRL, Broncos v/s Wests Tigers 11,787
30.04.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Wests Tigers 21,057
25.04.2008 Rugby NRL, Dragons v/s Roosters 21,596
19.04.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Dragons 14,764
14.04.2008 Rugby NRL, Cronulla v/s Rabbitohs 12,988
12.04.2008 Rugby NRL, Sydney v/s West Coast 44,235
05.04.2008 Rugby NRL, Dragons v/s Sharks 15,318
04.04.2008 Rugby NRL, Roosters v/s Bulldogs 36,526
21.03.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Rabbitohs 21,839
15.03.2008 Rugby NRL, Eels v/s Bulldogs 25,065
02.03.2008 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Panthers 6,138
01.03.2008 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Dragons 25,127
23.02.2008 Rugby NRL, Swans v/s Port Adelaide 2,500
24.01.2008 Concert, The Police ‘Reunion Tour’ 40,000
10.01.2008 Rugby NRL, WA v/s SpeedBlitz Blues 12,884
08.01.2008 Rugby NRL, SpeedBlitz Blues v/s Queensland 23,737
27.11.2007 Rugby NRL, Sydney v/s Galaxy 80,295
07.10.2007 Rugby NRL, Storm v/s Sea Eagles 81,392
15.09.2007 Rugby NRL, Parramatta Eels v/s Bulldogs 50,621
01.09.2007 Rugby NRL, Roosters v/s Rabbitohs 32,126
31.08.2007 Rugby NRL, Knights v/s Wests Tigers 13,446
24.08.2007 Rugby NRL, Storm v/s Bulldogs 21,756
20.08.2007 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Manly 12,087
12.08.2007 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Raiders 12,127
11.08.2007 Rugby NRL, Sydney Swans v/s St Kilda 63,369
10.08.2007 Rugby NRL, Roosters v/s Wests Tigers 25,166
03.08.2007 Rugby NRL, Eels v/s Bulldogs 27,201
28.07.2007 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Gold Coast Titans 13,351
22.07.2007 Rugby NRL, Robbitohs v/s Cowboys 10,022
14.07.2007 Rugby NRL, Panthers v/s Bulldogs 12,465
07.07.2007 Rugby NRL, Qantas Wallabies v/s Springboks 51,174
06.07.2007 Rugby NRL, West Tigers v/s Panthers 12,395
02.07.2007 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Roosters 20,722
24.06.2007 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Sharks 9,568
225
Date Type of events Spectators
23.06.2007 Rugby NRL, Collingwood v/s Sydney 64,222
15.06.2007 Rugby NRL, Broncos v/s Bulldogs 10,121
13.06.2007 Rugby NRL, Queensland v/s New South Wales 76,924
08.06.2007 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Panthers 5,053
04.06.2007 Rugby NRL, Parramatta Eels v/s Wests Tigers 22,245
02.06.2007 Rugby NRL, Uruguay v/s Australia 61,795
26.05.2007 Rugby NRL, Wallabies v/s Wales 40,872
20.05.2007 Rugby NRL, Sharks v/s Bulldogs 12,384
13.05.2007 Rugby NRL, West Tigers v/s Dragons 13,625
12.05.2007 Rugby NRL, Raiders v/s Rabbitohs 11,088
06.05.2007 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Newcastle Knights 12,654
29.04.2007 Rugby NRL, Warriors v/s Rabbitohs 13,044
27.04.2007 Rugby NRL, Wests Tigers v/s Bulldogs 18,066
14.04.2007 Rugby NRL, Sea Eagles v/s Bulldogs 20,269
06.04.2007 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Rabbitohs 34,315
01.04.2007 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Titans 14,675
31.03.2007 Rugby NRL, West Coast v/s Sydney 62,586
25.03.2007 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Eels 15,165
16.03.2007 Rugby NRL, Port Adelaide v/s Sydney Swans 3,013
03.03.2007 Rugby NRL, Illawarra Dragons v/s Rabbitohs 23,053
24.01.2007 Rugby NRL, Tasmanian Tigers v/s SpeedBlitz Blues 2,810
10.01.2007 Rugby NRL, Tasmanian Tigers v/s SpeedBlitz Blues 18,464
01.10.2006 Rugby NRL, Broncos v/s Storm 79,609
23.09.2006 Rugby NRL, Storm v/s Dragons 40,901
22.09.2006 Rugby NRL, Swans v/s Dockers 61,313
09.09.2006 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Raiders 14,628
27.08.2006 Rugby NRL, Cowboys v/s Rabbitohs 8,914
26.08.2006 Rugby NRL, Swans v/s Lions 37,659
18.08.2006 Rugby NRL, Broncos v/s Bulldogs 26,111
13.08.2006 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Dragons 31,256
06.08.2006 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Panthers 9,126
05.08.2006 Rugby NRL, Wallabies v/s South Africa 60,552
29.07.2006 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Raiders 6,152
23.07.2006 Rugby NRL, Eels v/s Tigers 21,456
226
Date Type of events Spectators
22.07.2006 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Roosters 14,020
15.07.2006 Rugby NRL, Manly v/s Rabbitohs 7,509
09.07.2006 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Warriors 14,076
02.07.2006 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Wests Tigers 22,511
25.06.2006 Rugby NRL, Warriors v/s Rabbitohs 6,597
24.06.2006 Rugby NRL, Collingwood v/s Swans 60,307
17.06.2006 Rugby NRL, Wests Tigers v/s Sydney Roosters 19,360
12.06.2006 Rugby NRL, Raiders v/s Bulldogs 12,541
11.06.2006 Rugby NRL, Wallabies v/s England 62,124
10.06.2006 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Broncos 6,537
04.06.2006 Rugby NRL, Tigers v/s Cowboys 16,736
14.05.2006 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Eels 13,159
06.05.2006 Rugby NRL, Storm v/s Rabbitohs 8,083
30.04.2006 Rugby NRL, Knights v/s Rabbitohs 8,649
29.04.2006 Rugby NRL, Sydney v/s Geelong 37,032
23.04.2006 Rugby NRL, Manly v/s Canterbury 13,621
11.04.2006 Concert, Rolling Stones ‘A Bigger Bang Tour’ 58,590
26.03.2006 Rugby NRL, Dragons v/s Rabbitohs 16,049
17.03.2006 Rugby NRL, Bulldogs v/s Tigers 32,578
12.03.2006 Rugby NRL, Roosters v/s Rabbitohs 16,741
11.03.2006 Rugby NRL, Panthers v/s Bulldogs 17,510
10.03.2006 Rugby NRL, Tigers v/s Dragons 27,865
18.02.2006 Rugby NRL, Rabbitohs v/s Dragons 24,566
227
11.3.2 Sydney Indoor Stadium event schedules
228
Events per year at Sydney Indoor Stadium 2000-2012
Year Type of events Spectators
2012 4x sports events, 6x non-sports events 13,640
2011 1x non-sports event No data
2010 4x non-sports events 21,000
2009 1x sports event, 2x non-sports events 38,000
2008 1x sports event, 3x non-sports events 52,999
2007 1x sports event, 4x non-sports events 50,500
2006 1x sports event, 3x non-sports events 50,482
2005 1x sports event, 2x non-sports events 41,350
2004 3x sports events, 2x non-sports event 14,45,931
2003 1x sports event, 2 non-sports event 28,507
2002 1x non-sports event 16,000
2001 1x sports event, 1x non-sports events 30,000
229
Date Type of events Spectators
15.03.2007 Hillsong ‘Colour Your World’ Women‘s Conf. (3 days) 16,000+
29.04.2007 MTV Australia Awards No data
02.07.2007 Hillsong Conference (5 days) 26,000
19.08.2007 Netball: Commonwealth Bank Trophy Grand Final 8,500
28.10.2007 21st Annual ‘ARIA Music Awards’ No data
06.03.2008 Hillsong ‘Colour Your World’ Women‘s Conf. (3 days) +16,000
07.07.2008 Hillsong Conference (5 days) 24,000
28.07.2008 Netball: ANZ Championship Grand Final 12,999
19.10.2008 22nd Annual ‘ARIA Music Awards’ No data
07.07.2009 Hillsong Conference (5 days) 22,000
26.11.2009 23rd Annual ‘ARIA Music Awards’ No data
02.12.2009 Boxing Danny Green v/s Roy Jones Junior 16,000
05.07.2010 Hillsong Conference (5 days) 21,000
18.09.2010 Concert by Metallica No data
10.11.2010 Concert by Metallica (2 days) No data
13.11.2010 Concert by Metallica No data
27.11.2011 25th Annual ‘ARIA Music Awards’ No data
11.05.2012 Concert, Prince’s ‘Welcome to Australia‘ (2 days) No data
22.05.2012 Concert, Prince’s ‘Welcome to Australia’ No data
09.06.2012 Football: LFL - Lingerie Football League No data
20.06.2012 Concert, Lady Gaga ‘Born This Way Tour‘ (2 days) No data
23.06.2012 Concert, Lady Gaga‘ Born This Way Tour’ (2 days) No data
11.07.2012 Disney On Ice - Let's Celebrate (6 days) No data
21.07.2012 Bull Riding: Australian Cup Series (PBR) 2012 No data
21.10.2012 Netball: Australia v/s New Zealand 13,640
18.11.2012 Concert, George Michael No data
21.12.2012 Roller SkatingRoller Derby Xtreme (RDX) No data
230
11.3.3 Canberra Football Stadium event schedules
231
List of events at Canberra Football Stadium 2000-2012
Date Type of events Spectators
14.11.2012 Elton John, Concert 12,000
09.09.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sharks 24,450
24.08.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s. Bulldogs 13,158
18.08.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Roosters No data
05.08.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Broncos 9,850
29.07.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Knights 10,260
15.07.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Titans 8,240
14.07.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Blues No data
02.07.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Dragons 10,462
12.06.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Wales No data
02.06.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 9,210
26.05.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Reds 16,123
13.05.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Eels 9,210
05.05.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waratahs No data
29.04.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sharks 12,227
14.04.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Rebels 14,011
08.04.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Warriors 10,800
02.04.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cowboys 12,135
31.03.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Sharks No data
24.03.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Highlanders 12,269
10.03.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Cheetahs 16,593
03.03.2012 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Storm 7,862
24.02.2012 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Force 14,211
07.10.2011 Football, Qantas Socceroos v/s Malaysia 10,041
14.08.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Rabbitohs 12,150
25.07.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Dragons 10,425
17.07.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Storm 11,853
27.08.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Panthers 10,085
04.07.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Storm No data
25.06.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Eels 13,457
10.06.2011 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Rebels 11,777
05.06.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cowboys 11,128
28.05.2011 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Stormers 10,311
232
Date Type of events Spectators
20.05.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Bulldogs 12,865
14.05.2011 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Lions 10,122
01.05.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 13,425
24.04.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Knights 11,879
17.04.2011 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Force 13,123
09.04.2011 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Hurricanes 12,333
02.04.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Titans 12,165
26.03.2011 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waratahs 18,011
18.03.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Broncos 16,146
13.03.2011 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sharks 13,450
05.03.2011 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Reds 16,027
19.02.2011 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Chiefs 13,227
23.10.2010 Motor Cross, Super X 7,064
20.09.2010 Rugby League, ACT Junior Rugby League Finals 2,983
19.09.2010 Rugby League, ACT Junior Rugby League Finals 2,421
17.09.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Tigers 21,965
04.09.2010 Rugby Union, ACT Junior Rugby Union Finals 2,889
28.08.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cowboys 10,434
22.08.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Dragons 19,722
09.08.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Panthers 7,185
24.07.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sharks 8,304
18.07.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Knights 8,469
04.07.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Roosters 9,742
28.06.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Bulldogs 10,050
06.06.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Titans 9,301
05.06.2010 Football, Australia v/s Fiji 13,901
15.05.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Storm 10,693
08.05.2010 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Highlanders 15,168
01.05.2010 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Reds 16,482
25.04.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Rabbitohs 12,772
16.04.2010 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Hurricanes 13,763
10.04.2010 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Cheetahs 13,143
04.04.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Tigers 16,328
26.03.2010 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Chiefs 13,640
233
Date Type of events Spectators
22.03.2010 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Broncos 12,894
13.03.2010 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Sharks 14,739
05.03.2010 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Lions 10,883
31.10.2009 Football, Central Coast Mariners v/s Adelaide Unit.(AL) 4,843
19.09.2009 Rugby League, ACT Jun. Rugby League Final (2 days) 2,900
05.09.2009 Rugby Union, ACT Junior Rugby Union Finals (2 days) 2,507
04.09.2009 Football, Central Coast Mariners v/s Perth Glory (AL) 4,089
31.08.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Knights 8,530
15.08.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Dragons 18,749
01.08.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Broncos 8,785
26.07.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Tigers 10,743
05.07.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Titans 8,704
28.06.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Storm 8,651
14.06.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sharks 8,704
13.06.2009 Rugby Union, Wallabies v/s Italy 20,743
24.05.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Warriors 7,383
09.05.2009 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Blues 15,258
02.05.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Panthers 7,900
26.04.2009 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Bulldogs 11,204
17.04.2009 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Bulls 12,392
11.04.2009 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Stormers 13,320
14.03.2009 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waratahs 21,094
28.02.2009 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Force 15,173
21.02.2009 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Crusaders 17,501
30.01.2009 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Hurricanes 5,316
07.09.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Canterb. Bulldogs 14,396
17.08.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Newcastle Knights 11,206
10.08.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Penrith Panthers 5,880
26.07.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Gold Coast Titans 8,700
20.07.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Roosters 11,174
30.06.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cronulla Sharks 9,136
15.06.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Brisbane Broncos 10,157
30.05.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Manly Sea Eagles 11,486
19.05.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Rabbitohs 10,155
234
Date Type of events Spectators
25.04.2008 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Lions 13,708
21.04.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 14,113
19.04.2008 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Sharks 12,830
13.04.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 11,619
04.04.2008 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Chiefs 13,313
29.03.2008 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s St George 13,721
21.03.2008 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Cheetahs 13,157
14.03.2008 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Highlanders 13,359
01.03.2008 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Queensland Reds 14,929
23.02.2008 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Highlanders 13,481
01.09.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cronulla Sharks 10,440
18.08.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s NZ Warriors 7,334
27.07.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Penrith Panthers 6,783
15.07.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Gold Coast Titans 7,973
01.07.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 11,798
23.06.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cowboys 11,263
09.06.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Parramatta Eels 11,232
25.05.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s St George 13,187
06.05.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Manly Sea Eagles 14,387
28.04.2007 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Canterbury Crusaders 20,127
20.04.2007 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Western Force 18,021
16.04.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Roosters 15,862
08.04.2007 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waratahs 23,097
02.04.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Newcastle Knights 13,109
24.03.2007 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 9,556
18.03.2007 Function, Australian Idol Auditions 1,000
09.03.2007 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Stormers 14,410
03.03.2007 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Bulls 15,101
10.02.2007 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Blues 16,127
26.01.2007 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Hurricanes 6,122
23.09.2006 Rugby League, ACT Jun. Rugby League Final (2 days) 4,979
15.09.2006 Rugby Union, ACT Junior Rugby Union Finals (3 days) 9,277
26.08.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 21,255
06.08.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Brisbane Broncos 13,137
235
Date Type of events Spectators
23.07.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s St George 13,904
22.07.2006 Football, Sydney FC v/s Newcastle Jets 6,881
16.07.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 9,125
09.07.2006 Kanga Cup Opening Ceremony 2,234
01.07.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Parramatta Eels 8,824
25.06.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sydney Roosters 11,000
03.06.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Sydney Rabbitohs 9,298
14.05.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cronulla Sharks 8,895
06.05.2006 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Highlanders 18,862
29.04.2006 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Queensland Reds 17,041
22.04.2006 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Hurricanes 16,751
15.04.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s NZ Warriors 6,174
09.04.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Canterb. Bulldogs 11,425
08.04.2006 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Cheetahs 15,927
01.04.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Penrith Panthers 8,399
19.03.2006 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Newcastle Knights 10,193
15.03.2006 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waikato Chiefs 16,953
11.03.2006 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Sharks 15,134
03.03.2006 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Cats 19,051
19.09.2005 Rugby League ACT Jun. Rugby League Finals (2 days) 3,176
12.09.2005 Rugby Union, ACT Junior Rugby Union Finals (4 days) 8,031
03.09.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Manly 9,866
13.08.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Sydney Rabbitohs 7,905
07.08.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 14,695
17.07.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Parramatta Eels 12,738
09.07.2005 Kanga Cup Opening Ceremony 453
03.07.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Penrith Panthers 9,206
26.06.2005 Rugby Union, Australia A v/s Junior All Blacks 8,750
25.06.2005 Rugby League, Canb. Raiders v/s Nth Queensl. Cowb. 9,129
11.06.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Brisbane Broncos 8,609
15.05.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cronulla Sharks 13,844
11.05.2005 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Stormers 22,316
07.05.2005 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waikato Chiefs 20,077
24.04.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 13,280
236
Date Type of events Spectators
16.04.2005 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s NSW Waratahs 27,040
10.04.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sydney Roosters 19,130
02.04.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s St George 15,614
19.03.2005 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Newcastle Knights 11,835
04.03.2005 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Bulls 20,927
26.02.2005 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Crusaders 24,115
19.02.2005 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Hurricanes 11,617
18.09.2004 Rugby League, ACT Jun. Rugby League Final (2 days) 3,700
04.09.2004 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s S. Sydney Rabbit. 10,839
22.08.2004 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sydney Roosters 15,312
15.08.2004 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 9,801
25.07.2004 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s NZ Warriors 8,535
10.07.2004 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Nth Queensl. Co. 8,771
03.07.2004 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 10,792
21.02.2004 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Auckland Blues 22,255
01.11.2003 Masters Games Opening Ceremony 4,120
25.10.2003 RWC 2006, Wales v/s Italy 22,641
19.10.2003 RWC 2004, Wales v/s Tonga 19,748
15.10.2003 RWC 2003, Italy v/s Tonga 20,357
03.10.2003 RWC 2005, Italy v/s Canada 20,502
12.09.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 14,049
07.09.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sydney Roosters 22,813
29.08.2003 Rugby Union, ACT Junior Rugby Union Finals (3 days) 6,000
25.08.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Newcastle Knights 8,050
16.08.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Nth Queensl. Co. 8,074
27.07.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cronulla Sharks 9,563
19.07.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 10,363
06.07.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 11,689
29.06.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Tonga 8,021
22.06.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Fiji 10,486
15.06.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Brisbane Broncos 18,136
12.06.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cronulla Sharks 9,922
07.06.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Parramatta Eels 12,968
29.05.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Manly 9,229
237
Date Type of events Spectators
22.05.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Canterbury Crusaders 28,753
17.05.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Penrith Panthers 13,140
15.05.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waikato Chiefs 23,191
09.05.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Canterbury Crusaders 25,279
09.05.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Brisbane Broncos 12,319
01.05.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Hurricanes 21,474
26.04.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Canterbury Bulld. 19,372
24.04.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Newcastle Knights 10,280
18.04.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s NSW Warathas 25,112
09.04.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Highlanders 23,104
06.04.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waikato Chiefs 18,154
03.04.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Parramatta Eels 13,285
29.03.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s St George 13,744
28.03.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Queensland Reds 24,017
22.03.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Bulls 20,240
19.03.2003 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Penrith Panthers 14,327
14.03.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Stormers 18,896
06.03.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Sharks 18,064
27.02.2003 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Cats 19,815
11.02.2003 Dance Show, Riverdance (5 days) 13,680
05.10.2002 Concert, Celtic Crossroads 2,501
15.09.2002 Rugby Union, ACT Junior Rugby Union Finals 5,000
07.09.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 9,374
25.08.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Canterbury Bulld. 13,751
17.08.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Sydney Roosters 10,526
11.08.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tigers 10,081
27.07.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Auckland Warriors 8,702
24.07.2002 Football, Australian U23 v/s Chilean Colo Colo 2,201
14.07.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Newcastle Knights 10,082
30.06.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Penrith Panthers 6,736
01.06.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Northern Eagles 6,295
26.05.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s North Queensland 6,088
10.05.2002 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s NZ Blues 23,623
04.05.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cronulla Sharks 9,370
238
Date Type of events Spectators
26.04.2002 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s NZ Highlanders 20,724
14.04.2002 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Hurricanes 21,011
13.04.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Brisbane Broncos 10,929
23.03.2002 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s South Sydney 16,292
08.03.2002 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Sharks 20,940
02.03.2002 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Cats 19,518
23.02.2002 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Queensland Reds 22,971
10.09.2001 Rugby Union, ACT Junior Rugby Union Finals (3 days) 7,773
01.09.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Melbourne Storm 6,439
19.08.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Northern Eagles 6,987
11.08.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Penrith Panthers 6,189
22.07.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Wests Tiger 7,259
24.06.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Roosters No data
16.06.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Cronulla Sharks No data
26.05.2001 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Sharks No data
19.05.2001 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Queensland Reds No data
13.05.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Brisbane Broncos No data
11.05.2001 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waikato Chiefs No data
29.04.2001 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Perth Glory No data
25.04.2001 Football, Canberra No data
21.04.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Cosmos v/s Northern Spirit No data
15.04.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s North Queensland No data
13.04.2001 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Waratahs No data
08.04.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raid. v/s Newcastle Knights No data
07.04.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Cosmos v/s Eastern Pride No data
25.03.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Parramatta No data
24.03.2001 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Stormers No data
23.03.2001 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Sydney United No data
18.03.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s St George No data
17.03.2001 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s SA Bulls No data
10.03.2001 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Wollongong Wolves No data
03.03.2001 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Newcastle Breakers No data
25.02.2001 Rugby League, Canberra Raiders v/s Bulldogs No data
24.02.2001 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Parramatta Power No data
239
Date Type of events Spectators
23.02.2001 Rugby Union, Brumbies v/s Cantebury No data
17.02.2001 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Brisbane Strikers No data
03.02.2001 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Marconi Stallions No data
13.01.2001 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Adelaide City No data
30.12.2000 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Kings FC No data
16.12.2000 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Sydney Olympic No data
02.12.2000 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s South Melbourne No data
28.10.2000 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Melbourne Knights No data
14.10.2000 Football, Canberra Cosmos v/s Carlton No data
240
11.4 Athens 2004, Games of the XXVIII Olympiad
The following sports events of the home teams Panathinaikos FC440 and AEK FC441
and other non-sports events442 were held at Athens Olympic Stadium between
01.01.2004-31.12.2010. The event schedules are based on publicly available data
from the operator, respective home teams, event managers and other sources.
The following sports and non-sports events443 were held at ‘Common Domain’ of the
Olympic Park in Athens between 01.01.2004-31.12.2010. The event schedules are
based on publicly available data from the operator, respective home teams, event
managers and other sources.
241
Summary of Events Athens Common Domain 2004-2010
No. Type of events Spectators
2x Function 2005 No data
1x Party 2007 No data
242
List of Events Athens Olympic Stadium 2004-2010
Date Type of events Spectators
18.12.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Volos (SL) No data
16.12.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Zenit St Peters. (UEFA EL) No data
12.12.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Larissa (SL) No data
04.12.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panserraikos (SL) No data
27.11.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
24.11.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Barcelona (UEFA CL) No data
20.11.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
13.11.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Larissa (SL) No data
08.11.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
04.11.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Anderlecht (UEFA EL) No data
02.11.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Rubin Kazan (UEFA CL) No data
30.10.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
24.10.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panathinaikos (SL) No data
20.10.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Rubin Kazan (UEFA CL) No data
16.10.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
03.10.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
29.09.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s FC Copenh. (UEFA CL) No data
25.09.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panionios (SL) No data
19.09.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) No data
16.09.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Hajduk Split (UEFA EL) No data
12.09.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panserraikos (SL) No data
03.09.2010 Concert, U2, ‘360° Tour‘ No data
27.08.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
26.08.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Dundee United (UEFA EL) No data
18.04.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) No data
11.04.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
28.03.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panionios (SL) No data
21.03.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
13.03.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Kavala (SL) No data
11.03.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Standard Liege (UEFA EL) No data
07.03.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Levadiakos (SL) No data
27.02.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
21.02.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
243
Date Type of events Spectators
18.02.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Roma (UEFA EL) No data
14.02.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Kavala (SL) No data
06.02.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
31.01.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s AEK Athens (SL) No data
24.01.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Giannina (SL) No data
17.01.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panthrakikos (SL) No data
10.01.2010 Football, AEK Athens v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
06.01.2010 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
19.12.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Giannina (SL) No data
16.12.2009 Football, Panathina. v/s Dinamo Bucharest (UEFA EL) No data
13.12.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Levadiakos (SL) No data
06.12.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
02.12.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Everton (UEFA EL) No data
28.11.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
22.11.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) No data
09.11.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Larissa (SL) No data
05.11.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s BATE Borisov (UEFA EL) No data
01.11.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panionios (SL) No data
25.10.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
22.10.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Sturm Graz (UEFA EL) No data
18.10.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panthrakikos (SL) No data
05.10.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Larissa (SL) No data
01.10.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Benfica (UEFA EL) No data
27.09.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panathinaikos (SL) No data
23.09.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
20.09.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
17.09.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Galatasaray (UEFA EL) No data
13.09.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
30.08.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
27.08.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Vaslui (UEFA EL) No data
19.08.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Atletico Madrid (UEFA CL) No data
04.08.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Sparta Prague (UEFA CL) No data
28.05.2009 Concert, AC/DC, ‘Black Ice World Tour’ 60,000
26.04.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
244
Date Type of events Spectators
12.04.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
05.04.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
22.03.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Levadiakos (SL) No data
10.03.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Villarreal (UEFA CL) No data
07.03.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Larissa (SL) No data
28.02.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
21.02.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panionios (SL) No data
14.02.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Thrasivoulos Fylis (SL) No data
08.02.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
01.02.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
25.01.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panionios (SL) No data
18.01.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
11.01.2009 Football, AEK Athens v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
04.01.2009 Football, Panathinaikos v/s AEK Athens (SL) No data
21.12.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
14.12.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panserraikos (SL) No data
09.12.2008 Football, Panathina. v/s Anorthosis Famag. UEFA CL No data
07.12.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panthrakikos (SL) No data
29.11.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) No data
22.11.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Thrasivoulos Fylis (SL) No data
15.11.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panserraikos (SL) No data
09.11.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
02.11.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) No data
29.10.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
26.10.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
22.10.2008 Football, Panathina. v/s Werder Bremen (UEFA CL) No data
19.10.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Larissa (SL) No data
05.10.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Levadiakos (SL) No data
27.09.2008 Concert, Madonna, ‘Sticky and Sweet Tour’ 80,000
21.09.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
16.09.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Inter Milan (UEFA CL) No data
13.09.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panthrakikos (SL) No data
31.08.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panathinaikos (SL) No data
26.08.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Sparta Prague (UEFA CL) No data
245
Date Type of events Spectators
14.08.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Omonia Nicosia (UEFA Cup) No data
30.07.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Dinamo Tbilisi (UEFA CL) No data
13.07.2008 Athletics, IAAF Grand Prix ‘Tsiklitiria 2008’ No data
20.04.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) No data
13.04.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
06.04.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
30.03.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panionios (SL) No data
30.03.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
22.03.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
16.03.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
09.03.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Larissa (SL) No data
05.03.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
02.03.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panathinaikos (SL) No data
24.02.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Levadiakos (SL) No data
21.02.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Rangers (UEFA Cup) No data
13.02.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Getafe (UEFA Cup) No data
09.02.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Veria (SL) No data
03.02.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) No data
03.02.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panionios (SL) No data
27.01.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Levadiakos (SL) No data
20.01.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
12.01.2008 Football, AEK Athens v/s Veria (SL) No data
06.01.2008 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) No data
30.12.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
23.12.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
20.12.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Villarreal (UEFA Cup) No data
09.12.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) No data
05.12.2007 Football, Panathina. v/s Lokomot. Moscow UEFA Cup No data
01.12.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
29.11.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Fiorentina (UEFA Cup) No data
25.11.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
11.11.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s AEK Athens (SL) No data
04.11.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
28.10.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
246
Date Type of events Spectators
25.10.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aberdeen (UEFA Cup) No data
20.10.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Larissa (SL) No data
02.10.2007 Football, Panathina. v/s Artmedia Petrzalka UEFA Cup No data
29.09.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
23.09.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
20.09.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Salzburg (UEFA Cup) No data
03.09.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Seville (UEFA CL) No data
02.09.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
26.07.2007 Concert, George Michael, ‘25 Live Tour 40,000444
02.07.2007 Athletics, IAAF Grand Prix ‘Tsiklitiria 2007’ 30,000
28.05.2007 Football, Goal in our heart No data
23.05.2007 Football, UEFA Champions League Athens Final 2007 74,000
13.05.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Kerkyra (SL) No data
29.04.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
22.04.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
15.04.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aigaleo (SL) No data
18.03.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
11.03.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
03.03.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
25.02.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
22.02.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Lens (UEFA Cup) No data
18.02.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panathinaikos (SL) No data
14.02.2007 Football, AEK v/s Paris St-Germain (UEFA Cup) No data
11.02.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
04.02.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
26.01.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panionios (SL) No data
21.01.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
14.01.2007 Football, AEK Athens v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
07.01.2007 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aigaleo (SL) No data
17.12.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panionios (SL) No data
09.12.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Larissa (SL) No data
02.12.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ionikos (SL) No data
30.11.2006 Football, Panathina. v/s Rapid Bucharest (UEFA Cup) No data
26.11.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) No data
247
Date Type of events Spectators
21.11.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s AC Milan (UEFA CL) No data
18.11.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Kerkyra (SL) No data
12.11.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Larissa (SL) No data
05.11.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
01.11.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Lille (UEFA CL) No data
28.10.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) No data
23.10.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s AEK Athens (SL) No data
19.10.2006 Football, Panathina. v/s Hapoel Tel-Aviv (UEFA Cup) No data
30.09.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
26.09.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Anderlecht (UEFA CL) No data
24.09.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
18.09.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
14.09.2006 Football, Panathina v/s Metalurg Zaporiz' (UEFA Cup) No data
09.09.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
26.08.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Ionikos (SL) No data
23.08.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Heart Midlothian (UEFA CL) No data
19.08.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
20.07.2006 Concert, Shakira, ‘Oral Fixation Tour’ No data
03.07.2006 Athletics, IAAF Grand Prix ‘Tsiklitiria 2006’ No data
01.06.2006 Rally, Acropolis SuperStage (4 days) 65,000445
14.05.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
30.04.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aigaleo (SL) No data
16.04.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
09.04.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
02.04.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Levadiakos (SL) No data
26.03.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Akratitos (SL) No data
19.03.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
12.03.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panionios (SL) No data
05.03.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s AEK Athens (SL) No data
26.02.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ionikos (SL) No data
19.02.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Kallithea (SL) No data
12.02.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Larissa (SL) No data
04.02.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Levadiakos (SL) No data
29.01.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Ionikos (SL) No data
248
Date Type of events Spectators
14.01.2006 Football, AEK Athens v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
07.01.2006 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Larissa (SL) No data
2006 Conference, Herbalife’s annual conference No data
19.12.2005 Function, PANATHAS Power, Christmas for children No data
17.12.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) No data
11.12.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
04.12.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
26.11.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
22.11.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Udinese (UEFA CL) No data
19.11.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) No data
05.11.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Kallithea (SL) No data
03.11.2005 Function, Ramadan End, Muslim Uni. Greece (2 days) No data
30.10.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
23.10.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panathinaikos (SL) No data
18.10.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Barcelona (UEFA CL) No data
15.10.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Akratitos (SL) No data
02.10.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
29.09.2005 Football, AEK v/s Zenit St Petersburg (UEFA Cup) No data
27.09.2005 Football, Panathina. v/s Werder Bremen (UEFA CL) No data
24.09.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panionios (SL) No data
18.09.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aigaleo (SL) No data
11.09.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
28.08.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
23.08.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Wisla Krakow (UEFA CL) No data
23.06.2005 Rally, Acropolis SuperStage (4 days) 60,000446
25.05.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) No data
15.05.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s AEK Athens (SL) No data
08.05.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ionikos (SL) No data
24.04.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
17.04.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
10.04.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
10.04.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
03.04.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
20.03.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
249
Date Type of events Spectators
12.03.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
06.03.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
27.02.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Kerkyra (SL) No data
19.02.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
16.02.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Seville (UEFA Cup) No data
12.02.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) No data
23.01.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aigaleo (SL) No data
16.01.2005 Football, Panathinaikos v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
09.01.2005 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panathinaikos (SL) No data
29.12.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) No data
19.12.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
15.12.2004 Football, AEK v/s Alemania Aachen (UEFA Cup) No data
12.12.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Ergotelis (SL) No data
07.12.2004 Football, Pana. v/s PSV Eindhoven (UEFA CL) No data
02.12.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Seville (UEFA Cup) No data
28.11.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
25.11.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Lille (UEFA Cup) No data
20.11.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Kallithea (SL) No data
07.11.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
30.10.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Panionios (SL) No data
24.10.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Kallithea (SL) No data
21.10.2004 Football, AEK v/s Zenit St Petersburg (UEFA Cup) No data
20.10.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Arsenal (UEFA CL) No data
16.10.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aigaleo (SL) No data
03.10.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panionios (SL) No data
30.09.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s HIT Gorica (UEFA Cup) No data
26.09.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Kerkyra (SL) No data
25.09.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Xanthi (SL) No data
19.09.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Ionikos (SL) No data
14.09.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Rosenborg (UEFA CL) No data
16.05.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
02.05.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Akratitos (SL) No data
24.04.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Paniliakos (SL) No data
18.04.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos (SL) No data
250
Date Type of events Spectators
04.04.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Akratitos (SL) No data
21.03.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) No data
03.03.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Auxerre (UEFA Cup) No data
29.02.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Aigaleo (SL) No data
28.02.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Aris Salonika (SL) No data
22.02.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
07.02.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Panionios (SL) No data
01.02.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s AEK Athens (SL) No data
25.01.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) No data
18.01.2004 Football, Panathinaikos v/s OFI Crete (SL) No data
18.01.2004 Football, AEK Athens v/s Ionikos (SL) No data
Abbreviations
SL: Greek Super League
UEFA CL: UEFA Champions League
UEFA EL: UEFA Europe League
251
11.4.2 Athens Indoor Stadium event schedules
The following sports events447 of the home team Panathinaikos BC448 and non-
sports events449 were held at Athens Indoor Stadium between 01.01.2004-
31.12.2010. The event schedules are based on publicly available data from the
operator, respective home teams, event managers and other sources.
252
List of Events at Athens Indoor Stadium 2004-2010
Date Type of events Spectators
11.12.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
28.11.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
21.11.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Kavala No data
06.11.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Peristeri Athens No data
23.10.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
02.06.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
26.05.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
23.05.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Panellinios Athens No data
15.05.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Panellinios Athens No data
01.05.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
25.04.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
10.04.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
20.03.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Ilisiakos Athens No data
17.03.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Kavala No data
28.02.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
14.02.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
30.01.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olympia Larissa No data
23.01.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Kolossos Rodou No data
09.01.2010 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Peristeri Athens No data
29.12.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Trikalla AS No data
06.12.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
22.11.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
01.11.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Panellinios Athens No data
01.06.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
25.05.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
16.05.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
09.05.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
25.04.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
15.04.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Kavala No data
05.04.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olympia Larissa No data
08.03.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Egaleo AO No data
18.02.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panellinios At. No data
08.02.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
253
Date Type of events Spectators
21.01.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Kolossos Rodou No data
11.01.2009 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
20.12.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
07.12.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
23.11.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
08.11.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Trikalla AS No data
25.10.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Larissis Adamou No data
12.10.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
14.07.2008 Basketball, Pre-Olympic Tournament (7 days) No data
07.07.2008 Basketball, 22nd Intl. Tourn. Acropolis (3 days) No data
04.06.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
29.05.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
24.05.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
15.05.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
10.05.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
03.05.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olympia Larissa No data
23.04.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Panellinios Athens No data
16.04.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
29.03.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olimpiada Patron No data
15.03.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Kolossos Rodou No data
01.03.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
09.02.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
13.01.2008 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Larissis Adamou No data
29.12.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
08.12.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Egaleo AO No data
24.11.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olympia Larissa No data
10.11.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
04.11.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
21.10.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Rethimno AGO No data
20.08.2007 Basketball, 21st Intl. Tourn. Acropolis (3 days) No data
20.06.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
13.06.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
06.06.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
27.05.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
254
Date Type of events Spectators
20.05.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
13.05.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
04.05.2007 Basketball, Euroleague Basketball Final (3 days) No data
28.04.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olympia Larissa No data
21.04.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
21.04.2007 Basketball, Apollon Achaia v/s Makedonikos No data
18.03.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Panellinios Athens No data
03.03.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
17.02.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
27.01.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olimpiada Patron No data
06.01.2007 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Makedonikos No data
10.12.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
03.12.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Apollon Achaia No data
18.11.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Larissis Adamou No data
04.11.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Egaleo AO No data
21.10.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
12.10.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
30.09.2006 Concert, Pearl Jam, ‘2006 World Tour’ 15,000450
26.06.2006 Sport, 13th World High School Games (8 days) No data
24.06.2006 Fair, Ecolife No data
07.06.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
31.05.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
21.05.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
15.05.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
08.05.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
03.05.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Makedonikos No data
19.04.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
09.04.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
25.03.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Kolossos Rodou No data
04.03.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
11.02.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
27.01.2006 Concert, Vanessa Mae, ‘Choreography Tour’ No data
22.01.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis No data
10.01.2006 Function, Muslim Union of Greece No data
255
Date Type of events Spectators
07.01.2006 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Apollon Achaia No data
2006 Conference, Herbalife’s annual conference No data
2006 Basketball, Basketopolis – Papaloukamp 200
23.12.2005 Basketball, Hellenic B., EFG Eurobank (children) No data
10.12.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olympia Larissa No data
02.12.2005 Function, Love Three-Pointer No data
01.12.2005 Function, World March Roche Empl. for AIDS 2005 No data
01.12.2005 Conference, International AIDS Day No data
27.11.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
12.11.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Panellinios Athens No data
05.11.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
22.10.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Larissis Adamou No data
30.09.2005 Basketball, AEK’s large celebration 15,000
24.09.2005 Concert, Sakis Rouvas, Charity purpose 18,000451
15.06.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
09.06.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
05.06.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
29.05.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
22.05.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
17.05.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
27.04.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
02.04.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Makedonikos No data
19.03.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Olympia Larissa No data
05.03.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
26.02.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Ionikos Saloniki No data
13.02.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
29.01.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Aris No data
22.01.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Panellinios Athens No data
08.01.2005 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s MENT Vassilakis No data
11.12.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
27.11.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
06.11.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis No data
23.10.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Apollon Achaia No data
02.06.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
256
Date Type of events Spectators
26.05.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
22.05.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis No data
16.05.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis No data
06.05.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Olympiakos No data
24.04.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s AEK No data
04.04.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Panionios No data
14.03.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s PAOK No data
07.02.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Apollon Achaia No data
31.01.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Ilisiakos Athens No data
17.01.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathina. v/s Maroussi Athens No data
04.01.2004 Basketball, Athens Panathinaikos v/s Iraklis No data
257
11.4.3 Athens Football Stadium event schedules
The following sports events452 of the home team Olympiakos FC453 and non-sports
events454 were held at Athens Football Stadium between 01.01.2004-31.12.2010.
The event schedules are based on publicly available data from the operator,
respective home teams, event managers and other sources.
258
List of events Athens Football Stadium 2004-2010
Date Type of events Spectators
19.12.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Larissa (SL) Away
12.12.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) 20,015
21.11.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) 30,275
06.11.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panionios (SL) 22,312
24.10.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) 30,099
12.10.2010 Football, Greece v/s Israel (NT) 16,170
08.10.2010 Football, Greece v/s Turkey (NT) 12,700
02.10.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Volos (SL) 27,605
25.09.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) 25,090
11.09.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Kerkyra (SL) Banned
03.09.2010 Football, Greece v/s Georgia (NT) 14,919
29.07.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Maccabi Tel-Aviv (UEFA EL) Banned
22.07.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Besa Kavaje (UEFA EL) Banned
20.06.2010 Concert, Aerosmith, ‘Cocked, Locked, Ready to …’ 18,000
01.06.2010 Concert, Rihanna, ‘Last Girl on the Earth Tour’ 20,000
18.04.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) 14,217
28.03.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Xanthi (SL) 18,010
13.03.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Giannina (SL) 15,969
28.02.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) 21,866
23.02.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Bordeaux (UEFA CL) 29,763
07.02.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Levadiakos (SL) Banned
24.01.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) 26,137
10.01.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s Larissa (SL) 19,327
06.01.2010 Football, Olympiakos v/s AEK Athens (SL) 27,789
13.12.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panthrakikos (SL) 18,041
09.12.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Arsenal (UEFA CL) 30,272
29.11.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panathinaikos (SL) 31,059
07.11.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) 20,415
24.10.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Ergotelis (SL) 21,254
20.10.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Standard Liege (UEFA CL) 29,891
17.10.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) 20,398
26.09.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panionios (SL) 22,163
16.09.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s AZ Alkmaar (UEFA CL) 29,018
259
Date Type of events Spectators
12.09.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Kavala (SL) 16,056
26.08.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Sheriff Tiraspol (UEFA CL) 27,631
05.08.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Slov. Bratislava (UEFA CL) 26,137
06.07.2009 Concert, The Scorpions, ‘Festival 2009’ 22,000
12.04.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Larissa (SL) 24,801
15.03.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) 25,182
01.03.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panathinaikos (SL) 28,775
18.02.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Saint-Etienne (UEFA Cup) 29,609
14.02.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) 25,867
24.01.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s OFI Crete (SL) 25,633
10.01.2009 Football, Olympiakos v/s Xanthi (SL) 25,484
21.12.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Thrasivoulos Fylis (SL) 20,033
18.12.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Hertha Berlin (UEFA Cup) 30,003
07.12.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Levadiakos (SL) 22,337
30.11.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panionios (SL) 27,487
27.11.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Benfica (UEFA Cup) 30,178
16.11.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) 29,458
02.11.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Ergotelis (SL) 26,058
19.10.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panthrakikos (SL) 23,693
15.10.2008 Football, Greece v/s Switzerland (NT) 28,566
11.10.2008 Football, Greece v/s Moldova (NT) 14,894
05.10.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s AEK Athens (SL) 30,074
02.10.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Nordsjaelland (UEFA Cup) 24,513
21.09.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panserraikos (SL) 25,234
30.08.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) 20,392
27.08.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Famagusta (UEFA CL) 27,898
15.07.2008 Concert, ‘Athens Fly Beyond Festival’ 8,000
10.07.2008 Concert, Patti Smith 6,000
01.07.2008 Concert, Def Leppard and Whitesnake 10,000
20.04.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) 29,084
06.04.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Larissa (SL) 24,318
15.03.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) 20,343
01.03.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Asteras Tripolis (SL) 24,503
19.02.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Chelsea (UEFA CL) 31,238
260
Date Type of events Spectators
16.02.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Ergotelis (SL) 14,544
27.01.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) 30,014
13.01.2008 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panathinaikos (SL) 31,310
29.12.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Xanthi (SL) 23,164
16.12.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s AEK Athens (SL) 30,229
11.12.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Werder Bremen (UEFA CL) 30,623
08.12.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Levadiakos (SL) 17,096
24.11.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Veria (SL) 18,070
06.11.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Real Madrid (UEFA CL) 30,355
03.11.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) 28,013
20.10.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panionios (SL) 20,104
06.10.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) 27,029
23.09.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s OFI Crete (SL) 24,824
18.09.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Lazio (UEFA CL) Banned
23.06.2007 Concert, Evanescence 8,000
18.06.2007 Concert, The Scorpions, ‘Humanity Tour’ 15,000
22.04.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Kerkyra (SL) 23,655
24.03.2007 Football, Greece v/s Turkey (NT) 31,405
18.03.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) 26,087
04.03.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panathinaikos (SL) 30,598
18.02.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) 15,026
11.02.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) 15,501
27.01.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s OFI Crete (SL) 25,517
14.01.2007 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panionios (SL) 25,157
16.12.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Ionikos (SL) 17,192
10.12.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aigaleo (SL) 16,245
05.12.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Shak. Donetsk (UEFA CL) 30,805
26.11.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Larissa (SL) 22,156
12.11.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) 19,254
28.10.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Ergotelis (SL) 20,455
18.10.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Roma (UEFA CL) 31,009
07.10.2006 Football, Greece v/s Norway (NT) 20,939
23.09.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s AEK Athens (SL) 29,100
12.09.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Valencia (UEFA CL) 31,488
261
Date Type of events Spectators
09.09.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) 29,140
19.08.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Xanthi (SL) 21,100
13.07.2006 Concert, Archive 5,000
13.06.2006 Concert, 50 Cent ‚‘European Tour‘ 10,000
09.06.2006 Concert, Massive Attack 12,000
14.05.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Ionikos (SL) 31,178
08.04.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aigaleo (SL) 28,228
27.03.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) 22,200
12.03.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) 28,560
05.03.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s OFI Crete (SL) 25,489
19.02.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s AEK Athens (SL) 31,115
06.02.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Kallithea (SL) 16,955
15.01.2006 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panathinaikos (SL) 31,483
17.12.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Levadiakos (SL) 25,525
12.12.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Larissa (SL) Banned
06.12.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Real Madrid (UEFA CL) 30,496
28.11.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) Banned
06.11.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Xanthi (SL) Banned
01.11.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Lyon (UEFA CL) 30,843
16.10.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) Banned
12.10.2005 Football, Greece v/s Georgia (NT) 28,222
24.09.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Akratitos (SL) Banned
13.09.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Rosenborg (UEFA CL) 31,572
10.09.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panionios (SL) Banned
18.07.2005 Concert, The Scorpions, ‘Unbreakable Tour’ 12,000
15.06- Cinema, daily 2 shows (except 11.07-24.07.2005),
Approx. 350
31.07.2005 capacity per cinema event approx. 300-400
08.06.2005 Football, Greece v/s Ukraine (NT) 31,392
15.05.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panionios (SL) 31,081
24.04.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aigaleo (SL) 29,894
03.04.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Ionikos (SL) 27,958
30.03.2005 Football, Greece v/s Albania (NT) 31,313
13.03.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s AEK Athens (SL) Banned
10.03.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Newcastle (UEFA Cup) 30,595
262
Date Type of events Spectators
27.02.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Atromitos Athens (SL) Banned
17.02.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Sochaux (UEFA Cup) 24,634
12.02.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Xanthi (SL) Banned
09.02.2005 Football, Greece v/s Denmark (NT) 29,823
30.01.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) Banned
16.01.2005 Football, Olympiakos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) 23,137
29.12.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Kerkyra (SL) 29,059
12.12.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Apollon Kalamaria (SL) 24,053
04.12.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panathinaikos (SL) 30,856
23.11.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Deport. Coruna (UEFA CL) 31,349
20.11.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s OFI Crete (SL) 25,315
17.11.2004 Football, Greece v/s Kazakhstan (NT) 31,837
03.11.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Monaco (UEFA CL) 31,320
30.10.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s PAOK Salonika (SL) 26,972
16.10.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Ergotelis (SL) 26,141
28.09.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Liverpool (UEFA CL) 31,300
19.09.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Kallithea (SL) 30,043
08.09.2004 Football, Greece v/s Turkey (NT) 31,515
22.05.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aigaleo (SL) Away
16.05.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Aris Salonika (SL) Away
25.04.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Panionios (SL) Away
04.04.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Iraklis Salonika (SL) Away
14.03.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s AEK Athens (SL) Away
08.02.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Xanthi (SL) Away
25.01.2004 Football, Olympiakos v/s Proodeftiki (SL) Away
Abbreviations
SL: Greek Super League
UEFA CL: UEFA Champions League
UEFA EL: UEFA Europa League
NT: National Team
263
11.5 Beijing 2008, Games of the XXIX Olympiad
The following sports and non-sports events were held at Beijing Olympic Stadium
between 01.01.2008-31.12.2012.455 The event schedules are based on publicly
available data from the operator, respective home teams, event managers and other
sources.
264
List of events at Beijing Olympic Stadium 2008-2012
Date Type of events Spectators
456
22.12.2012 Beijing Ice and Snow Festival (64 days) No data
27.07.2012 Football, Arsenal v/s Manchester United No data
11.08.2012 Football, Supercoppa Italiana, Juventus v/s Napoli 75,000
14.04.2012 Concert, Leehom Wang457 90,000
18.12.2011 Beijing Ice and Snow Festival458 (12 days) No data
03.12.2011 World Snow Board Tour No data
27.10.2011 China X Open (3 days) No data
06.08.2011 Football, Supercoppa Italiana, Milan v/s Internazionale 80,000
20.07.2011 Youth Sports Mind Games, Bird’s Nest Cup No data
12.06.2011 Feast, Patriotic Songs No data
21.05.2011 Concert, Andrea Bocelli No data
20.05.2011 Concert, Andrea Bocelli No data
19.05.2011 Beijing International Equestrian Show (3 days) No data
01.05.2011 Concert, Rock 30 No data
21.12.2010 Beijing Ice and Snow Festival459 (64 days) No data
03.10.2010 Concert, Central Opera Theatre No data
23.10.2010 Track & Field Sports, Bird’s Nest Cup (2 days) No data
03.10.2010 Concert, drum corps No data
23.08.2010 Football Match, Baidui Cup No data
20.08.2010 Football Tournament, Aocheng No data
08.08.2010 Football Match, Beijing Guo v/s FC Barcelona No data
06.08.2010 Celebration, Returning to Bird’s Nest No data
06.08.2010 Photo exhibition (5 days) No data
02.08.2010 Olympic cultural festival (15 days) No data
27.07.2010 Charity sports meeting, Passing on love No data
25.07.2010 Football Tournament, Bird’s Nest Cup (6 days) No data
21.07.2010 Football Match, Philanthropy China Tour No data
18.07.2010 Concert, New Age No data
26.07.2010 Sports meeting, Urban Construction No data
07.06.2010 Sports meeting, Schlumberger No data
04.05.2010 Football Tournament, Bird’s Nest Cup (10 days) No data
27.04 2010 Photo contest, Charm Bird’s Nest (157 days) No data
23.04.2010 Sports meeting, Yumin Primary School No data
265
Date Type of events Spectators
19.12.2009 Beijing Ice and Snow Festival460 (63 days) No data
03.11.2009 Race of Champions No data
461
06.10.2009 Turandot, Opera 68,961
08.08.2009 Football, Supercoppa Italiana, Internazionale v/s Lazio 60,666
30.06.2009 Concert, Charm China No data
01.05.2009 Concert, Jackie Chan and his friends No data
No data was made available by the operator despite of elaborate research and
enquiries regarding sports and non-sports events held at Beijing Indoor Stadium
between 01.01.2008-31.12.2012.
No data was made available by the operator despite of elaborate research and
enquiries regarding sports and non-sports events sports and non-sports events held
at Beijing Football Stadium between 01.01.2008-31.12.2012.
266
267
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Google Earth, Image ©2010 Digital Globe
260
Olympic Athletic Centre of Athens “Spiros Louis”, Magazine “OAKA”, issued by the
O.A.K.A. association, 2007, page 7
261
Wikipedia, Olympic Stadium (Athens), 08.07.2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Olympic_
Stadium_(Athens), 13.07.2012
262
Interview with the operator of OAKA
263
Panathinaikos FC, 2008, http://www.pao.gr, 19.07.2012
264
AEK FC, 2012, http://www.aekfc.gr, 19.07.2012
265
Olympic Athletic Centre of Athens “Spiros Louis”, Magazine “OAKA”, issued by the
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266
Google Earth, Image ©2010 Digital Globe
267
ATHOC, Vergas C. from the Olympic Studies Centre
268
ATHOC, Vergas C., Official Report of the XXVIII Olympiad in Athens 2004, Athens 2004
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Olympic Athletic Centre of Athens “Spiros Louis”, Magazine “OAKA”, issued by the
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270
Invest in Greece Agency, eNews, Olympic Venues, January 2004, http://www.
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Interview with the operator of OAKA
272
Panathinaikos BC, 2012, http://www.paobc.gr/page.ashx?pid=1&lang=2, 19.07.2012
273
Hellenic Basketball Federation, E.O.A., 2012, http://www.basket.gr, 19.07.2012
274
Google Earth, Image ©2011 Digital Globe
275
ATHOC, Vergas C. from the Olympic Studies Centre
276
ATHOC, Vergas C.
277
The Stadium Guide, Karaiskakis Stadium 2013, http://www.stadiumguide.com/karaiskaki/,
29.07.2013
278
Olympiacos.org, 2011-2012, http://www.olympiacos.org, 19.07.2012
279
Athens Football Stadium event schedules, page 261-266
280
Google Earth, Image ©2011 Digital Globe
281
ATHOC, Vergas C.
282
ATHOC, Vergas C.
283
284
283
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, Official Report of the
Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Volume II, Ceremonies and Competitions: Celebration of the
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284
Google Earth, Image ©2011 GeoEye
285
Npr, Louisa Lim, China's Post-Olympic Woe: How To Fill An Empty Nest, 10.07.2012,
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286
National Stadium-Bird’s Nest, Events, 2003-2011,
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287
Google Earth, Image ©2011 GeoEye
288
Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games August 8-24 2008, National Stadium,
2008, http://en.beijing2008.cn/venues/,16.07.2012 alternatively National Stadium-Birds Nest,
Photogallery 2003-2011, http://www.n-s.cn/en/multi-media/photogallery/, 20.12.2012
289
Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games August 8-24 2008, National Stadium,
2008, http://en.beijing2008.cn/venues/, 16.07.2012
290
Spazio mondo, Official supplier to the London 2012 Games, 2011
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291
Google Earth, Image ©2011 GeoEye
292
The Official Website of Beijing 2008 Olympic Games August 8-24 2008, National Indoor
Stadium, 2008, http://en.beijing2008.cn/venues/nis/index.shtml, 16.07.2012
293
The Official Website of Beijing 2008 Olympic Games August 8-24 2008, National Indoor
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294
LA84 Foundation, Notes on the digitized version of the Official Report of the Beijing 2008
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295
Google Earth, Image ©2011 GeoEye
296
The Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games August 8-24 2008, Olympic
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297
Sven Schmedes
298
Postgraduate Research Grant Programme 2007 of the International Olympic Committee
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299
Sharon Beder, Sydney’s Toxic green Olympics, Current Affairs Bulletin, Vol. 70, Nr. 6,
November 1993, page 12-18, http://www.uow.edu.au/~sharonb/Olympic.html, 16.07.2012
300
Architect: Weidleplan Consulting GmbH (Germany), http://www.wpm-gmbh.com, Project
Architects H. Stalhout, F. Herre and Rep Andrikopoulos
301
Google Earth, Image ©2011 GeoEye
284
285
302
Google Earth, Image ©2010 Digital Globe
303
Google Earth, Image ©2010 GeoEye
304
Architect: aa Associates, Architects and Engineers Stelios Agiostratitis, http://www.aa-
1architects.com
305
Architect: Santiago Calatrava, roof constructed 2003-2004, http://www. calatrava.com
306
Architect: Rudolf Moser in collaboration with Weidleplan Consulting with H. Stalhout, F.
Herre and D. Andrikopoulos Picture: Archirodon N.V., 3, Aghiou Andreou Street, Aghia
Paraskevi, 15343-Athens, http://www.archirodon.net (Client: General Secretariat of Sports,
Ministry of the Presidency, Greece; Contract Amount USD 60 Million).
307
AP Copyright of Telegraph Media Group Limited 2012, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ sport/
olympics/picturegalleries/8257138/Legacy-of-Olympic-Stadiums-in-pictures.html? image=2
308
Interview with operator of Canberra Football Stadium
309
The Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games August 8-24 2008, Olympic
Sports Centre, Stadium ready for “Good luck Beijing” Sports Events, http://en.beijing2008.
cn/cptvenues/venues/ oss/ headlines/oss/, 16.07.2012
310
The Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games August 8-24 2008, Olympic
Sports Centre Stadium ready for “Good luck Beijing” Sports Events, http://en.beijing2008.
cn/cptvenues/ venues/ oss/headlines/oss/, 16.07.2012
311
Architect: Santiago Calatrava, constructed 1991, http:// www.calatrava.com
312
Canberra Stadium, Venue, 2012, http://www.canberrastadium.com.au/venue,18.12.2012
313
ANZ Stadium, ANZ Stadium: creating history every day, 2012, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/AboutUs/History.aspx, 22.12.2012
314
ANZ Stadium, ANZ Stadium: creating history every day, 2012, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/AboutUs/History.aspx, 22.12.2012
315
Ballparks.com, Paul Munsey, Cory Suppes, 1996-2012, http://olympics.ballparks.com/
2000Sydney/index.htm, 22.01.2012
316
Sydney Olympic Park Authority, Ethan Rohloff, 2012, http://www.australiaunlimited.com,
Australian Trade Commission (Austrade), 2012, http://www. austrade.gov.au/mediacentre,
22.01.2012
317
English Press Dossier, Athens Olympic Sports Complex, Introduction, issued by Santiago
Calatrava LLC Architects and Engineers, received 14.01.2011
318
English Press Dossier, Athens Olympic Sports Complex, Introduction, issued by Santiago
Calatrava LLC Architects and Engineers, received 14.01.2011
319
Statistics Athens Olympic Sports Complex, Olympic Stadium Roof, issued by Santiago
Calatrava LLC Architects and Engineers, received 14.01.2011
320
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, Volume One, Preparing for the Games, 2001,
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285
286
321
stadia GR, Olympic Sports Hall, 2001-2012, http://www.stadia.gr//oaka-b/oaka-b.html,
18.12.2012
322
Manufacturer “Event Deck“, A Division of Signature Fencing & Flooring LLC, http://www.
eventdeck.com, 07.02.2012
323
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, Volume One, Preparing for the Games, 2001,
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324
ANZ Stadium, Recycling first for ANZ Stadium, 27.02.2008, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/News/LatestNews/NewsArticles.aspx?NewsContentId=1d3ac6e9-df48-44da-af3f-0
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Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
326
ANZ Stadium, Recycling first for ANZ Stadium, 27.02.2008, http://www.anzstadium
.com.au/News/LatestNews/NewsArticles.aspx?NewsContentId=1d3ac6e9-df48-44da-af3f-0
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Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
328
ANZ Stadium, Recycling first for ANZ Stadium, 27.02.2008, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/News/LatestNews/NewsArticles.aspx?NewsContentId=1d3ac6e9-df48-44da-af3f-0
aa128f37126,16.05.2013
329
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 353, 357
330
National Stadium-Bird’s Nest, Overview of the National Stadium, 17.08.2011, http://www.
n-s.cn/en/test/n214619929.shtml, 20.05.2013
331
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, Official Report of the
Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Volume III, 2011, LA84 Foundation, page 170
332
Allphones Arena, Venue Information, History, 2013, http://www.allphonesarena.com.
au/Venue_Information/History.aspx, 16.05.2013
333
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 353, 356
334
The Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Fan unfolds - the National
Indoor Stadium is delivered for use, 26.11.2007, http://en.beijing2008.cn/cptvenues/venues/
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335
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, Official Report of the
Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Volume III, 2011, LA84 Foundation, page 168, 170
336
Canberra Stadium, Environmental Policy, 2013, http://www.canberrastadium.com.au/
venue/item/environmental-policy,17.05.2013
286
287
337
The Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games August 8-24 2008, Olympic
Sports Centre Stadium ready for pentathlon competition, 11.09.2011, http://en.beijing2008.
cn/cptvenues/venues/oss/headlines/n214154062.shtml, 16.07.2012
338
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, Official Report of the
Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Volume III, 2011, LA84 Foundation, page 168, 170
339
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
340
ANZ Stadium, Recycling first for ANZ Stadium, 27.02.2008, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/News/LatestNews/NewsArticles.aspx?NewsContentId=1d3ac6e9-df48-44da-af3f-0
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Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
342
National Stadium-Bird’s Nest, Overview of the National Stadium, 17.08.2011, http://www.
n-s.cn/en/test/n214619929.shtml, 20.05.2013
343
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
344
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, Official Report of the
Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Volume III, 2011, LA84 Foundation, page 170
345
Canberra Stadium, Environmental Policy, 2013, http://www.canberrastadium.com.au/
venue/item/environmental-policy, 17.05.2013
346
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, Official Report of the
Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Volume III, 2011, LA84 Foundation, page 170
347
Reuters, Phyllis Xu, Mark Chisholm, China tourists twig to Beijing’s Bird’s Nest,
22.04.2009, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2009/04/22/us-china-birdsnest-idUKTRE53L10L200
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348
Interview with the Operator of Beijing Olympic Stadium on 02.03.2011
349
AUSTADIUMS, Allphones Arena, 23.09.2011, http://www.austadiums.com/stadiums/
stadiums.php?id, 23.12.2012
350
Interview with operator of ACER Arena: out of 75 events per year only 5 are sports events
351
Canberra Stadium, Event Archives, 2012, http://www.canberrastadium.com.au/events/
events-archive/category/events-archive/3, 18.12.2012
352
ANZ Stadium, Everything you need at ANZ Stadium, 2012, http://www.anzstadium.com.
au/Events/Facilities.aspx, 18.12.2012
353
ANZ Stadium, Stadium Tours, 2012, http://www.anzstadium.com.au/ Tours/PricesAnd
Times.aspx, 18.12.2012
354
Olympiacos Museum, area 700 sqm including 200 sqm for temporary exhibitions
287
288
355
1896 The first Modern Olympic Games
356
The Museum of Olympiacos, email dated 20.12.2012, 23.12.2012
357
Interview with the Operator of Beijing Olympic Stadium on 02.03.2011
358
Interview with the Operator of Beijing Olympic Stadium on 02.03.2011
359
Pollstar, top100 worldwide arena venues year end report, http://www.pollstar.com,
23.05.2012
360
Sydney Olympic Park Authority, Venues Fact Sheet, July 2011, http://www.sopa.nsw.
gov.au/media/pdfs/publications/fact_sheets/venues_fact_sheet, 25.06.2013
361
Pollstar Pro, 2007-2012, http://www.pollstarpro.com, 19.07.2012
362
Interview with the operator of the Karaiskakis Stadium
363
Architect: aa Associates, Architects and Engineers Stelios Agiostratitis, http://www.aa-
1architects.com
364
IOC, Sports and Environment Commission, 1999, Olympic Movement’s Agenda 21, Sport
for sustainable development, http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_300.
pdf, page 34, 09.07.2012
365
Classification A Urban Category, Sub-category A.1, Urban Integration, Parameter A.1.2
Building Type, page 89-90
366
Interview with operator of the Canberra Football Stadium
367
IOC, Sports and Environment Commission, 1999, Olympic Movement’s Agenda 21, Sport
for sustainable development, http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_300.
pdf, page 35, 09.07.2012
368
Architect: Santiago Calatrava, constructed 1991, http://www.calatrava.com
369
IOC, Sports and Environment Commission, 1999, Olympic Movement’s Agenda 21, Sport
for sustainable development, http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_300.
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370
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, Volume One, Preparing for the Games, 2001,
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371
ANZ Stadium, ANZ Stadium: creating history every day, 2012, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/ AboutUs/History.aspx, 22.12.2012
372
ANZ Stadium, ANZ Stadium: creating history every day, 2012, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/AboutUs/History.aspx, 22.12.2012
373
stadia GR, New Karaiskakis Stadium, 2001-2013, http://www.stadia.gr/karaiskaki/
karaiskaki.html, 13.06.2013
374
ANZ Stadium, Recycling first for ANZ Stadium, 27.02.2008, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/News/LatestNews/NewsArticles.aspx?NewsContentId=1d3ac6e9-df48-44da-af3f-0
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289
375
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
376
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
377
ANZ Stadium, Recycling first for ANZ Stadium, 27.02.2008, http://www.anzstadium.
com.au/News/LatestNews/NewsArticles.aspx?NewsContentId=1d3ac6e9-df48-44da-af3f-0
aa128f37126, 16.05.2013
378
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 353, 357
379
Allphones Arena, Venue Information, History, 2013, http://www.allphonesarena.com.
au/Venue_Information/History.aspx, 16.05.2013
380
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 353, 357
381
National Stadium-Bird’s Nest, Overview of the National Stadium, 17.08.2011, http://www.
n-s.cn/en/test/n214619929.shtml, 20.05.2013
382
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, Official Report of the
Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Volume III, 2011, LA84 Foundation, page 170
383
IOC, Sports and Environment Commission, 1999, Olympic Movement’s Agenda 21, Sport
for sustainable development, http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_300.
pdf, page 37, 08.07.2012
384
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
385
ANZ Stadium, Recycling first for ANZ Stadium, 27.02.2008, http://www.anzstadium.com.
au/News/LatestNews/NewsArticles.aspx?NewsContentId=1d3ac6e9-df48-44da-af3f-0aa128f
37126, 18.12.20012
386
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII
Olympiad, Volume One: Preparing for the Games, Paragon Publisher Australasia 2001,
Fyshwick, Australia, page 357
387
IOC, Sports and Environment Commission, 1999, Olympic Movement’s Agenda 21, Sport
for sustainable development, http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_300.
pdf, page 38-39, 08.07.2012
388
Olympiacos Museum, area 700sqm including 200sqm for temporary exhibitions
389
1896 The first Modern Olympic Games
390
Olympic.org, Official Website of the Olympic Movement, Olympic Charter, 07/2011, http://
www.olympic.org/Documents/olympic_charter_en.pdf, page 10, 05.11.2011
289
290
391
The FA.com, Wembley, Olympic Football 2012, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Events/ 2012/ Olympic-Mens-Football-Preliminary-Matches/ London-2012-Olympic-Football-
Mens-Gold-Medal-Match, 18.05.2014
392
Foster+Partners, Wembley Stadium, 2014, www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/wembley
-stadium, 13.05.2014
393
Foster+Partners, Wembley Stadium, 2014, www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/
wembley-stadium, 13.05.2014
394
The FA.com, Wembley in the Community, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Organisation/Local-Communities, 14.05.2014
395
Brent, Wembley Regeneration, 2014, www.brent.gov.uk/wembley, 14.05.2014
396
The FA.com, Wembley, Stadium Guide, Getting to Wembley, 2001-2014, www.wembley-
stadium.com/ TheStadium/ StadiumGuide/ DisabledAccess/ GettingToWembley, 13.05.2014
397
LOCOG London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paraolympic Games
Limited 2009, Planning statement for Wembley London 2012, London, LOCOG, 2011, page
6-7
398
Foster+Partners, Wembley Stadium, 2014, www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/
wembley-stadium, 13.05.2014
399
Insidethegames, London 2012, 2012, www.insidethegames.com/london-2012/
football,13.05.2014
400
The FA.com, Wembley, Corporate Sustainability, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Organisation/About-Us/Corporate-Sustainibility.aspx, 13.05.2014
401
Wembley, CRC Energy Efficiency Case Study, 2001-2014, www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/48524/4302-wembley-stadium-crc-case-
study.pdf, 13.05.2014
402
Edienergy, Wembley Stadium achieves international environmental certification,
24.01.2014, www.edie.net/ news/ 6/ Wembley-Stadium-marks-90th-year-with-environmental-
certification-/, 13.05.2014
403
The FA.com, Wembley, Corporate Sustainability, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Organisation/About-Us/Corporate-Sustainibility.aspx, 13.05.2014
404
The FA.com, Wembley, Corporate Sustainability, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Organisation/About-Us/Corporate-Sustainibility.aspx, 13.05.2014
405
The FA.com, Wembley, Corporate Sustainability, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Organisation/Event-Holders, 13.05.2014
406
The FA.com, Wembley, Corporate Sustainability, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Wembley-Tours/While%20At%20Wembley.aspx, 13.05.2014
407
The FA.com, Wembley, Corporate Sustainability, 2001-2014, https://clubwembley.
wembleystadium.com/ClubWembley/WhatIsClubWembley, 13.05.2014
408
The FA.com, Wembley, Corporate Sustainability, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Organisation/Learning-Zone, 13.05.2014
290
291
409
The FA.com, Wembley, Corporate Sustainability, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Organisation/Events.aspx, 13.05.2014
410
The FA.com, Wembley, Olympic Football 2012, 2001-2014, www.wembleystadium.com/
Events/ 2012/ Olympic-Mens-Football-Preliminary-Matches/ London-2012-Olympic-Football-
Mens-Gold-Medal-Match, 18.05.2014
411
Australian Rugby, 2011, http://www.rugby.com.au/, 19.07.2012
412
HSBC Waratahs, 2012, http://www.waratahs.com.au/, 19.07.2012
413
Football Federation Australia, 2011, http://www.footballaustralia.com.au/, 19.07.2012
414
New South Wales Rugby League, 2012, http://www.nswrl.com.au/, 19.07.2012
415
Sydney Swans, 2012, http://www.sydneyswans.com.au/, 19.07.2012
416
Bulldogs, 2012, http://www.bulldogs.com.au/, 19.07.2012
417
South Sydney Rabbitohs, 2012, http://www.rabbitohs.com.au/, 19.07.2012
418
Pirtek Parramatta Eels, http://www.parraeels.com.au/, 19.07.2012
419
ANZ Stadium, 2012, http://www.anzstadium.com.au/Events/PastEvents.aspx, 19.07.2012
420
AUSTADIUMS, Allphones Arena Crowds, 1999-2013, http://www.austadiums.com/sport/
stadium.php?id=116, 07.03.2013
421
Allphones Arena, Lingerie Football League, 2012, http://www.allphonesarena.com.
au/Event_Calendar/Old%20Events/Lingerie%20Football%20League.aspx, 07.03.2013
422
Roller Derby Xtreme, 2012, http://www.rdxtreme.com.au/home, 07.03.2013
423
Sydney Super Dome, 27.02.2013, http://Sydney_ Super_Dome, 07.03.2012
424
Wikipedia, Hillsong Conference, 03.12.2012, http://Hillsong_ Conference, 07.03.2013
425
Wikipedia, Colour Your World Women’s Conference, 05.04.2012,http://Colour_Your_
World_Women's_Conference, 07.03.2013
426
Allphones Arena, PBR Australian Cup 2012, 2012, http://www.allphonesarena.com.
au/Event_Calendar/Old%20Events/PBR%20Australian%20Cup%202012.aspx, 07.03.2013
427
Allphones Arena, Disney On Ice Let’s celebrate, 2012,http://www.allphonesarena.com.au
/Event_Calendar/Old%20Events/Disney%20On%20Ice.aspx, 07.03.2012
428
Allphones Arena, Lady Gaga, 2012, http://www.allphonesarena.com.au/ Event_Calendar/
Old%20Events/lady%20gaga, 07.03.2013
429
Allphones Arena, Latest News, 2012, http://www.allphonesarena.com.au/Latest_News,
07.03.2013
430
Metallica, Quebec Magnetic, Tour Dates, 2013, http://www.metallica.com/tour_date_
list.asp?year=2010&page=2, 07.03.2012
431
Canberra Stadium, 2008, http://www.canberrastadium.com.au/events/results.php,
19.07.2012
291
292
432
List of Events which have been held at Canberra Stadium, issued by Territory Venues
and Events, Territory Services Division, Department of Territory and Municipal Services,
received on 28.01.2011
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