4/28/2017 CarbonsequestrationWikipedia

Carbonsequestration
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Carbonsequestrationistheprocessinvolvedincarboncaptureandthe
longtermstorageofatmosphericcarbondioxide.[1]Carbon
sequestrationinvolveslongtermstorageofcarbondioxideorother
formsofcarbontomitigateordeferglobalwarming.Ithasbeen
proposedasawaytoslowtheatmosphericandmarineaccumulationof
greenhousegases,whicharereleasedbyburningfossilfuels.[2]

Carbondioxide(CO2)isnaturallycapturedfromtheatmosphere
throughbiological,chemical,andphysicalprocesses.[3]Artificial
processeshavebeendevisedtoproducesimilareffects,[3]including Schematicshowingbothterrestrial
largescale,artificialcaptureandsequestrationofindustriallyproduced andgeologicalsequestrationof
CO2usingsubsurfacesalineaquifers,reservoirs,oceanwater,agingoil carbondioxideemissionsfromacoal
fields,orothercarbonsinks. firedplant.

Contents
1 Description
2 Biologicalprocesses
2.1 Peatproduction
2.2 Forestry
2.2.1 UrbanForestry
2.3 Wetlandrestoration
2.4 Agriculture
2.4.1 Reducingemissions
2.4.2 Enhancingcarbonremoval
2.5 Oceanrelated
2.5.1 Ironfertilization
2.5.2 Ureafertilization
2.5.3 Mixinglayers
2.5.4 Seaweed
3 Physicalprocesses
3.1 Biomassrelated
3.1.1 Bioenergywithcarboncaptureandstorage
(BECCS)
3.1.2 Burial
3.1.3 Biocharburial
3.2 Oceanstorage
3.3 Geologicalsequestration
4 Chemicalprocesses
4.1 Mineralcarbonation
4.2 Industrialuse
4.3 Chemicalscrubbers
4.4 Oceanrelated
4.4.1 Basaltstorage
4.4.2 Acidneutralisation
5 Obstruction
5.1 Dangerofleaks
5.2 Financialcosts
5.3 Energyrequirements
6 Seealso
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7 References
8 Externallinks

Description
Carbonsequestrationistheprocessinvolvedincarboncaptureandthelongtermstorageofatmosphericcarbon
dioxide(CO2)[1]andmayreferspecificallyto:

"Theprocessofremovingcarbonfromtheatmosphereanddepositingitinareservoir."[4]Whencarried
outdeliberately,thismayalsobereferredtoascarbondioxideremoval,whichisaformof
geoengineering.
Carboncaptureandstorage,wherecarbondioxideisremovedfromfluegases(e.g.,atpowerstations)
beforebeingstoredinundergroundreservoirs.
Naturalbiogeochemicalcyclingofcarbonbetweentheatmosphereandreservoirs,suchasbychemical
weatheringofrocks.

Carbonsequestrationdescribeslongtermstorageofcarbondioxideorotherformsofcarbontoeithermitigate
ordeferglobalwarmingandavoiddangerousclimatechange.Ithasbeenproposedasawaytoslowthe
atmosphericandmarineaccumulationofgreenhousegases,whicharereleasedbyburningfossilfuels.[2]

Carbondioxideisnaturallycapturedfromtheatmospherethroughbiological,chemicalorphysicalprocesses.
Someartificialsequestrationtechniquesexploitthesenaturalprocesses,[3]whilesomeuseentirelyartificial
processes.

Carbondioxidemaybecapturedasapurebyproductinprocessesrelatedtopetroleumrefiningorfromflue
gasesfrompowergeneration.[5]CO2sequestrationincludesthestoragepartofcarboncaptureandstorage,
whichreferstolargescale,artificialcaptureandsequestrationofindustriallyproducedCO2usingsubsurface
salineaquifers,reservoirs,oceanwater,agingoilfields,orothercarbonsinks.

Biologicalprocesses
Biosequestrationorcarbonsequestrationthroughbiologicalprocessesaffects
theglobalcarboncycle.Examplesincludemajorclimaticfluctuations,suchas
theAzollaevent,whichcreatedthecurrentArcticclimate.Suchprocesses
createdfossilfuels,aswellasclathrateandlimestone.Bymanipulatingsuch
processes,geoengineersseektoenhancesequestration.

Peatproduction

Peatbogsareaveryimportantcarbonstore.Peatbogsactasasinkforcarbon
duetotheaccumulationofpartiallydecayedbiomassthatwouldotherwise
continuetodecaycompletely.Thereisavarianceonhowmuchthepeatlands
actasacarbonsinkorcarbonsourcethatcanbelinkedtovaryingclimatesin
differentareasoftheworldanddifferenttimesoftheyear.[6]Bycreatingnew Anoceanicphytoplankton
bogs,orenhancingexistingones,theamountofcarbonthatissequesteredby bloomintheSouthAtlantic
bogswouldincrease.[7] Ocean,offthecoastof
Argentina.Encouragingsuch
Forestry bloomswithiron
fertilizationcouldlockup
carbonontheseabed.

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Reforestationisthereplantingoftreesonmarginalcropandpasturelandstoincorporatecarbonfrom
atmosphericCO2intobiomass.[8]Forthisprocesstosucceedthecarbonmustnotreturntotheatmospherefrom
massburningorrottingwhenthetreesdie.[9]Tothisend,landallottedtothetreesmustnotbeconvertedto
otherusesandmanagementofthefrequencyofdisturbancesmightbenecessaryinordertoavoidextreme
events.Alternatively,thewoodfromthemmustitselfbesequestered,e.g.,viabiochar,bioenergywithcarbon
storage(BECS),landfillor'stored'byuseine.g.construction.Shortofgrowthinperpetuity,however,
reforestationwithlonglivedtrees(>100years)willsequestercarbonforamoregraduatedrelease,minimizing
impactduringtheexpectedcarboncrisisofthe21stcentury.

UrbanForestry

UrbanForestryincreasestheamountofcarbontakenupincitiesbyaddingnewtreesitesandthesequestration
ofcarbonoccursoverthelifetimeofthetree.[10]Itisgenerallypracticedandmaintainedonsmallerscales,like
incities.Theresultsofurbanforestrycanhavedifferentresultsdependingonthetypeofvegetationthatis
beingused,soitcanfunctionasasinkbutcanalsofunctionasasourceofemissions.[11]Alongwith
sequestrationbytheplantswhichisdifficulttomeasurebutseemstohavelittleeffectontheoverallamountof
carbondioxidethatisuptaken,thevegetationcanhaveindirecteffectsoncarbonbyreducingneedforenergy
consumption.[11]

Wetlandrestoration

Wetlandsoilisanimportantcarbonsink14.5%oftheworldssoilcarbonisfoundinwetlands,whileonly6%
oftheworldslandiscomposedofwetlands.[12]

Agriculture

Globally,soilsareestimatedtocontainapproximately1,500gigatonsoforganiccarbonto1mdepth,morethan
theamountinvegetationandtheatmosphere.[13][14]

Modificationofagriculturalpracticesisarecognizedmethodofcarbonsequestrationassoilcanactasan
effectivecarbonsinkoffsettingasmuchas20%of2010carbondioxideemissionsannually.[15](SeeNotill)

Carbonemissionreductionmethodsinagriculturecanbegroupedintotwocategories:reducingand/or
displacingemissionsandenhancingcarbonremoval.Someofthesereductionsinvolveincreasingtheefficiency
offarmoperations(e.g.morefuelefficientequipment)whilesomeinvolveinterruptionsinthenaturalcarbon
cycle.Also,someeffectivetechniques(suchastheeliminationofstubbleburning)cannegativelyimpactother
environmentalconcerns(increasedherbicideusetocontrolweedsnotdestroyedbyburning).

Reducingemissions

Increasingyieldsandefficiencygenerallyreducesemissionsaswell,sincemorefoodresultsfromthesameor
lesseffort.Techniquesincludemoreaccurateuseoffertilizers,lesssoildisturbance,betterirrigation,andcrop
strainsbredforlocallybeneficialtraitsandincreasedyields.

Replacingmoreenergyintensivefarmingoperationscanalsoreduceemissions.Reducedornotillfarming
requireslessmachineuseandburnscorrespondinglylessfuelperacre.However,notillusuallyincreasesuse
ofweedcontrolchemicalsandtheresiduenowleftonthesoilsurfaceismorelikelytoreleaseitsCO2tothe
atmosphereasitdecays,reducingthenetcarbonreduction.

Inpractice,mostfarmingoperationsthatincorporatepostharvestcropresidues,wastesandbyproductsback
intothesoilprovideacarbonstoragebenefit.Thisisparticularlythecaseforpracticessuchasfieldburningof
stubbleratherthanreleasingalmostallofthestoredCO2totheatmosphere,tillageincorporatesthebiomass
backintothesoil.
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Enhancingcarbonremoval

AllcropsabsorbCO2duringgrowthandreleaseitafterharvest.Thegoalofagriculturalcarbonremovalisto
usethecropanditsrelationtothecarboncycletopermanentlysequestercarbonwithinthesoil.Thisisdoneby
selectingfarmingmethodsthatreturnbiomasstothesoilandenhancetheconditionsinwhichthecarbonwithin
theplantswillbereducedtoitselementalnatureandstoredinastablestate.Methodsforaccomplishingthis
include:

Usecovercropssuchasgrassesandweedsastemporarycoverbetweenplantingseasons
Concentratelivestockinsmallpaddocksfordaysatatimesotheygrazelightlybutevenly.This
encouragesrootstogrowdeeperintothesoil.Stockalsotillthesoilwiththeirhooves,grindingoldgrass
andmanuresintothesoil.[16]
Coverbarepaddockswithhayordeadvegetation.Thisprotectssoilfromthesunandallowsthesoilto
holdmorewaterandbemoreattractivetocarboncapturingmicrobes.[16]
Restoredegradedland,whichslowscarbonreleasewhilereturningthelandtoagricultureorotheruse.

Agriculturalsequestrationpracticesmayhavepositiveeffectsonsoil,air,andwaterquality,bebeneficialto
wildlife,andexpandfoodproduction.Ondegradedcroplands,anincreaseof1tonofsoilcarbonpoolmay
increasecropyieldby20to40kilogramsperhectareofwheat,10to20kg/haformaize,and0.5to1kg/hafor
cowpeas.

Theeffectsofsoilsequestrationcanbereversed.Ifthesoilisdisruptedortillagepracticesareabandoned,the
soilbecomesanetsourceofgreenhousegases.Typicallyafter15to30yearsofsequestration,soilbecomes
saturatedandceasestoabsorbcarbon.Thisimpliesthatthereisagloballimittotheamountofcarbonthatsoil
canhold.[17]

Manyfactorsaffectthecostsofcarbonsequestrationincludingsoilquality,transactioncostsandvarious
externalitiessuchasleakageandunforeseenenvironmentaldamage.BecausereductionofatmosphericCO2isa
longtermconcern,farmerscanbereluctanttoadoptmoreexpensiveagriculturaltechniqueswhenthereisnota
clearcrop,soil,oreconomicbenefit.GovernmentssuchasAustraliaandNewZealandareconsidering
allowingfarmerstosellcarboncreditsoncetheydocumentthattheyhavesufficientlyincreasedsoilcarbon
content.[16][18][19][20][21][22]

Oceanrelated

Ironfertilization

Oceanironfertilizationisanexampleofsuchageoengineeringtechnique.[23]Ironfertilization[24]attemptsto
encouragephytoplanktongrowth,whichremovescarbonfromtheatmosphereforatleastaperiodof
time.[25][26]Thistechniqueiscontroversialduetolimitedunderstandingofitscompleteeffectsonthemarine
ecosystem,[27]includingsideeffectsandpossiblylargedeviationsfromexpectedbehavior.Sucheffects
potentiallyincludereleaseofnitrogenoxides,[28]anddisruptionoftheocean'snutrientbalance.[23]

Naturalironfertilisationevents(e.g.,depositionofironrichdustintooceanwaters)canenhancecarbon
sequestration.Spermwhalesactasagentsofironfertilisationwhentheytransportironfromthedeepoceanto
thesurfaceduringpreyconsumptionanddefecation.Spermwhaleshavebeenshowntoincreasethelevelsof
primaryproductionandcarbonexporttothedeepoceanbydepositingironrichfecesintosurfacewatersofthe
SouthernOcean.Theironrichfecescausesphytoplanktontogrowandtakeupmorecarbonfromthe
atmosphere.Whenthephytoplanktondies,someofitsinkstothedeepoceanandtakestheatmosphericcarbon
withit.ByreducingtheabundanceofspermwhalesintheSouthernOcean,whalinghasresultedinanextra
200,000tonnesofcarbonremainingintheatmosphereeachyear.[29]

Ureafertilization

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IanJonesproposesfertilizingtheoceanwithurea,anitrogenrichsubstance,toencouragephytoplankton
growth.

AustraliancompanyOceanNourishmentCorporation(ONC)planstosinkhundredsoftonnesofureaintothe
oceantoboostCO2absorbingphytoplanktongrowthasawaytocombatclimatechange.In2007,Sydney
basedONCcompletedanexperimentinvolving1tonneofnitrogenintheSuluSeaoffthePhilippines.[30]

Mixinglayers

Encouragingvariousoceanlayerstomixcanmovenutrientsanddissolvedgasesaround,offeringavenuesfor
geoengineering.[31]Mixingmaybeachievedbyplacinglargeverticalpipesintheoceanstopumpnutrientrich
watertothesurface,triggeringbloomsofalgae,whichstorecarbonwhentheygrowandexportcarbonwhen
theydie.[31][32][33]Thisproducesresultssomewhatsimilartoironfertilization.Onesideeffectisashortterm
riseinCO2,whichlimitsitsattractiveness.[34]

Seaweed

Seaweedgrowsveryfastandcantheoreticallybeharvestedandprocessedtogeneratebiomethane,via
AnaerobicDigestiontogenerateelectricity,viaCogeneration/CHPorasareplacementfornaturalgas.One
studysuggestedthatifseaweedfarmscovered9%oftheoceantheycouldproduceenoughbiomethaneto
supplyEarth'sequivalentdemandforfossilfuelenergy,remove53gigatonnesofCO2peryearfromthe
atmosphereandsustainablyproduce200kgperyearoffish,perperson,for10billionpeople.[35]Idealspecies
forsuchfarmingandconversionincludeLaminariadigitata,FucusserratusandSaccharinalatissima.[36]

Physicalprocesses
Biomassrelated

Bioenergywithcarboncaptureandstorage(BECCS)

BECCSreferstobiomassinpowerstationsandboilersthatusecarbon
captureandstorage.[37][38]Thecarbonsequesteredbythebiomass
wouldbecapturedandstored,thusremovingcarbondioxidefromthe
atmosphere.[39]

Thistechnologyissometimesreferredtoasbioenergywithcarbon Biocharcanbelandfilled,usedasa
storage,BECS,thoughthistermcanalsorefertothecarbon soilimproverorburnedusingcarbon
sequestrationpotentialinothertechnologies,suchasbiochar. captureandstorage

Burial

Buryingbiomass(suchastrees)[40]directly,mimicsthenaturalprocessesthatcreatedfossilfuels.[41]Landfills
alsorepresentaphysicalmethodofsequestration.

Biocharburial

Biocharischarcoalcreatedbypyrolysisofbiomasswaste.Theresultingmaterialisaddedtoalandfillorused
asasoilimprovertocreateterrapreta.[42][43]Additionofpyrogenicorganiccarbon(biochar)isanovelstrategy
toincreasethesoilCstockforthelongtermandtomitigateglobalwarmingbyoffsettingtheatmosphericC
(upto9.5PgCannually).[44]

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Inthesoil,thecarbonisunavailableforoxidationtoCO2andconsequentialatmosphericrelease.Thisisone
techniqueadvocatedbyscientistJamesLovelock,creatoroftheGaiahypothesis.[45]AccordingtoSimon
Shackley,"peoplearetalkingmoreaboutsomethingintherangeofonetotwobilliontonnesayear."[46]

Themechanismsrelatedtobiochararereferredtoasbioenergywithcarbonstorage,BECS.

Oceanstorage

IfCO2weretobeinjectedtotheoceanbottom,thepressureswouldbegreatenoughforCO2tobeinitsliquid
phase.Theideabehindoceaninjectionwouldbetohavestable,stationarypoolsofCO2attheoceanfloor.The
oceancouldpotentiallyholdoverathousandbilliontonsofCO2.However,thisavenueofsequestrationisnt
beingasactivelypursuedbecauseofconcernsabouttheimpactonoceanlife,andconcernsaboutits
stability.[47]

Rivermouthsbringlargequantitiesofnutrientsanddeadmaterialfromupriverintotheoceanaspartofthe
processthateventuallyproducesfossilfuels.Transportingmaterialsuchascropwasteouttoseaandallowing
ittosinkexploitsthisideatoincreasecarbonstorage.[48]Internationalregulationsonmarinedumpingmay
restrictorpreventuseofthistechnique.

Geologicalsequestration

GeologicalsequestrationreferstothestorageofCO2undergroundindepletedoilandgasreservoirs,saline
formations,ordeep,unminablecoalbeds.

OnceCO2iscapturedfromagasorcoalfiredpowerplant,itwouldbecompressedto100barsothatitwould
beasupercriticalfluid.Inthisfluidform,theCO2wouldbeeasytotransportviapipelinetotheplaceof
storage.TheCO2wouldthenbeinjecteddeepunderground,typicallyaround1km,whereitwouldbestablefor
hundredstomillionsofyears.[47]Atthesestorageconditions,thedensityofsupercriticalCO2is600to800kg/
m3.[49]Forconsumers,thecostofelectricityfromacoalfiredpowerplantwithcarboncaptureandstorage
(CCS)isestimatedtobe0.010.05$/kWhhigherthanwithoutCCS.Forreference,theaveragecostof
electricityintheUSin2004was0.0762$/kWh.Inotherterms,thecostofCCSwouldbe2070$/tonof
CO2captured.ThetransportationandinjectionofCO2isrelativelycheap,withthecapturecostsaccountingfor
7080%ofCCScosts.[49]

Theimportantparametersindeterminingagoodsiteforcarbonstorageare:rockporosity,rockpermeability,
absenceoffaults,andgeometryofrocklayers.ThemediuminwhichtheCO2istobestoredideallyhasahigh
porosityandpermeability,suchassandstoneorlimestone.Sandstonecanhaveapermeabilityrangingfrom1to
105Darcy,andcanhaveaporosityashighas30%.Theporousrockmustbecappedbyalayeroflow
permeabilitywhichactsasaseal,orcaprock,fortheCO2.Shaleisanexampleofaverygoodcaprock,witha
permeabilityof105to109Darcy.Onceinjected,theCO2plumewillriseviabuoyantforces,sinceitisless
densethanitssurroundings.Onceitencountersacaprock,itwillspreadlaterallyuntilitencountersagap.If
therearefaultplanesneartheinjectionzone,thereisapossibilitytheCO2couldmigratealongthefaulttothe
surface,leakingintotheatmosphere,whichwouldbepotentiallydangeroustolifeinthesurroundingarea.
Anotherdangerrelatedtocarbonsequestrationisinducedseismicity.IftheinjectionofCO2createspressures
thataretoohighunderground,theformationwillfracture,causinganearthquake.[50]

Whiletrappedinarockformation,CO2canbeinthesupercriticalfluidphaseordissolveingroundwater/brine.
Itcanalsoreactwithmineralsinthegeologicformationtoprecipitatecarbonates.SeeCarbFix.
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Worldwidestoragecapacityinoilandgasreservoirsisestimatedtobe675900GtCO2,andinunminable
coalseamsisestimatedtobe15200GtCO2.Deepsalineformationshavethelargestcapacity,whichis
estimatedtobe1,00010,000GtCO2.[49]IntheUS,thereisanestimated160GtCO2storagecapacity.[50]

Thereareanumberoflargescalecarboncaptureandsequestrationprojectsthathavedemonstratedthe
viabilityandsafetyofthismethodofcarbonstorage,whicharesummarizedhere[51]bytheGlobalCCS
Institute.Thedominantmonitoringtechniqueisseismicimaging,wherevibrationsaregeneratedthatpropagate
throughthesubsurface.Thegeologicstructurecanbeimagedfromtherefracted/reflectedwaves.[50]

ThefirstlargescaleCO2sequestrationprojectwhichbeganin1996iscalledSleipner,andislocatedinthe
NorthSeawhereNorway'sStatoilHydrostripscarbondioxidefromnaturalgaswithaminesolventsand
disposedofthiscarbondioxideinadeepsalineaquifer.In2000,acoalfueledsyntheticnaturalgasplantin
Beulah,NorthDakota,becametheworld'sfirstcoalusingplanttocaptureandstorecarbondioxide,atthe
WeyburnMidaleCarbonDioxideProject.[52]

CO2hasbeenusedextensivelyinenhancedcrudeoilrecoveryoperationsintheUnitedStatesbeginningin
1972.[2]Thereareinexcessof10,000wellsthatinjectCO2inthestateofTexasalone.Thegascomesinpart
fromanthropogenicsources,butisprincipallyfromlargenaturallyoccurringgeologicformationsofCO2.Itis
transportedtotheoilproducingfieldsthroughalargenetworkofover5,000kilometres(3,100mi)ofCO2
pipelines.TheuseofCO2forenhancedoilrecovery(EOR)methodsinheavyoilreservoirsintheWestern
CanadianSedimentaryBasin(WCSB)hasalsobeenproposed.[53]However,transportcostremainsan
importanthurdle.AnextensiveCO2pipelinesystemdoesnotyetexistintheWCSB.Athabascaoilsands
miningthatproducesCO2ishundredsofkilometersnorthofthesubsurfaceHeavycrudeoilreservoirsthat
couldmostbenefitfromCO2injection.

Chemicalprocesses
DevelopedintheNetherlands,anelectrocatalysisbyacoppercomplexhelpsreducecarbondioxidetooxalic
acid[54]Thisconversionusescarbondioxideasafeedstocktogenerateoxalicacid.

Mineralcarbonation

Carbon,intheformofCO2canberemovedfromtheatmospherebychemicalprocesses,andstoredinstable
carbonatemineralforms.Thisprocessisknownas'carbonsequestrationbymineralcarbonation'ormineral
sequestration.Theprocessinvolvesreactingcarbondioxidewithabundantlyavailablemetaloxideseither
magnesiumoxide(MgO)orcalciumoxide(CaO)toformstablecarbonates.Thesereactionsareexothermic
andoccurnaturally(e.g.,theweatheringofrockovergeologictimeperiods).[55][56]

CaO+CO2CaCO3

MgO+CO2MgCO3

Calciumandmagnesiumarefoundinnaturetypicallyascalciumandmagnesiumsilicates(suchasforsterite
andserpentinite)andnotasbinaryoxides.Forforsteriteandserpentinethereactionsare:

Mg2SiO4+2CO22MgCO3+SiO2

Mg3Si2O5(OH)4+3CO23MgCO3+2SiO2+2H2O

ThefollowingtablelistsprincipalmetaloxidesofEarth'scrust.Theoreticallyupto22%ofthismineralmassis
abletoformcarbonates.

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Enthalpychange
EarthenOxide PercentofCrust Carbonate
(kJ/mol)
SiO2 59.71
Al2O3 15.41
CaO 4.90 CaCO3 179
MgO 4.36 MgCO3 117
Na2O 3.55 Na2CO3
FeO 3.52 FeCO3
K2O 2.80 K2CO3
Fe2O3 2.63 FeCO3
21.76 AllCarbonates

Thesereactionsareslightlymorefavorableatlowtemperatures.[55]Thisprocessoccursnaturallyovergeologic
timeframesandisresponsibleformuchoftheEarth'ssurfacelimestone.Thereactionratecanbemadefaster
however,byreactingathighertemperaturesand/orpressures,althoughthismethodrequiressomeadditional
energy.Alternatively,themineralcouldbemilledtoincreaseitssurfacearea,andexposedtowaterand
constantabrasiontoremovetheinertSilicaascouldbeachievednaturallybydumpingOlivineinthehigh
energysurfofbeaches[57]Experimentssuggesttheweatheringprocessisreasonablyquick(oneyear)given
porousbasalticrocks.[58][59]

CO2naturallyreactswithperidotiterockinsurfaceexposuresofophiolites,notablyinOman.Ithasbeen
suggestedthatthisprocesscanbeenhancedtocarryoutnaturalmineralisationofCO2.[60][61]

Industrialuse

Traditionalcementmanufacturereleaseslargeamountsofcarbondioxide,butnewlydevelopedcementtypes
fromNovacem[62]canabsorbCO2fromambientairduringhardening.[63]Asimilartechniquewaspioneeredby
TecEco,whichhasbeenproducing"EcoCement"since2002.[64]

InEstonia,oilshaleash,generatedbypowerstationscouldbeusedassorbentsforCO2mineralsequestration.
TheamountofCO2capturedaveraged60to65%ofthecarbonaceousCO2and10to11%ofthetotalCO2
emissions.[65]

Chemicalscrubbers

VariouscarbondioxidescrubbingprocesseshavebeenproposedtoremoveCO2fromtheair,usuallyusinga
variantoftheKraftprocess.Carbondioxidescrubbingvariantsexistbasedonpotassiumcarbonate,whichcan
beusedtocreateliquidfuels,oronsodiumhydroxide.[66][67][68]Thesenotablyincludeartificialtreesproposed
byKlausLacknertoremovecarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereusingchemicalscrubbers.[69][70]

Oceanrelated

Basaltstorage

CarbondioxidesequestrationinbasaltinvolvestheinjectingofCO2intodeepseaformations.TheCO2first
mixeswithseawaterandthenreactswiththebasalt,bothofwhicharealkalinerichelements.Thisreaction
resultsinthereleaseofCa2+andMg2+ionsformingstablecarbonateminerals.[71]

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Underwaterbasaltoffersagoodalternativetootherformsofoceaniccarbonstoragebecauseithasanumberof
trappingmeasurestoensureaddedprotectionagainstleakage.Thesemeasuresincludegeothermal,sediment,
gravitationalandhydrateformation.BecauseCO2hydrateisdenserthanCO2inseawater,theriskofleakage
isminimal.InjectingtheCO2atdepthsgreaterthan2,700meters(8,900ft)ensuresthattheCO2hasagreater
densitythanseawater,causingittosink.[72]

OnepossibleinjectionsiteisJuandeFucaplate.ResearchersattheLamontDohertyEarthObservatoryfound
thatthisplateatthewesterncoastoftheUnitedStateshasapossiblestoragecapacityof208gigatons.This
couldcovertheentirecurrentU.S.carbonemissionsforover100years.[72]

ThisprocessisundergoingtestsaspartoftheCarbFixproject,resultingin95%oftheinjected250tonnesof
CO2tosolidifyintocalcitein2years,using25tonnesofwaterpertonneofCO2.[59][73]

Acidneutralisation

Carbondioxideformscarbonicacidwhendissolvedinwater,sooceanacidificationisasignificant
consequenceofelevatedcarbondioxidelevels,andlimitstherateatwhichitcanbeabsorbedintotheocean
(thesolubilitypump).Avarietyofdifferentbaseshavebeensuggestedthatcouldneutralizetheacidandthus
increaseCO2absorption.[74][75][76][77][78]Forexample,addingcrushedlimestonetooceansenhancesthe
absorptionofcarbondioxide.[79]Anotherapproachistoaddsodiumhydroxidetooceanswhichisproducedby
electrolysisofsaltwaterorbrine,whileeliminatingthewastehydrochloricacidbyreactionwithavolcanic
silicaterocksuchasenstatite,effectivelyincreasingtherateofnaturalweatheringoftheserockstorestore
oceanpH.[80][81][82]

Obstruction
Dangerofleaks

Carbondioxidemaybestoreddeepunderground.Atdepth,hydrostaticpressureactstokeepitinaliquidstate.
Reservoirdesignfaults,rockfissuresandtectonicprocessesmayacttoreleasethegasstoredintotheoceanor
atmosphere.

Financialcosts

Theuseofthetechnologywouldaddanadditional15centsofcostperkilowatthour,accordingtoestimate
madebytheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.Thefinancialcostsofmoderncoaltechnologywould
nearlydoubleifuseofCCStechnologyweretoberequiredbyregulation.[83]ThecostofCCStechnology
differswiththedifferenttypesofcapturetechnologiesbeingusedandwiththedifferentsitesthatitis
implementedin,butthecoststendtoincreasewithCCScaptureimplementation.[84]Onestudyconducted
predictedthatwithnewtechnologiesthesecostscouldbeloweredbutwouldremainslightlyhigherthanprices
withoutCCStechnologies.[85]

Energyrequirements

Theenergyrequirementsofsequestrationprocessesmaybesignificant.Inonepaper,sequestrationconsumed
25percentoftheplant'srated600megawattoutputcapacity.[86]

AfteraddingCO2captureandcompression,thecapacityofthecoalfiredpowerplantisreducedto457
MW.

Seealso
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Bioenergywithcarboncaptureandstorage
BlueCarbon
CarbonFixStandard
Carboncaptureandstorage
Carboncarousel
WoodlandCarbonCode

References
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Externallinks
GAMansoori,NEnayati,LBAgyarko(2016),Energy:Sources,Utilization,Legislation,Sustainability,
IllinoisasModelState(http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/9699),WorldSci.Pub.
Co.,ISBN9789814704007
CarbonSequestrationLeadershipForum(http://www.cslforum.org/)Internationalcarboncaptureand
storageinitiative.
UKCarbonCaptureandStorageConsortium(http://www.co2storage.org.uk/)OverviewoftheUK
academicconsortiumfocusedonresearchingissuesrelatedtoCarbonCaptureandStorage.
Sievesputalidongreenhousegas(http://www.physorg.com/news65284632.html)
Thecapture,utilizationanddisposalofcarbondioxidefromfossilfuelfiredpowerplants.(http://www.o
sti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/10192734xc1wDZ/webviewable/10192734.pdf)
CarbonCaptureandStorageInformationCenter(Chinese+English)(http://www.captureready.com/)
CarbonSequestration:Science,Technology,andPolicy(http://web.mit.edu/professional/shortprograms/
courses/geological_carbon_sequestration.html)MITprogramcoverscarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)
Linktovideo,UKLooksforNaturalProductsinKentucky'sUniqueEnvironments(https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=VglEEjMviVA/)

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