The Back Squat: Targeted

Training Techniques to
Correct Functional
Deficits and Technical
Factors That Limit
Performance
Adam M. Kushner, BS, CSCS,1 Jensen L. Brent, BS, CSCS,2 Brad J. Schoenfeld, PhD, CSCS, FNSCA,3
Jason Hugentobler, PT, DPT, SCS, CSCS,1,4 Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D,5 Al Vermeil, MS, RSCC*E,6,7
Donald A. Chu, PhD, PT, AT Ret., CSCS, FNSCA,7,8,9 Jason Harbin, MS,10 Stuart M. McGill, PhD,11
and Gregory D. Myer, PhD, CSCS*D1,12,13,14
1
Division of Sports Medicine, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; 2The Academy of
Sports Performance, Cincinnati, Ohio; 3Department of Health Sciences, Lehman College, Bronx, New York;
4
Division of Occupational Therapy and Physical Therapy, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati,
Ohio; 5Cardiff School of Sport, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; 6Titleist Performance
Institute, Oceanside, California; 7Athercare Fitness and Rehabilitation Clinic, Alameda, California; 8Rocky Mountain
University of Health Professions, Provo, Utah; 9Ohlone College, Newark, California; 10BEAT Personal Training,
Cincinnati, Ohio; 11Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada; 12Department of
Pediatrics and Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio; 13Sports Health & Performance
Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; and 14The Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention,
Waltham, Massachusetts

ABSTRACT SUPPLEMENT THE BSA TO GUIDE is beneficial for youth to help them
CORRECTIVE INTERVENTION. WE correct and master optimal move-
THE BACK SQUAT IS A WELL-
PROPOSE A CRITERION-DRIVEN ment strategies during growth and
RESEARCHED AND WIDELY USED
APPROACH TO CORRECTIVE EXER- development (12,13). Likewise, the
EXERCISE TO ENHANCE FUNDA- squat exercise can help youth and
CISE THAT CAN SUPPORT PRACTI-
MENTAL MOVEMENT COMPETENCY young adults to improve physical
TIONERS IN THEIR GOAL TO HELP
THAT CREATES A FOUNDATION FOR performance and health (18,21).
INDIVIDUALS ACHIEVE MOVEMENT
OPTIMAL MECHANICAL STRATE- Adult and elderly populations can
COMPETENCY IN THE BACK SQUAT.
GIES DURING A BROAD RANGE OF use the squat exercise to promote
ACTIVITIES. THE PRIMARY COM- daily living independence during
MENTARY INTRODUCED THE BACK INTRODUCTION activities, such as sitting and lifting
SQUAT ASSESSMENT (BSA): A he back squat is a well-researched (26). Based on the lifelong benefit
CRITERION-BASED ASSESSMENT
OF THE BACK SQUAT THAT DELIN-
EATES 30 POTENTIALLY OBSERV-
T and widely used exercise that
can enhance an individual’s
ability to develop a fundamental
of the back squat, the ideal

KEY WORDS:
ABLE FUNCTIONAL DEFICITS. THIS movement competency for optimal back squat; squat; corrective exercise;
FOLLOW-UP COMMENTARY PRO- mechanical strategies during a broad training intervention; fundamental
VIDES A TARGETED SYSTEM OF range of activities (2,10,13,21,25). movement
TRAINING CUES AND EXERCISES TO Technical proficiency during squatting

Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 13
The Back Squat

opportunity to master the movement (22). Once deficits have been identi- cues, such as video footage of correct
is likely during youth when the neu- fied, or are reasonably suspected, tar- form or the use of a mirror, can sup-
romuscular system is highly plas- geted corrective interventions can be port an individual to self-correct their
tic (23). implemented to begin to ameliorate form as initial corrective strategies.
Training interventions that incorpo- functional deficiencies. Practitioners can significantly help
rate squatting exercises have been Practitioners should initiate correc- their athletes identify and prioritize
shown to improve physical perfor- tive interventions by first assessing back squat deficits with targeted cue-
mance and to decrease modifiable for miscomprehension of task in- ing strategies that are specific to an
risk factors associated with sports- structions as the potential underly- athlete’s most egregious deficits. Spe-
related injuries (8,9,16,17,21). Correct ing cause for insufficient back squat cific and prioritized cueing can help
and consistent squat performance is performance. Instruction for the optimize an individual’s performance
a prerequisite to safe progression to back squat must be clear, concise, response and adaptions to the
more intense training activities and age appropriate (22,23). If an back squat.
involving more dynamic or high- athlete continues to demonstrate Instructions or feedback provided by
load squat-related exercises (18). incorrect back squat technique, the practitioners is often directed to body
The back squat can function as both practitioner should attempt to re- movements (e.g., “keep your knees
a fundamental training exercise and emphasize the instructions and/or over your toes”) (1). Regarding motor
a screening tool to identify and cor- provide a visual demonstration of learning, this type of attentional focus
rect functional deficits (22). Specifi- the desired movement (e.g., instruc- is termed internal focus. However, an
cally, we have previously outlined tor demonstration, peer observation, external focus of attention is induced
ideal back squat technique with 10 video analysis). If performance re- when an athlete’s attention is directed
position and movement criteria and mains hindered, the practitioner is toward an outcome (1). External focus
pinpointed 30 functional deficits that encouraged to then use corrective instructional strategies may enhance
can be identified with the back squat cueing in an attempt to improve cueing and skill acquisition more effi-
assessment (BSA) (22). The purpose technique. ciently than internal focus strategies
of this follow-up commentary is to and increase the transfer of improved
Cueing can assist in correction for
provide corrective strategies for each motor skills to sports and daily living
miscomprehension of instructions
biomechanical deficit criteria (22). activities (1). Research of motor learn-
and poor neuromuscular coordina-
The following proposed exercises to ing has demonstrated beneficial effects
tion and recruitment. Cues can be in
supplement the BSA, inclusive of cor- of instructions that induce an external
the form of verbal instruction, physi-
rective cues, are designed to be effec- focus (1). For example, newly learned
cal manipulation, and/or visual aids;
tive training tools to enhance the motor skills with an external focus
all of which have potential to aid an
delivery of back squat exercise may be more likely to become auto-
athlete in achieving the desired tech-
instruction by practitioners. It is matic and retained. An example of
nique and mechanics during the back
hopeful that these proposed tools will using an external focus during the
squat. Verbal cueing, such as simple
result in improved physical health and squat is to have an athlete visualize
word instruction, can assist a person
ability for individuals of all training sitting back for a chair (1). Although
to modify their technique by helping
levels through deficit correction and the current discussion breaks down
them to cognitively focus on a specific
optimal technique acquisition of the squat technique into several position
positional deficit or movement
back squat. and movement criteria, which may
phases. An example of a simple verbal
cue for each of the 10 back squat cri- promote internal focus on discrete
CORRECTING FUNCTIONAL
DEFICITS teria is presented in Table 1 (22). body movements, it is recommended
The underlying deficits for incorrect Physical cueing, such as light tactile for practitioners to use external focus
back squat performance may be due guidance from a coach or training aid feedback strategies when possible to
to a myriad of limitations, including (e.g., resistance bands), can support improve motor learning and retention
miscomprehension of exercise instruc- the desired correct positioning that of correct squat technique (1).
tion, poor neuromuscular coordina- can benefit a myriad of related defi- If an individual’s performance im-
tion and recruitment, insufficient cits. For example, a practitioner can proves immediately through direct
muscular strength or joint stability, lightly press on the lateral portion of means of improved instruction or sim-
and/or joint immobility (22). The the individual’s knees during the ple cueing (verbal, physical, and visual),
use of systematic analyses may help descent phase of a squat if they tend it is probable that their primary limita-
guide practitioners as they identify to demonstrate active valgus, or tion from performing the back squat
the underlying biomechanical or inward knee movement, as a means with correct form was due to their
neuromuscular deficits responsible of providing a proprioceptive cue to unfamiliarity with the movement pat-
for poor back squat performance correct positioning. In addition, visual tern that they were being asked to

14 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

 Table 1 assistance. Compensatory assistance
Verbal cues for the back squat from the instructor provides external
physical assistance to improve exercise
Criteria Cue performance, whereas cueing is strictly
Head position Hold head flat cognitive feedback that requires the
individual to use their inherent
Thoracic position Pinch shoulders together strength and mobility qualities without
Trunk position Point bellybutton forward additional external assistance. Com-
pensatory assistance makes an exercise
Hip position Square your hips easier to perform to guide an athlete’s
Frontal knee position Keep knees apart awareness of correct form and how
correct form should feel. For example,
Tibial progression angle Straighten your shin a practitioner can provide an athlete
Foot position Grip the floor with your heels to descend with assistance such as using a horizon-
tally held dowel rod for the athlete to
Descent Reach back for a chair hold during a back squat. With assis-
Depth Thighs are parallel to the ground tance, the athlete can more easily reach
back into a squat to learn what it feels-
Ascent Lead with your chest like to properly recruit posterior
chain musculature by “reaching back.”
Resistance provides a stimulus that
perform. If the individual is still unable exercise for a category and continue counteracts an individual’s inherent
to achieve desired exercise technique to correct a particular biomechanical strength and mobility for the primary
through feedback attempts, neuromus- deficit. However, some athletes may purpose of strength and stability train-
cular deficiency, strength and stability, respond to different exercises over ing. Moreover, resistance training not
or mobility limitations may be at the others due to variations in anthropo- only promotes the strengthening of
root of their failure(s). Consistent metrics, skill sets, and training age. muscles but also may provide a physical
inability to demonstrate desired tech- Therefore, the progression tool is stimulus to make an individual more
nique can be addressed next with tar- only a supportive tool second to cognitively aware of their technique
geted corrective exercise to ameliorate a practitioner’s best judgment that to promote correction. For example,
the specific deficits (22). should be based on the principles of during a front squat, an athlete is made
pediatric exercise science and practi- consciously aware of a load pulling
TARGETED EXERCISE cal experience. It is outside of the their trunk into flexion, and they must
PROGRESSIONS scope of this commentary to include focus on recruiting their back muscu-
The corrective exercise progressions proposed volume and intensity (e.g., lature to counter this tendency. As
presented in this commentary are sets, resistance) for these exercises as a result, they are improving their neu-
organized into the 3 major deficit cat- these factors should be individualized romuscular ability to maintain their
egories: neuromuscular, strength and and relative an athlete’s entire train- trunk at the desired angle due to this
stability, and mobility limitations. The ing regimen. Nonetheless, it is highly physical stimulus. Typically, if an ath-
BSA differentiates the analysis of the recommended that an athlete dem- lete’s technique improves when resis-
back squat into 10 specific criteria to onstrates consistent and sound tech- tance is applied as a stimulus,
guide practitioner’s assessment of the nique at lower intensity activities and neuromuscular deficiency or lack of
athlete. In the current commentary, volume before increasing these exer- understanding of a desired task may
we propose 3 associated progressive ex- cise prescription variables. In addi- be the most probable limitation for
ercises to target each specific deficit cat- tion, practitioners should be inadequate performance.
egory (neuromuscular, strength and cognizant and thoughtful of each in- Several strategies are suggested in this
stability, and mobility) for each criterion dividual’s biological, training, and article to help guide the correction of
(22). Each proposed exercise is supple- cognitive ages when integrating the back squat performance. It is war-
mented with a description of the desired back squat into the training pro- ranted that deficits are corrected 1 at
exercise. In addition to each description, gram (23). a time, and the most egregious deficit
a rationale, cue, and a picture example The selected exercises use a mixture of should be the targeted focus. By focus-
of an athlete demonstrating the exercise cueing, compensatory assistance, and ing on 1 deficit at a time, modifying
are provided. resistance. When instructing the back mechanics will be more manageable
The progression scheme is designed squat, it is important to differentiate and goal driven. In addition, more
to begin with the first corrective between cueing and compensatory egregious deficits may be driving other

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 15

The Back Squat

observed deficits that may naturally will generally be sufficient to assist an the athlete’s shoulders and instruct
improve after the first deficit is cor- athlete to recognize and maintain them to pinch the finger with their
rected. Some trial and error should a neutral head position throughout scapulae throughout the squat. In addi-
be expected; however, a practitioner the squat. Adequate strength, stability, tion, the wooden dowel used in this
must first and foremost ensure safety and physiological range of motion are assessment serves to assist the athlete
of their participants. If an athlete indi- imperative for more intense variations in assuming a correct chest and shoul-
cates pain or discomfort during any of of the back squat that integrate external der position. If the athlete continues to
the following exercises, it is advised to resistance. When instructing head demonstrate poor thoracic position
immediately cease training and consult position during the back squat, ensure during the back squat, then the deficit
a qualified health care provider. that the athlete can self-identify and may be due to strength limitations of
maintain a neutral head position the upper back and/or lack of mobility.
BACK SQUAT CRITERIA throughout the squat before increasing In particular, excessive tightness of the
Similar to The Back Squat: A Proposed intensity. It is not recommended to chest may hinder an individual’s ability
Assessment of Functional Deficits and perform corrective training exercises to widen their chest and retract their
Technical Factors That Limit Perfor- if there is any discomfort to the head scapulae. For example, upper crossed
mance (22), corrective intervention of or neck. Mobility limitations or pain syndrome, where an individual has
the back squat will be discussed in 3 com- may indicate a more substantial under- tight pectorals and upper trapeziuses
prehensive domains that highlight 10 lying medical problem. It is warranted with weak deep neck flexors, rhom-
technique criteria (22). These criteria to seek advice from a qualified medical boids, and lower trapezius, affects pos-
are comprised of neuromuscular, professional if the athlete has pro- ture as seen with increased cervical
strength and stability, and mobility longed neck or head limitations during lordosis and thoracic kyphosis, ele-
improvement strategies to guide sys- the unloaded back squat. Table 2 shows vated and protracted shoulders, and
tematic corrective intervention. exercises that are recommended to rotation or abduction and winging of
improve head position awareness, neck the scapulae (14). Mobility exercises of
DOMAIN 1: UPPER BODY strength and stability, and neck physi- the chest along with strengthening ex-
ological range of motion for the squat. ercises of the upper back may help ath-
 Head Position. letes improve their ability to tightly
 Thoracic Position. Thoracic position. Corrective retract their scapulae. Table 3 shows
 Trunk Position. strategy corrective exercises proposed to
Corrective schemes for the thoracic improve deficits in thoracic positioning
DOMAIN 2: LOWER BODY position should focus on ensuring an during the back squat.
athlete has the abilities to tightly
 Hip Position. retract the shoulder blades and hold
 Frontal Knee Position. Trunk position. Corrective strategy
the chest up and open throughout
 Tibial Progression Angle. the squat to promote ideal thoracic Trunk position corrections are primar-
 Foot Position. spine support. Practitioners may bene- ily focused to address excessive trunk
fit from using neuromuscular focused flexion and/or rounding (kyphosis) of
DOMAIN 3: MOVEMENT corrective exercises initially to address the lumbar spine. If the athlete demon-
MECHANICS lack of scapular retraction, forward strates excessive trunk flexion, verbal
rolled shoulders, and/or a chest that commands, such as “point your belly
 Descent. is not held upward. The athlete should button straight ahead” or “straighten
 Depth. be given cues, which can help them your torso,” may be helpful for the ath-
 Ascent. disassociate their upper torso from lete to improve their posture. Further-
their lower torso as chest position is more, instructing the athlete to hold
DOMAIN 1: UPPER BODY independent from trunk angle. Verbal their arms overhead or use a light load
Domain 1 focuses on the musculoskele- cues such as “keep your chest up,” to hold may provide a physical stimulus
tal components of the head, neck, and “pinch shoulder blades together,” and to position their trunk more erect.
torso that are responsible for maintaining “bend the bar around you” will encour- If posterior pelvic tilt or kyphosis
postural control during the back squat. age a proper setup with thoracic posi- (rounding of the back) is present dur-
tion before movement initiation. If ing the maneuver, corrective strategies
Head position. Corrective strategy necessary, a practitioner can provide should first aim to ensure the athlete
Most athletes will possess adequate tactile cueing to the athlete’s shoulders learns to obtain and maintain a natural,
neck stability and mobility to execute to correct position and to encourage lordosis of the lumbar spine. This can
the back squat. Neck stability is essen- the athlete to maintain correct posture first be demonstrated during normal
tial to provide support to the cervical throughout the exercise. A training standing activities. Once it is clear that
vertebrae (4). Verbal and tactile cues technique is to place a finger between the athlete understands the desired

16 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

 Table 2
Head position

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: insufficient head and neck proprioception for maintaining a neutral head position throughout the back squat. Poor disassociation of gaze from head position
Targeted correction: obtain ability to self-identify neutral head position. Disassociate neutral head position from gaze during squat. Must be careful with exercises for
the neck by performing only smooth and controlled motions that do not cause pain or discomfort
Head tilt and Tilt head to side, moving ear toward the shoulder on Identify neutral head Slowly tilt
return to the same side, approximately half way to shoulder position chin
neutral: lateral and return the head to neutral position. Hold the
and flexion/ rest of the body still and rigid. Repeat on other
extension side. Perform same instructions for cervical flexion
and extension by tilting chin upward and
downward

Bean bag head Perform back squat while balancing a bean bag (or Promote constant neutral Flat head
drills similar lightweight object) on head as a guide for head position throughout
neutral head position the squat with a physical
cue
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Gaze target drills Place a target on a wall at approximately eye level of Disassociate head position Keep eyes on
the athlete 5–8 ft away. Retain eye focus on the from gaze the target
target without deviating head position from
neutral throughout squat
17

(continued)
18

The Back Squat

Table 2
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Strength/stability
Deficit: insufficient neck stabilization strength to maintain the head in neutral alignment throughout the entire squat
Targeted correction: improve strength and stability of trapezius, cervical extensors, and cervical flexors. Must be careful with exercises for the neck by performing only
smooth and controlled motions that do not cause pain or discomfort
Isometric head Place open hand against the same side of the head. Improve lateral cervical flexor Firmly press
press: lateral Press hand firmly against the side of the head, strength head
while also pressing the head against the hand to against
equally counter force. Hold the rest of the body hand
still and rigid. Hold for 10 s. Repeat on other side

Isometric head Forward: place 1 hand on the forehead and press Improve cervical isometric Firmly press
press: forward firmly, while also pressing the head against the strength head into
and backward hand to equally counter force Hold the rest of the hands
body still and rigid. Hold for 10 s. Backward: place 1
hand over the other on back of the skull above the
inion, while also pressing the head back against
the hands to equally counter force. Hold the rest of
the body still and rigid. Hold for 10 s
 Table 2
(continued )
Trapezius shrug Stand upright with arms relaxed to the sides. Raise Improve cervical and Pull
shoulders to pull them toward ears without scapular strength, shoulders
bending elbows. Pause and hold, then lower important for proper head up to ears
shoulders back to starting position. Hold the rest and shoulder positioning
of the body still and rigid. Hand held resistance
may be used to increase intensity

Mobility
Deficit: insufficient physiological range of motion of the neck
Targeted correction: obtain sufficient mobility of the neck. Must be careful with exercises for the neck by performing only smooth and controlled motions that do not
cause pain or discomfort
Cervical flexion/ Tilt chin toward the chest. Attempt to touch the chin Improve cervical mobility in Chin to chest
extension to the chest or as far as possible without pain or the sagittal plane
discomfort. Then, tilt chin upward as far as possible
without pain or discomfort. Move head in a slow
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and controlled manner. Hold the rest of the body

still and rigid

(continued)
19
20

The Back Squat

Table 2
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Lateral flexion Tilt head to the side toward shoulder. Only tilt head Improve cervical mobility in Ear to
458 or as far as possible without pain or discomfort. the frontal plane shoulder
Pause and return to neutral position. Hold the rest
of the body still and rigid. Repeat on opposite side

Neck rotations Slowly rotate head approximately 908 or as far as Improve cervical mobility in Look over
comfortable up to 908. During rotation, hold the the transverse plane shoulder
body still and rigid. Pause and then return to the
starting position
 Table 3
Thoracic position

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: lack of scapular retraction, flexed spine, or shoulders rolled forward during squat. Difficulty dissociating upper torso from lower torso
Targeted correction: obtain tight scapular retraction and a rigid chest up position throughout the entire squat. Generate ability to disassociate upper torso from lower
torso
Scapular pinch throughout squat Perform back squat while trainer Physically cue athlete to Pinch my fingers
holds fingers between an retract shoulders and with your
athlete’s shoulder blades. hold chest up shoulder
Attempt to pinch trainer’s blades
fingers by retracting shoulder
blades and holding chest up.
Maintain pinch throughout the
entire exercise

Good morning Assume starting position for the Exercise fortifies chest up Lower torso
squat stance and position position independent forward while
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chest up with dowel rod in from trunk angle keeping chest

back squat position. Perform up
isolated trunk flexion while
maintaining chest up. Maintain
tight upper back throughout
the exercise. Knee joint should
slightly flex on the descent and
straighten out on the ascent

(continued)
21
22

The Back Squat

Table 3
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Squat with overhead press Perform back squat. At apex of This exercise improves Press dowel
squat, hold position and press chest up position during directly
dowel straight up over head by the apex of squat depth overhead
extending elbows. Return
dowel to back squat position
and ascend back to starting
position

Strength/stability
Deficit: inability to maintain chest up position or scapular retraction, which may be due to weakness of the spinal erectors, trapeziuses, or rhomboids
Targeted correction: improve upper back strength to develop stable upper torso for squat
Band pull apart Make 2 fists and hold arms To strengthen trapeziuses Keep arms
straight out in front with palm and rhomboids straight
side down. Pull arms slightly (parascapular muscles)
past 908 backward until
shoulder blades pinch. Slowly
return to start position. Grab
both halves of the band and
try a narrower grip for
increased resistance

High pull Set up in quarter squat position Improve upper back Pull straight up
with chest up and arms down strength especially the
straight. Hold dowel in trapezius muscles
overhand grip. Forcefully pull
the dowel to clavicle height.
Increase resistance as
appropriate
 Table 3
(continued )
Front squat Hold lightweight object, such as Strengthen back Lead with the
a small medicine ball or musculature and object during
kettlebell, at chest height. promote postural ascent
Perform squat exercise. Focus control during squat
on maintaining upright torso.
Increase resistance as
appropriate

Mobility
Deficit: excessive tightness in chest, potentially due to upper crossed syndrome, which hinders an individual’s ability to open chest and retract scapulae
Targeted correction: improve pectoral and shoulder mobility
Backward arm circles Stand tall with arms straight and Improve shoulder mobility Slow, large
out to sides with palms up. controlled
Perform 10 reverse circles in circles
a slow controlled motion. Start
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with small circles and work up

to larger circles

(continued)
23
24

The Back Squat

Table 3
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Wall slides Stand tall with back, head, and Improve shoulder mobility Keep back on the
buttocks against a wall. Hold wall
arms against the wall at 908
with palms outward. Extend
arms upward as high as
possible while attempting to
keep back, head, and buttocks
in contact with the wall. Hold
for 10–15 s and return to
starting position. Work to
maintain maximum contact on
the wall with the body as
mastery improves
Scapular press Stand tall with dowel in back Correct lack of upward Press shoulders
squat position. Perform a press rotation of the scapula up and extend
to move the dowel above head
with elbows extended. To
accentuate the upward
rotation of scapula, lift the
shoulders towards the ears,
and feel the scapula rotate
upward. Hold for 10 s
position, more dynamic spinal exten- remains uneven, asymmetric strength hamstring to quadriceps ratio is
sion and antiflexion exercises may be of the hips or hip immobility may be directly associated with dynamic val-
warranted to help them correct spinal the culprit for an observed deficit. The gus knee movement (6,9,11,20,27). Ex-
flexion deficits with neuromuscular exercise progressions in Table 5 are ercises that strengthen the hamstrings
focused exercises and corrective recommended to promote level hips are warranted for those individuals
cueing. throughout the squat. who demonstrate active knee valgus.
Lack of mobility of the hip flexors Phrases, such as “knees out,” “spread
(iliopsoas) and trunk flexors (abdomi- Frontal knee position. Corrective the floor,” “tear out of the outsides of
nals) can also inhibit the athlete’s abil- strategy your shoes,” will help give the athlete
ity to obtain correct trunk posture. The Knee valgus or varus can be improved some internal cueing, which may lead
squat movement requires sufficient spi- with neuromuscular training that in- to improved biomechanics. The exer-
nal mobility to assume and maintain corporates various forms of immediate cise progressions in Table 6 are recom-
slight lordotic posture. Otherwise, in- feedback. Progressions of triple exten- mended to optimize knee frontal plane
dividuals may tend to take forward sion resistance exercises and progres- control during the back squat.
posture and place excessive intradiscal sive plyometric training have been
pressure to the low back, especially if shown to decrease valgus knee mo- Tibial progression angle. Corrective
ments (21). Cues that instruct the ath- strategy
the head is forward as well. If the ath-
lete flexes at the spine before approxi- lete to keep their knees apart during Tibial progression angle deficits may
mately 1208 of hip flexion when both descent and ascent are recommen- be best targeted with movement exer-
squatting, they may have restriction ded. Elastic bands placed around the cise cues focused at the hip joint and
in the posterior fibers of the Iliotibial knees can provide a tactile cue that pro- potentially with mobility improving
(IT) band that insert into the gluteus mote athletes to press their knees out- exercises for the lower leg. Practi-
maximus or lack of lumbar control. If ward to assume proper knee mechanics tioners may be best advised to avoid
an athlete demonstrates excessive during the squat. In addition, using a mir- specific cues that restrict forward knee
trunk flexion and/or a kyphotic lumbar ror or providing video evidence of fron- movement as this can migrate more
spine during the back squat, the exer- tal plane movement deficits (e.g., load onto the lumbar spine (25). Typ-
cise progressions demonstrated in dynamic valgus) to an athlete can assist ically, tibial progression angle, influ-
Table 4 are recommended. them in becoming self-aware of an often enced by passive dorsiflexion at the
unknown movement deficiency. ankle joint, will be influenced by flexi-
DOMAIN 2: LOWER BODY (TRIPLE bility of the calf musculature and
EXTENSION) Emphasis on improving the strength mobility of the ankle joint. Alterna-
Domain 2 encompasses the musculo- and function of the athlete’s gluteal tively, the athlete could maintain their
skeletal components of the 3 major complex may have the greatest effect heels on the ground and have excessive
joints (ankle, knee, and hip) of the on limiting valgus knee angle during tibial progression angle due to a quad-
lower body associated with the move- squatting (3,7,8). Weakness of the glu- riceps dominant squat. Providing cues,
ment phases of the squat exercise. teus medius and maximus may result in such as “sit back into the squat” and
coupled femoral internal rotation and “drive through the hips” are appropri-
Hip position. Corrective strategy adduction during the squat, which con- ate here. Video cueing of the athlete
The hip position criterion focuses on tributes to observed dynamic knee val- may be appropriate to influence self-
the frontal plane position of the hips. gus. Since the gluteal muscles have evaluation of their tibial progression
Constructive feedback is encouraged a large role in both femoral external angle as it may be difficult to self-
to help the athlete concentrate on rotation and abduction, exercise selec- assess from the lateral perspective in
keeping their hips level and to resist tions that improve the strength and real time. It is imperative that
the tendency to overcompensate with control from these powerful muscle the heel maintain contact with the
their dominate side as observed with groups will likely translate to the ground as tibial progression angle is
mediolateral hip dropping. Cues, such reduction of knee valgus during squat- monitored. If the athlete continues to
as “stay square” and “keep your hips ting (24). Suggested exercises include demonstrate excessive forward tibial
even,” can be verbalized to promote variants of the squat exercise that have translation, the exercises in Table 7
pelvic stabilization. A visualization a focus on recruitment and activation are recommended to help ameliorate
strategy to use is to instruct an athlete of the posterior chain. this technical deficit.
to envision an invisible column that Valgus can also be influenced by quad-
surrounds them or envision them as riceps dominant muscle recruitment Foot position. Corrective strategy
a piston of a motor, which can help relative to the hamstrings (6). Exten- The athlete should be encouraged to
them stay within the confines of the sive research of anterior cruciate liga- keep their entire foot on the ground
column by not allowing their hips to ment injuries in the female athlete throughout the squat with pressure
move mediolaterally. If hip position population has shown that low toward the lateral aspect of the foot

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The Back Squat

Table 4
Trunk position
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: excessive trunk flexion and/or rounding (kyphosis) of the lumbar spine during squat
Targeted correction: improve awareness for and proprioception of appropriate trunk angle parallel to tibias and neutral, slight lordosis lumbar spine position
Cat/cow Assume quadruped position Identify difference between Dip spine down and round spine up
on knees and hands. lordotic and kyphotic
Practice alternating from positions
rounded back posture to
arched back posture

Ball wall squat Pin a ball (similar to small Exercise facilitates a more Slide down the ball
Swiss ball) between the vertical trunk position
lower back and wall. Squat because horizontal force
down while keeping ball from wall serves as
pinned against the wall. assistance. Ball rolling
The ball will roll up to the encourages the correct
shoulder blades. Ascend spinal curve
and repeat
 Table 4
(continued )
Pole squat and Perform squat near a sturdy Assistance to help athlete self- Hold pole and fix
fix pole or column. At apex of generate and learn correct
squat, use column as deep hold position
assistance to pull torso into
correct position and hold.
Heels must remain on the
ground

Strength/stability
Deficit: inadequate core strength to maintain torso parallel to tibias and lack of lower back tightness to generate stability. May be due to trunk extensor weakness and
hip extensor weakness
Targeted correction: improve trunk stability, trunk extensor strength, and hip extensor strength to maintain slightly extended lordotic position and trunk parallel to
the tibias throughout the squat
Plank Hold plank position with Improve isometric strength of Straight as an arrow
emphasis on maintaining the back musculature and
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a slight lordotic curve promote correct lumbar

throughout the exercise spine position

(continued)
27
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The Back Squat

Table 4
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Superman Lie flat on stomach with arms Strengthen the lower back Raise chest and arms together
straight out in front and musculature
legs straight out behind.
Keep arms and legs
shoulder width apart for
the duration of the exercise.
Lift legs and arms
simultaneously at least 6
inches off the ground. Keep
each movement slow and
controlled to prevent
pulling muscles
Overhead squat Perform squat with dowel Strengthen back musculature Keep the dowel behind your eyes
directly overhead with and promote erect trunk
elbows extended. Attempt to during squat
keep the dowel in this
position throughout the
entire squat movement.
Correct arm and spine
position to an upright
position before ascent.
Variation of this exercise is to
perform a box squat with the
dowel overhead (pictured).
Mobility
Deficit: lack of mobility of the hip flexors (e.g., iliopsoas) and trunk flexors (e.g., abdominals)
Targeted correction: improve spinal extension mobility to assume and maintain slight lordosis posture. Mobility of trunk flexors and hips flexors necessary for
appropriate trunk angle
Standing back Stand up straight with hands Improve hip flexor mobility Push hips forward
arch on hips and thumbs on the
lower back. Extend hips
forward and push
abdomen forward, while
maintaining a slight arch in
back. Hold for 10 s
 Table 4
(continued )
Cobra Lie on stomach with hands Improve trunk flexor mobility Lengthen your abdomen
flat just outside of the
shoulders. Extend elbows
to lift torso off of ground.
Place small arch in lower
back and pull shoulders
slightly backward. Keep
hips on the ground for this
exercise. Hold for 10 s

Chaturanga Begin in downward dog Improve trunk flexor mobility Smoothly transition between each
position. Extend hips, bend and core strength position
elbows, and lower torso
into push-up position.
Push-up into cobra position
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by arching back and raising

chest. Keep hips elevated
off of the ground for this
exercise. Reverse back into
push-up position and then
back to downward dog
29
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The Back Squat

Table 5
Hip position
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: hips are asymmetrical in frontal plane during squat with observation of mediolateral dropping
Targeted correction: develop proprioception to maintain even hips and pelvic control throughout squat
Single leg hip tilts Stand tall on 1 leg. Tilt trunk and Obtain and identify even hip Even out hips
hip to 1 side, pause, and then position
correct back to neutral hip
position

Single leg squat Stand tall on 1 leg with hips in Maintain even hip position Keep weight on heel
a neutral position. Squat to at during more difficult task
least parallel, while
maintaining the line of the hips
in frontal plane parallel to the
ground. Push through the heel
to return to the starting
position. Perform box squat
variation to start and graduate
to no box as athlete gets
stronger and masters the lift

BOSUÔ/balance Perform squats on an unstable Maintain even hip position Keep hips square
board squat surface (i.e., balance board, during more difficult task
AIREXÔ pad, BOSUÔ). Can
further challenge individual by
attempting single leg squats
on an unstable surface
 Table 5
(continued )
Strength/stability
Deficit: lack of strength or stability of hip musculature or asymmetrical strength of hips
Targeted correction: focus on hip abductor strength. Hip abduction exercises are important because they strengthen the muscles that stabilize the femur into the hip
joint
Side plank Lie on side with forearm on the High recruitment of gluteus Stack hips and feet
ground and top foot in front of medius motor units
the bottom foot. Lift the hips
off of the ground. Isometric
hold.
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Split squat Perform squats in lunge position. Generate higher demand from Keep front shin straight
Let back knee come to a few unilateral hip musculature in
inches above ground. At apex, deeper hip and knee angles
front foot should remain flat
and back foot heel can slightly
raise off of the ground. Torso
and front tibia are upright and
parallel to each other

(continued)
31
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The Back Squat

Table 5
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Duck walks Stand with hands on hips and Trains gluteus medius and Stay low with belly button
feet hip width apart. Squat maximus, which are primary pointing forward
down keeping torso upright. movers in the squat.
Step forward with right foot Encourages upright torso
with toes pointing slightly position
outward. Pause. Repeat with
left foot, returning feet to hip
width

Mobility
Deficit: lack of hip flexion range of motion
Targeted correction: improve hip musculature to obtain physiological range of motion necessary to perform full squat, while keeping hip line parallel to the ground in
the frontal plane
Crossover stretch Lie on back with legs extended. To stretch hip musculature Press the knee toward the
Lift left leg and bend the knee floor
to the chest. Cross left leg over
the right side of the body.
Press the left leg to the floor
with the right hand to feel
a stretch. Repeat with the
opposite side
 and the heel. Verbal cues, such as “keep
heels down,” “press down with heels,”
and “sit through the heels,” can help
optimize foot and ankle position, espe-
cially if the deficit is primarily neuro-
muscular in nature. If the sides of the
foot come off of the ground due to
excessive ankle inversion or eversion
and cueing does not improve form,
the limitation may be associated with
ankle strength imbalances. The medial
aspect of the foot rising off of the
ground may not be as egregious of a def-
icit as the lateral aspect of the foot com-
ing off of the ground. Placing excessive
pressure on the inside of the foot may
Draw a circle with your knee

underlie undesirable knee positions,

such as valgus. Inability to keep the
heels down may be due to tightness in
the posterior chain (e.g., gastrocnemius
and soleus tightness). Posterior chain
Keep back flat

stretching and dynamic mobility drills

can improve the ability to keep the heels
down if the deficit is due to muscle
tightness or immobility. It is important
to remember that foot pronation can be
(continued )

a normal weight-bearing function of the

Table 5

foot when equal parts are shared by the

In quadruped position, lift 1 knee Improve lateral hip mobility

multiple joints of the foot (rearfoot

through forefoot); however, excessive
Start in quadruped position (on Improve hip mobility

pronation may limit the potential for

a more rigid and stable base of support.
Without an ideal base of support by
which force can be adequately directed,
squat performance may be diminished.
If the athlete raises any part of their foot
off the ground or demonstrates exces-
sive foot pronation as well as ankle
flexion. Trace large circles with

counterclockwise. Repeat on

inversion or eversion, the exercise pro-

knee while maintaining flat
back). Point 1 knee up and
outward 908 while keeping
laterally. Maintain constant

knee bent at about 908 of

hands and knees with flat

lordosis. Perform 10 reps

knee angle and flat back

gressions in Table 7 are recommended.

back with slight lumbar

clockwise and 10 reps

DOMAIN 3: MOVEMENT
MECHANICS
Domain 3 analyzes the kinematics
of the squat and discusses the limita-
other leg

tions from functional deficits on proper

movement mechanics.

Descent. Corrective strategy

The descent should be initiated with the
breaking of the hips (“hip hinging”) while
Fire hydrant

Hip circles

maintaining a rigid upright trunk (22).

The corrective techniques for proper
descent during the squat can include
both a physical and proprioceptive stim-
ulus to achieve desired descent

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The Back Squat

Table 6
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Frontal knee position

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: active valgus during squat; increased hip adductor activation and increased coactivation of the gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior muscles leads to valgus
Targeted correction: remove tendency to use active valgus strategy during squat
Wide stance Body weight squats with 1.5–2 times Wide stance will promote knees to track Push knees outward
squat the shoulder width. Have athlete over feet and avoid valgus collapse
focus on keeping knees apart

Band squats Use TherabandÔ or practitioner’s A physical cue to push knees outward Push knees outward
hands to encourage athlete to
press outwardly against during
body weight squat
 Table 6
(continued )
Squat jump Perform forward countermovement To promote keeping knees apart when Land with knees
jump. Land softly in deep hold jumping forward apart
position with chest up

Strength/stability
Deficit: passive valgus during squat motion
Targeted correction: improve hip abductor, hamstring, and gluteus strength to reduce medial knee displacement
Single leg Stand with feet shoulder width apart To improve single leg knee stability Make a “T”
Romanian with hands slightly more than
deadlift shoulder width apart. Move 1 foot
slightly behind the other, holding
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it a few inches off the ground.

With back flat, slowly lower the
torso toward front foot and allow
free leg to float behind you for
balance. Once the weight reaches
mid-shin level, push through
grounded heel to return to the
upright position, and repeat on
the opposite leg

(continued)
35
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The Back Squat

Table 6
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Russian Kneel on the floor with feet behind To improve eccentric hamstring Lead with your hips
hamstring and torso up straight. Hook feet strength when
curls under a bench or ask someone to descending
hold ankles down. Cross arms on
chest and keep hips extended.
Slowly lower down to the floor.
Lower forward as low as possible,
and then raise back up

Single leg Stand tall on 1 leg with line of hips Single leg knee stability and Point knee straight
isometric parallel to the ground. Single leg strengthening exercise
squat and squat to at least parallel and keep
hold heel on the ground. Hold at apex
of depth and return to extended
knee position. Focus on keeping
torso vertical and prevent medial
knee movement of stance leg.
Increase intensity of exercise by
standing on an unstable surface

Mobility
Deficit: joint hypomobility causing altered front plane position (e.g., valgus) during squat
Targeted correction: improve range of motion of hip adductors and hip internal rotators
Standing leg In standing position, swing leg To improve hip adductor mobility Isolate hip
swings laterally from side to side
 Table 6
(continued )
Side lunge Step out with one leg laterally and To improve hip adductor mobility Keep nonlunging
perform a lunge to 1 side. Repeat leg straight
on opposite side

Carioca Move laterally by stepping lead leg To improve hip adductor and internal Maintain upright
sideways and alternating the rotator mobility posture
trailing leg in front of and behind
the lead leg
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The Back Squat

Table 7
Tibial progression angle
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: knee translates excessively over toes during squat, even with heel on the ground
Targeted correction: develop awareness for correct tibial progression angle
Lunge and hold Athlete lunges. Trainer assists to Identify correct tibial progression Straight shin
improve TPA. Use trainer angle
assistance (i.e., elastic band,
dowel) if necessary

Walking lunges Start with reverse lunges. Place Inhibit excessive tibial Transfer bodyweight to back
weight in rear to keep shank progression angle when heel when moving
upright. Step into next lunge moving forward backward
without intermediate step (1
foot should always be in front
of the other). Use skills and
technique developed in
reverse lunging to keep knee
from excessive TPA even when
moving forward
 Table 7
(continued )
Wall squat Perform body weight squats with Physical cue to prevent excessive Reach bottom away from
barrier (i.e., wall) at limit of tibial progression angle heels
tibial progression angle. Knees
should not forcefully press
against barrier at apex of
depth

Strength/stability
Deficit: lack of strength of posterior chain to keep knee from translating excessively over toes. Excessive tibial progression angle can be a result of weakness in calf and
soleus, weak hamstrings, weak gluteus, or excessive quadriceps dominance relative to the hamstrings
Targeted correction: improve posterior chain strength, especially calves, hamstrings, and gluteus maximus
Step up Find a box or step approximately Ensure knee on step tracks in line Straight shin on ascent
1 ft off the ground. Step onto with foot and without
box with 1 foot and use that excessive tibial progression
foot to press other foot to the angle
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box. Step down first with

second foot on the box. Ten
repetitions. Repeat with other
foot as the lead. Can use
resistance to increase intensity

(continued)
39
 Table 7
(continued )
40

The Back Squat

Heel touches Stand on a step or box Ensure knee on box is without Press on box to ascend
approximately 1 ft off of the excessive tibial progression
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

ground. Have 1 leg hang off of angle and functions as

the side. Perform single leg a unilateral leg strengthening
squat with opposite leg exercise to promote side to
moving toward the ground. It side strength symmetry
is important to keep the pelvis
even throughout the
movement. Just before contact
of the foot with the ground,
use the foot on the step to
press back up
1 and 1/4 squat Squat down for a 5-s count until To ensure recruitment and Slow and controlled speed
thighs are parallel to the strengthening of the vastus
ground. Come up a quarter of medialis oblique at the bottom
the way at a slow and of a squat
deliberate pace then descend
back to parallel. Ascend to
starting position

Mobility
Deficit: may not have adequate mobility of knee in sagittal plane. Lack of mobility of soleus and gastrocnemius
Targeted correction: ensure adequate mobility of knee in sagittal plane by improving mobility of calf and quadriceps
Toe touches Stand upright. Reach down for Improve mobility of knee and hip Reach for toes
toes. Stretch posterior chain musculature
 Table 7
(continued )
Straight leg Walk forward with straight leg Improve mobility of knee and hip Bring toes to straight arm
march and opposite arm forward musculature
reach. Alternate sides on each
step

Leg kicks: Stand upright and swing 1 leg Improve hamstring and gluteal Swing toes to eye level
forward and forward and backward. Athlete mobility
backward may need a support to balance
during this exercise
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TPA 5 tibial progression angle.

41
The Back Squat

performance (Table 8). The key areas to depth deficits. For example, physical their hips too quickly. If the athlete does
focus targeted correction for descent def- cues, such as a box at the appropriate rise with their hips too quickly, the ver-
icits are to ensure adequate strength and depth, can be used as a target. Athletes tical distance between the hips and the
mobility for a prescribed hip-hinge should use prescribed descent strategies shoulder will decrease and will be a sub-
descent strategy, upright torso, and cor- that achieve thighs at least parallel to the optimal movement strategy. Neuromus-
rect eccentric speed control. Practi- ground. If the athlete cannot demon- cular training that promotes hip drive (i.
tioners should encourage athletes to strate desired technique throughout e., hip extension) is recommended as
initiate the back squat movement with descent, it is recommended to use assis- well as drills that encourage an upright
a “break” at the hips and to immediately tive strategies, such as a practitioner-held torso position during ascent. Hip drive
sit back on the heels. The athlete should dowel (Table 10). While squatting below can be improved through various hip
be instructed to flex the hips, knees, and parallel can occur, it is not often detri- extension exercises that improve explo-
ankles to lower the body to the correct mental to the athlete. If contraindicated sive concentric muscle actions of the
depth where the top of the thighs are at based on existing pathology, excessive posterior chain. Finally, it is important
least parallel to ground without dis- squat depth can be easily corrected with to ensure adequate mobility of the tho-
jointed deviations noted at the knee, targeted cueing and feedback or box racic spine and hip flexor mobility to
ankle, or hips. One of the most common squat techniques. encourage execution of the prescribed
deficits presented with descent of the Inability to achieve depth may also be ascent technique (22). The exercises in
back squat is the use of a knee focused due to a lack of lack isometric strength Table 11 are intended to target correc-
strategy (pressing knees forward) rather of the posterior chain to maintain body- tion of the ascent movement strategy.
than a hip focused strategy that reaches weight support at the apex of depth.
back with the gluteals during descent. Strengthening the posterior chain using CONCLUSIONS
Verbal cues of “reach back” with the hips isometric strengthening drills may help The corrective strategies for the back
or having the athlete perform the wall an athlete assume and maintain a deep squat exercise are aimed to teach and
tap exercise (as described in Table 9) may hold position at the apex of the squat in generate competency in an essential
help influence desired descent strategy. good form. Furthermore, tightness in functional movement for physical and
We propose that back squat descent the posterior chain musculature and daily living activities. The proposed
should be prescribed to take at least hip adductors may further limit the corrective interventions are not in-
twice as long as the ascent and descent ability for an athlete to achieve appro- tended to train athletes with the goal
should maintain a consistent rate priate depth. Mobility drills that sup- for maximum competitive load during
throughout the entire range of motion. port improvements in mobility of the the squat and the authors acknowledge
The athlete should avoid descending too hip adductors and posterior chain can that technical variants exist, which may
rapidly or “collapsing” due to the loss of facilitate an athlete’s potential to achieve increase the potential to achieve maxi-
eccentric control near the apex of depth proper back squat depth. In some cases, mum back squat load. However, the
(15). Strengthening exercises that focus inadequate hamstring strength may be current systematic approach is aimed
on the eccentric control of the posterior the culprit of a back squat that does not to teach bodyweight squat technique
chain can help correct this particular def- achieve proper depth, and thus, ham- that can serve as a precursor for more
icit. Additional strength or mobility def- string mobility and stretching drills are intense physical activity and training
icits in the trunk, hip, and lower warranted in some training scenarios. exercises (5,18,19). Furthermore, opti-
extremity musculature may impair The exercises in Table 10 are intended mal movement strategy retention
proper descent. Targeted interventions to improve squat depth ability and form. gained from the proposed targeted
are listed in Table 9 to improve the ath- training plan may decrease the risk of
lete’s ability to use the appropriate hip- injury during anticipated and unantici-
hinge strategy, maintain a controlled Ascent. Corrective strategy pated physical activity (23). The
movement speed, and maintain an Assessing the underlying mechanisms described methods for targeted exercise
upright torso throughout the back squat. associated with improper ascent tech- correction are designed to provide a sys-
nique is critical for targeted deficit cor- tematic guide focused to improve bio-
Depth. Corrective strategy rection. It is most important to ensure mechanical squat performance and
At the proper depth, the femurs should that the athlete drives with their hips as rectify deficits that underlie undesirable
be slightly below parallel to the ground, the primary mover and ascends while movement patterns. Through the im-
hips are back, tibias are positioned verti- keeping their torso upright. The vertical plementation of a corrective interven-
cal, and feet are entirely on the ground. distance between the hips and should- tion plan for biomechanical back squat
The most common deficit of depth dur- ers should be kept constant throughout deficits, athletes young and old will be
ing the back squat is from the athlete the squat. Cueing that encourages ath- poised to achieve substantive gains in
squatting to a position that is too shal- letes to “lead with their chest” or “rise physical performance, decrease the risk
low. Targeted feedback and cueing may with the shoulders” may be effective to of sports-related injury, and hopefully,
be most advantageous to correct squat ensure the athlete does not rise with increase their quality of life by

42 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

 Table 8
Foot position

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: foot comes off of ground during squat not due to strength or mobility limitations
Targeted correction: promote squatting mechanics that emphasize placing body weight on heels and even distribution of weight side to side of foot
Single leg Stand on 1 leg on stable surface Develop flat foot stability Grip the ground with your toes
balance with slight bend in knee, place awareness and balance and heel
other leg so foot is touching
stance leg knee. Can use
unstable surface more
challenging variation

Y balance Standing on left foot with a slight To maintain entire foot on Do not place pressure on tapping
bend in knee, attempt to touch ground even when shifting foot
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3 points with the right foot. weight on a single leg

Touches should be as light as
possible and no weight
transfer should occur. The
whole stance foot should
remain in contact with the
ground the entire time. First,
touch out in front as far as
possible in good form, then
1258 to the right and then
2158. Return to the original
position. Repeat on opposite
side in opposite direction

(continued)
43
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The Back Squat

Table 8
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Toes-up squats Squat with toes off of ground, Promote heel down Lift toes off the ground
place weight onto heels mechanics

Strength/stability
Deficit: lack of or asymmetrical ankle strength and/or poor stabilization of ankle and foot. Foot rolls onto either side during squat
Targeted correction: improve ankle and foot strength for drive and to keep whole foot on ground. Improve stabilization of ankle inverters and everters as well as intrinsic
foot muscles to allow foot to pronate. Strengthening the plantar flexors with direct heel raises can enhance ankle joint stability
Ankle band Plantar flexion: using a resistance Strengthen ankle plantar Isolate ankle movement
strengthening band around forefoot, hold the flexors, inverters, and
ends of the band with hands everters
and gently push ankle down as
far as you can comfortably and
hold for about 10 s, then relax.
Inversion/eversion: start by
sitting with foot flat on the
floor and pushing band
outward against a band. Then,
pull band in opposite direction
 Table 8
(continued )
Calf raises Start by transferring body weight Strengthen plantar flexors Press down on balls of feet
toward your toes. Contract
your calves and lift heels off of
ground. Do not to rotate
ankles. Lower down slowly,
keeping body weight forward
on your toes. Can also perform
single leg calf raise for more
challenge

Single leg hops Stand on 1 leg and hop in place To promote single leg Soft landings
attempting to land in the same eccentric control
spot each time. Repeat on
opposite leg

Mobility
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Deficit: lack of dorsiflexion mobility if heels come up off ground due to restricted Achilles tendon and tight soleus and gastrocnemius
Targeted correction: achieve adequate ankle mobility to keep foot on ground throughout squat through lengthening of calf muscles
Ankle rolls Lie on back with hands to the Achieve ankle mobility in 3 Draw circles with the big toe
side. Raise 1 leg up about 6–12 planes
inches. Roll ankle clockwise 10
times and then
counterclockwise 10 times.
Maintain knee angle with
slight flexion throughout. To
increase complexity, attempt
to draw the alphabet with the
big toe

(continued)
45
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The Back Squat

Table 8
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Static calf Stand facing the wall. Place both Stretch gastrocnemius and Press heel toward the ground
stretch of your hands onto the wall at soleus
chest height. Position your
right leg back and your left leg
forward—it should look like
a staggered stance. Keep both
heels on the ground and lean
forward toward the wall. A
tolerable stretch on the back of
the extended calf should be
felt. Hold for 20 to 30 s, switch
legs, and repeat 3–4 times

Heel walks Walk on heels with toes off of the Promote dynamic mobility of Point toes upward
ground. Do not continue if gastrocnemius and soleus
pain or discomfort
 Table 9
Descent

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: knee dominant strategy instead of hip-hinge strategy as seen with excessive trunk flexion, excessive tibial progression angle, and/or heels coming off of the
ground
Targeted correction: teach athlete to use hip-hinge movement pattern. Time hip, knee, and ankle flexion together at even pace. Descent should be twice as long as
ascent in duration
Wall taps Keep feet planted 2–3 ft in front Instill hip-hinge movement Reach back for the wall
of wall. Reach back to touch strategy by reaching back
rear to wall and return. Focus
on reaching back

Tempo Set exaggerated ratio for Fortify slow descent pace Slowly lower to the box
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squatting descent: ascent of squat (e.g.,

5:1)

(continued)
47
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The Back Squat

Table 9
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Assisted Trainer provides assistance (e.g., Provide assistance to learn Sit to a chair
squatting dowel rod or elastic band) for correct descent strategy
athlete to perform slow,
continuous descent with hip-
hinge strategy that recruits
posterior chain musculature

Strength/stability
Deficit: lack of lower limb eccentric strength control, evidenced by an overall lack of control of the tempo of the descent, with the athlete “dropping” into the apex of
the descent. Descent timing is not 2:1 ratio with ascent
Targeted correction: enhance eccentric muscle strength of the posterior chain musculature
Eccentric Kneel on comfortable surface Eccentrically strengthen Lower as slowly as possible
focused with partner supporting posterior chain
kneeling fall ankles. Lean forward with
neutral hips and attempt to
hold body up as long as
possible before catching
yourself with arms in a push-
up position. Do not perform
this exercise if the athlete is
unable to catch themselves
and support their bodyweight
with their arms. Can use band
assistance similar to Russian
hamstring curl
 Table 9
(continued )
Box drop deep Drop from a box with both feet Dynamically strengthen posterior Quiet landings
hold landing simultaneously. Drop chain during eccentric muscle
into deep hold position action
(position at apex of squat).
Recommend to start at 1 ft
height for depth jump and
increase height systematically

Pause at Divide descent into 5 even Eccentric and Isometric Signal 5 depth levels using
descending segments. Lower to each strengthening of posterior countdown of “1-2-3-4-5”
levels segment and pause before chain. Isolate lower phase of
further descending. Consider descent to strengthen
using a box. Instructor can use corresponding posterior chain
verbal cueing to signal athlete musculature
when to move to each
segment
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Mobility
Deficit: lack of lower limb mobility, leading to a forward trunk lean
Targeted correction: improve lower limb range of motion with hip extensor emphasis
Hurdler stretch Sitting on bottom, extend 1 leg Stretch posterior chain relative to Reach past your toes
with toes up and bend the the squat
opposite leg so the sole of foot
is on medial thigh of the
extended leg. Reach forward
with both arms in attempt to
touch the toes (or past) of the
extended leg to stretch the hip
extensors
49

(continued)
50

The Back Squat

Table 9
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Hamstring Stand with feet shoulder width Stretch posterior chain relative to Slowly rise
stretch to apart. Squat down and grab the squat
squat tips of toes. Knees should
shoot outside of arms slowly
try to straighten legs as you
stand until stretch is felt along
back of thighs. Immediately
descend again for the next
repetition without letting go of
feet

Pigeon pose Sit on ground and tuck 1 leg More intense posterior chain Reach forward
underneath body, keeping stretch
knee bent. Fold body over the
top of bent leg as the opposite
leg is maintained straight
 Table 10
Depth

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: athlete does not achieve depth of thighs at least parallel to the ground
Targeted correction: athlete improves awareness/proprioception of desired depth with good form
Box sit Athlete sits on box of desired Identify correct squat depth Sit up tall
depth height

Tactile/verbal Athlete descends to depth. Identify depth while supporting Indicate correct depth
cueing Instructor uses verbal cueing body weight
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com

to provide feedback as to
proper depth or distance still
to achieve max depth

(continued)
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The Back Squat

Table 10
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Eyes closed depth Athlete performs squat with eyes Improve proprioception for Indicate correct depth
closed to build proprioception depth awareness
for correct depth

Strength/stability
Deficit: athlete lacks posterior chain eccentric and/or isometric strength to maintain deep hold
Targeted correction: improve eccentric and/or isometric strength of posterior chain
Assisted squat and Assisted squat to provide Provide assistance to train with Reach buttocks away from
hold assistance at apex of squat for isometric muscle action for the heels
isometric hold desired depth
 Table 10
(continued )
Pole hold Athlete uses a sturdy column or Train with isometric muscle Straighten shins and torso
pole to assume and maintain action for the desired depth
deep hold as long as possible. with assistance to fix
Athlete should try to use pole
as little as possible and only
use assistance to fix position as
needed

Deep hold Athlete maintains chair position Train with isometric muscle Sit as if in a chair
with thighs parallel to ground action for the desired depth
and torso parallel to tibias with no assistance at correct
depth
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Mobility
Deficit: difficulty achieving depth due to tightness in posterior chain and hip adductors
Targeted correction: improve mobility of lower extremity musculature to achieve depth
V stretch Sit on ground. Position legs Stretch hip adductors Spread legs until you feel
straight above on wall. Spread a stretch and hold
legs apart for groin stretch
53

(continued)
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The Back Squat

Table 10
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Sumo stretch Squat down with bottom lower Stretch hip adductors Push out against knees
than knees and torso upright.
Press outside of elbows against
the inside of the knees to feel
groin stretch

Figure 4 stretch Lie on back with knees bent and Stretch piriformis Pull thigh to chest
feet off of the ground. Cross
the left leg over the right thigh.
Reach through legs and gently
pull the right thigh toward the
chest until a stretch is felt in
the buttock and hip of the
right leg. Repeat for opposite
leg
 Table 11
Ascent

Exercise Description Purpose Cue Example

Neuromuscular
Deficit: athlete does not drive with hips as primary mover or hips rise too quickly in relation to the shoulders
Targeted correction: athlete uses hips as primary mover and maintain shoulders and hips the same distance apart throughout ascent
Glute bridge Lie supine with feet flat on Emphasize hip drive Hips to the
the floor with heels ceiling
close to buttocks. Place
hands palm down by
sides. Push hips upward
with shoulders still in
contact with ground.
Hold and lower

Hip thrusts Perform continuous glute Emphasize hip drive Hips to the
bridges in a controlled ceiling
manner. Emphasize
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driving upward with the

hips

(continued)
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The Back Squat

Table 11
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Ball lead squat Hold ball chest height. Promote leading with Lead with the
Perform squat with the chest during ball
emphasis of leading ascent
with the ball during
ascent

Strength/stability
Deficit: posterior chain and hip extension concentric muscle action weakness
Targeted correction: improve concentric strength of posterior chain
Box sit to stand Place a plyometric box or Promote hip drive and Press down on
chair behind the athlete. pushing through heels and use
The height of the box heels to ascend hips to stand
should be slightly higher
than the approximate
depth of their observed
fault. The height of the
box should gradually be
reduced to work toward
full depth capability

Vertical countermovement jump Athlete squats down to Train using an explosive Explode upward
available depth while concentric exercise and use soft
maintaining form and of posterior chain landings
immediately jumps
vertically
 Table 11
(continued )
Sumo deadlift Squat down to weights/ Strengthen posterior Keep chest up,
bar, grasp them, and chain and improve press down on
stand up by raising hips postural control heels, through
and shoulders at same with hips
time, keeping the
weights/bar close to
thighs. Finish in neutral,
extended position.
Reverse in a slow and
controlled manner to
lower back to the
ground

Mobility
Deficit: lack of thoracic spine and hip flexor mobility
Targeted correction: improve thoracic spine and hip flexor mobility
Lunge hip flexor stretch Lunge with back knee on Static hip flexor stretch Lean back
the ground. Extend and thoracic spine
torso backward. Repeat stretch to improve
on opposite side mobility
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(continued)
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Table 11
(continued )
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Donkey kicks In quadruped position, Hip flexor mobility Plant footprint

kick backward with sole exercise that on the ceiling
of foot toward the emphasizes
ceiling. Maintain knee a postural position
flexion angle relative to the squat

Scorpion Lie flat on stomach with To stretch the lower Keep chest on
arms straight out to the back, gluteus, and the ground
sides and with legs hamstring mobility
together and extended.
Flex the left knee to
raise lower left leg
toward the ceiling. Twist
at the hips to reach the
left foot over to the right
side of the body.
Attempt to keep arms
and chest flat on the
ground. Once opposite
foot is as close to
opposite hand as
possible, return to start
and immediately go the
other direction with the
other leg
promoting a movement pattern that
Rhodri S. Lloyd Gregory D.
will support lifelong participation in
is a senior lec- Myer is director of
physical activity.
turer in Strength Research of the
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: and Conditioning Human Perfor-
The authors would like to acknowledge at Cardiff Met- mance Labora-
funding support from National Institutes ropolitan tory for the
of Health. University. Division of
Sports Medicine
at Cincinnati
Adam M. Children’s Hos-
Kushner is pital Medical Center and holds primary
a Clinical Al Vermeil is academic appointments in the Depart-
Research Coordi- President of ments of Pediatrics and Orthopaedic
nator in the Vermeil Sports Surgery within the College of Medicine at
Human Perfor- and Fitness, Inc. University of Cincinnati.
mance Labora- specializing in
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