A Revised Model of Learned Helplessness in Humans : Susan Roth, Duke University
A Revised Model of Learned Helplessness in Humans : Susan Roth, Duke University
A Revised Model of Learned Helplessness in Humans : Susan Roth, Duke University
helplessness in humans^
Susan Roth, Duke University
ABSTRACT
The present paper presents a revised model of learned helplessness in
humans. The conditions under which performance deficits (helplessness)
or enhanced performance (facilitation) will result from exposure to objec-
tive noncontingency are defined by a number of variables that have been
shown to have an impact on human helplessness. The reformulated model
specifies the operation of moderating variables as they affect a number of
relationships: that between objective noncontingency and the perception
of noncontingency; that between the perception of noncontingency and
the future expectancy of response-reinforcement independence; and fi-
nally that between the expectancy of response-reinforcement indepen-
dence and the behavioral deficits associated with learned helplessness. It
is argued that exposure to noncontingency ean affect both the value of
future reward and the perceived probability of obtaining it. Performance
deficits or enhanced performance will result from the perception of non-
contingency depending on the nature of this double-edged effect of ex-
posure to noncontingent delivery of reward.
Cohen, Rothbart, & Phillips, 1976; Cole & Coyne, 1977; Douglas
& Anisman, 1975; Gatchel & Proctor, 1976; Gatchel, Paulus, &
Maples, 1975; Griffith, 1977; Hanusa & Schulz, 1977; Hiroto &
Seligman, 1975; Jones, Nation, & Massad, 1977; Klein, Fencil-
Morse & Seligman, 1976; Roth & Kubal, 1975; Tennen & Eller,
1977; Wortman et al., 1976) did not lead to any greater predict-
ability.
While the simple functional relationship between exposure to
uncontrollable outcomes and helpless behavior in humans was con-
sistently obtained in studies using the experimental conditions first
employed by Hiroto and Seligman in 1975, variations in these pro-
cedures yielded somewhat unpredictable results. Nevertheless,
two important developments are represented in this research. Eirst,
on a general level it became clear that an examination of human
helplessness required a consideration of not only objective non-
contingency (as specified by the animal model), but also required
a consideration of the manner in which objective noncontingency
is experienced by human subjects. Second, although it is still not
possible to specify the conditions under which helplessness and
facilitation effects can be found, there are a number of moderator
variables influencing the reaction to exposure to noncontingent re-
ward which are clearly identifiable in this literature. These are: (1)
the prior expectancy of a subject regarding his or her capability of
controlling outcomes either generally or in a particular situation;
(2) the amount of exposure to noncontingent reward; (3) the im-
portance of outcomes to a subject in the pretreatment phase; (4)
the nature of attributions of causality for loss of control during pre-
treatment made by the subject; (5) the valence of the uncontrollable
outcome, that is, whether the induction of helplessness involves
exposure to noncontingent positively reinforcing stimuli versus
exposure to aversive stimuli or apparent lack of success in problem
solving; (6) the threat value of loss of control for the subject; and
(7) the similarity of various aspects of the training and test situa-
tions. A brief summary of studies assessing the impact of these
variables will now be presented.
The prior expectancy variable has been studied in two ways: by
measuring it directly with a locus of control scale and by manipu-
lating prior exposure to contingent reinforcement. While the data
are not altogether consistent, several studies seem to indicate that
prior expectancy affects the impact of an experience with lack of
control in humans. Eor example, Dweck and Repucci (1973), Hiroto
(1974), and Cohen, Rothbart, and Phillips (1976) all found external
locus of control subjects to be more susceptible to the helplessness
effect. In addition, subjects have been successfully immunized
106 Roth
effort. Finally, in the one study where attributions were not ex-
perimentally manipulated, it was found that (a) subjects who were
most likely to give up in the face of failure took less responsibility
for the success and failure they met with, and (b) to the extent that
subjects did take responsibility, they tended to attribute the out-
comes of their behavior to ability rather than effort (Dweck & Re-
pucci, 1973).
Two studies have been conducted in which the effects of uncon-
troUability of positively reinforcing stimuli have been systemati-
cally considered. In both of these studies subjects were led to.be-
lieve that they had solved concept-formation problems on which
they had been working. Subjects received trial-by-trial noncontin-
gent feedback to their responses. In one study (Benson &c Kennelly,
1976) subjects were always told that their responses were correct,
and these subjects' performance on subsequent test problems was
no different than that of control subjects. In the other study (Grif-
fith, 1977) subjects were told that their responses were correct or
incorrect according to a predetermined schedule of answers. In this
study subjects behaved helplessly in the test situation.
Regarding the threat value of loss of control, Krantz, Glass, and
Snyder (1974) examined an individual difference variable which
they thought would discriminate among people with respect to the
degree of threat they would experience in response to noncontin-
gent reward. The descriptive element of so called Type As suggests
someone who is continually trying to avoid loss of control over his/
her environment. Type Bs are those who exhibit the Type A pattern
to a lesser extent. Under moderate levels of stress (noise), only
Type Bs become helpless. Under high levels of stress, only Type
As become helpless. Krantz and Glass (note 1) interpret the greater
susceptibility of As to helplessness under high stress to greater
initial effort on their part to escape from an inescapable noise
stressor of high intensity. They found in two subsequent studies
that Type As exposed to random feedback on problem-solving tasks
did better than Type A controls on subsequent test tasks. They
hypothesized that had As experienced a longer series of failures,
helplessness would have been the likely result, rather than facili-
tation.
Finally, two studies have been concerned with the generalizabil-
ity of the helplessness effect. In a study by Cole and Coyne (1977),
subjects exhibited helplessness when the training and test situation
were presented as one experiment and administered by one ex-
perimenter, but did not when the two phases were presented as
different experiments and administered by different experiment-
ers. Finally, Cohen, Rothbart, and Phillips (1976) found helpless-
108 Roth
ness effects for both internal and external locus of control subjects
with a test task involving a problem-solving strategy (as the training
task had), whereas helplessness effects were found for only exter-
nal subjects on non-problem-solving tasks.
The effects of the moderator variables discussed above undoubt-
edly depend both on the way they are operationalized and on how
they interact with one another. They have not, unfortunately, been
studied in a very systematic way. The reformulated helplessness
model to be presented incorporates the above variables and pro-
vides researchers with testable hypotheses regarding the operation
of such moderating variables intervening between exposure to non-
contingency and the deficits associated with learned helplessness.
A PROPOSED MODEL OF LEARNED
HELPLESSNESS IN HUMANS
The original learned helplessness model articulated a simple
functional relationship:
Objective Noncontingency- Deficits Associated with
Learned Helplessness
This relationship was hypothesized to be a result of a learned ex-
pectation of response-reinforcement independence. An organism
exposed to objective noncontingency presumably perceived the
noncontingency and came to expect it in the future. A model which
considers the manner in which objective noncontingency is expe-
rienced by subjects must thus specify the operation of moderating
variables as they affect a number of relationships: that between
objective noncontingency and the perception of noncontingency;
that between the perception of noncontingency and the future ex-
pectancy of response-reinforcement independence; and finally that
between the expectancy of response-reinforcement independence
and the behavioral deficits associated with learned helplessness.
This conceptualization is consistent with the recent theoretical
analysis of the human helplessness response by Abramson et al.
(1978), where the process of reaction to loss of control is repre-
sented as following a sequence from objective noncontingency to
the perception of noncontingency to the future expectancy of non-
contingency to the deficits associated with learned helplessness.
Figure 1 illustrates the framework for the human learned help-
lessness model to be presented in this section. This framework
specifies those general conditions that moderate a subject's move-
ment from exposure to objective noncontingency to learned help-
lessness deficits. It also depicts the consequences of these condi-
tions not being met. First this framework will be explicated.
Learned helplessness in humans 109
Objective Noncontingency
1
Volue of Successful Value of Successful Enhanced Helpless
Performance Low Performance High BBrformance Behavior
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Learned helplessness in humans 113
ing will depend on a number of factors. First, the higher the sub-
ject's initial expectancy for success or control, the greater the nec-
essary effort expenditure. Second, the more psychologically
threatening the failure or loss of control, the greater the necessary
effort expenditure. Failure or loss of control can be more or less
threatening on the basis of either subject or task characteristics.
Type As, for example, are presumably more threatened by loss of
control than Type Bs (Krantz, Glass, & Snyder, 1974). Likewise,
failure on a task assessing an important skill would be more psy-
chologically threatening than failure on one less meaningful. Fi-
nally, the more apparently complex the training problem(s), the
greater the number of solution strategies possible and therefore the
greater the effort expenditure necessary for subjects to be con-
vinced that they could not have controlled outcomes.
The relationship between the perception of noncontingency and
the future expectancy of response-reinforcement independence. As
indicated in Table 1, there are four facilitating factors and one in-
hibiting factor in the movement from the perception of noncontin-
gency to the future expectancy of response-reinforcement indepen-
dence. The perceived similarity of the training and test situations
will be greater the greater the similarity of the tasks and the task
outcomes in the two situations, and the greater the similarity of
contexts in which the two phases occur. Thus, the two phases can
be conducted in the context of either the same or two different
experiments and can be conducted by the same or two different
experimenters. The Appendix lists the similarity of the training and
test situations of the various helplessness studies on the above di-
mensions. Roth and Bootzin (1974) and Fosco and Geer (1971), for
example, represent the two extremes of perceived similarity of
training and test situations.
The generality of attributions of causality for response-reinforce-
ment independence in training is infiuenced by the prior expec-
tancy of the subject regarding the possibility of controlling out-
comes either generally or in situations similar to the one with
which he/she is confronted. The lower the subject's expectancy for
control, the more likely it is that failure will be seen as an instance
of a more general problem.
The nature of the training task can also affect the generality of
attributions. Failure on some tasks will appear to implicate more
general skills than failure on others, assuming that the subject at-
tributes causality to some personal attribute. For example, if a sub-
ject attributes failure to a lack of ability on a task that supposedly
measures an important academic skill (e.g., Hanusa & Schulz,
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