Project and

33 Contract
Management

P A Thompson BSc(Eng), MSc, CEng,

FICE, MIWES
University of Manchester Institute of Science
and Technology

Contents
33.1 Introduction 33/3 33.7 Engineering contracts 33/14
33.7.1 Contract strategy 33/14
33.2 Project and contract organization 33/3 33.7.2 Choice of contract type 33/14
33.2.1 Introduction 33/3 33.7.3 The main types of contract 33/15
33.2.2 Organization of design and construction 33/5 33.7.4 Management contracting 33/15
33.2.3 Decision making and control 33/5
33.2.4 Project management 33/5 33.8 Contractual measurement and valuation 33/15
33.2.5 Project objectives 33/5 33.8.1 Bills of quantities 33/15
33.2.6 Safely 33/6 33.8.2 The concepts incorporated in the
traditional bills of quantities 33/16
33.3 Commercial considerations and cashflow 33/6 33.8.3 Development of the bills of quantities 33/16
33.3.1 Cashflow 33/7 33.8.4 Method-related charges 33/16
33.3.2 Contract cashflow 33/7 33.8.5 Pricing and tendering policy 33/16
33.4 Construction planning 33/8 33.9 Project management 33/16
33.4.1 Compiling a programme 33/8 33.9.1 Guidelines for project management 33/17
33.4.2 Resource scheduling 33/8
33.4.3 Programming techniques 33/10 References 33/18

33.5 Cost Estimating 33/10 Bibliography 33/18

33.5.1 Requirements of an estimate 33/10
33.5.2 Cost-estimating 33/11

33.6 Project appraisal 33/11

33.6.1 Risk and uncertainty 33/12
33.6.2 Project evaluation 33/12

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

33.1 Introduction to perform the administrative functions which are necessary for
the successful accomplishment of the project or contract. The
Management is concerned with the setting and achievement of project or contract manager is primarily concerned with the
realistic objectives for the project or contract. This will demand direction and motivation of other human beings.
effort - it will not happen as a matter of course - and it will
require the dedication and motivation of people. The provision
and training of an adequate management team is therefore an 33.2 Project and contract
essential prerequisite for a successful job for it is their drive and organization
judgement, their ability to persuade and lead, which will ensure
that the project objectives are achieved.
33.2.1 Introduction
Managers of projects and contracts involving engineering
construction will frequently encounter a mixture of technical, There are many steps between the inception of a new capital
environmental, logistical and physical problems. The style of project and its successful operation and maintenance. For
management required for such work will therefore differ in efficient project management it is helpful to group these steps
many ways from that required in the relatively static surround- together into the following project stages, which are also
ings of line management in a factory. The temporary nature of identified in Figure 33.1:
the organization and the considerably greater element of uncer-
tainty associated with construction projects will be particularly APPRAISAL Assess alternative strategies for meeting
significant. needs
Uncertainty is the source of many of the problems encoun- Establish technical and economic feasibi-
tered in construction work and will influence project appraisal, lity
estimating, planning, the form of contract and the procedures Derive the master plan
for contractual measurement and valuation. Excessive uncer- DEFINITION Statement of project objectives
tainty which leads to continuous or multiple changes to design Conceptual design and associated cost
will reduce productivity and will almost certainly affect adver- estimates
sely the morale of the workforce. It will also result in extra cost Design review
to both client and contractor. All parties involved in construc- Arrange project funding
tion projects and contracts would therefore benefit greatly from Sanction
reduction in uncertainty prior to financial commitment. Effort DESIGN Detailed design
should be devoted to risk management and the person(s) Design review
ultimately responsible for the financial outcome should be Contract strategy report and definition of
appraised fully of the full risk spectrum before committing his contract packages
or her organization to the project or contract. Detailed cost estimates
When considering planning techniques, construction con- Procurement/tendering
tracts and their valuation and other aspects of management in Contract award
this chapter there may be a tendency for the reader to think of CONSTRUCTION Site construction
each system as a separate entity. He or she is advised to Offsite fabrication and manufacture
remember that the purpose of all these techniques and pro- Installation
cedures is to help people make the judgements and decisions and Quality control

Project appraisal Design and construction Commissioning Operation and

and definition. and acceptance maintenance
Conceptual design
Design Construct
loading loading
bay bay

Operate

Feasibility Consider Planning Land

study report permission purchase Services Commission

Design Construct
tank farm tank farm
Notes: (1) Only one year of operation shown
(2) 86.01 is January 1986
Design Construct
process plant process plant

Figure 33.1 Precedence diagram for new manufacturing

plant. This simple network will later be developed into a
time-and-money model for appraisal of the project
 Limit of 2nd stage output

Limit of 1st stage output

Forecast
output
Limits of
Design Construct variance
ACTIVITIES loading loading
bay bay
Month

Design Construct Operate Operate

office labs offices

Feasibility Consider Planning Land Commission Commission

study report permission purchase Services stage I stage 11

Design Construct
tank farm tank farm
LEGEND
Design Construct Design Construct Fixed costs
process plant process plant stage Il stage (I Time related
costs
Quantity -
proportional costs
HAMMOCKS
Design office overheads

Construction Overheads
Indirect production costs

Figure 33.2 Flow chart for new manufacturing plant. The

precedence diagram is developed and extended as the framework
for cost/benefit analysis
 Expediting management lies squarely with the client. His primary function
Construction management is to define the parameters of the project and thereafter to
Contract administration provide decisions, approvals and guidance. Several reports on
COMMISSIONING Engineering and performance tests the performance of the construction industry over the last 10 to
Acceptance 20 years have concluded that good project management by the
OPERATION Organization for operation and mainten- client is an essential ingredient for a successful project.3 Regret-
ance tably, it was found that many projects lacked an appropriate
Project review project management structure, resources and expertise.
For each project, a single individual from within the client's
These stages may frequently overlap and their relative durations organization should be named as project manager, and given
can vary greatly. For public works projects the early stages of the necessary authority and responsibility.4 His role, therefore,
appraisal and definition are likely to extend over many years is to manage the client's investment, and he should have
and the facility, say a road or a water-treatment plant, will also sufficient seniority to exercise effective control both within and
be utilized over a period frequently exceeding 25 years. Com- outside the client organization. For most projects he will need
mercial projects, such as the new manufacturing plant illus- the support of a small project management team.
trated in Figure 33.2, are more likely to be appraised, sanctioned Brief guidelines for effective project management are given in
and implemented rapidly before a competitor enters the market. section 33.9.

33.2.2 Organization of design and construction

In the traditional system for the procurement of civil engineer- 33.2.5 Project objectives
ing works1 it is normal for the client to employ an experienced The client will have a number of overall objectives for undertak-
consulting engineer to assist him with project development and ing the project. These may be commercial, reflect the perceived
implementation. The consultant is likely to play an important needs of society and/or have political overtones. Specific project
role in project appraisal and definition, to undertake the design management objectives must be compatible with the overall
and contract documentation, to oversee tendering by contrac- objectives and should be clearly formulated early in the defini-
tors, to supervise construction work on site and administer the tion stage of project development.
construction contracts. A contractor or group of contractors The dominant considerations must be fitness for purpose of
complete the fabrication and construction of the works. the completed project and safety during both the construction
Management of design and construction is therefore the respon- and operational phases. Thereafter cost, time and functional
sibility of different organizations. performance form a minimum set of values from which the
This well-established system is still widely used but many primary objectives will be drawn. The potential for conflict
variations are adopted to meet the particular requirements of between these objectives, as problems arise during project
the client, particularly in the private sector. In general, these implementation, is obvious.5 The disasters which beset the
reflect alternatives used in the related process plant, offshore Montreal Olympics stadium - a prestige project of novel design
and building industries2 and frequently respond to pressure for with an unrealistic budget and a fixed time constraint - offer
quicker and timely completion to reduce the payback period. salutory reading to all project managers.6
There is also increasing emphasis on effective project manage- Consequently, it is necessary for the project objectives to be
ment and on the overall management of design and construc- ranked in terms of their relative importance. Tolerances must
tion. also be specified - as range of acceptable variation in perfor-
mance, float in the programme and tolerance and contingency
allowances in the estimate. The greater the perceived uncer-
33.2.3 Decision making and control
tainty, the more flexible these criteria must be. Unclear or ill-
Control is concerned with regulation of the future. This implies defined objectives will have a detrimental effect on decision
the ability to predict the consequences of specific courses of making and progress.
action and necessitates decision making under conditions of Thereafter, the monitoring of progress and performance
uncertainty. That is to say that the decision maker must choose against these objectives will determine the need for replanning,
a specific course of action from those available to him even revision of estimates and changes in project scope and specifica-
though the consequences of the possible courses of action will tions. The latter are normally reductions in work content or
depend on events that cannot be predicted with certainty. quality which are accepted in order to meet stringent financial
Decision making on construction projects is inextricably linked constraints. This approach is prevalent in public works pro-
with uncertainty and also frequently encounters conditions of jects,7 is disruptive, has an adverse effect on morale, and is likely
urgency and constraint. Many decisions are required during to lead to client or public dissatisfaction with the project
each of the stages listed above and may be influenced by a need however well the remainder of the work may be completed. Far
to keep options open or a need to reduce uncertainty. better to expose the uncertainties, allow for them in the estimate
The scope for control diminishes as the project proceeds. The and adopt realistic objectives in the first place.
key events for the client are sanction - when he commits himself Quality control demands effective liaison between design
to a project of particular characteristics - and contract award - office and the project management team both in terms of
when he commits himself to specific contractors and to major specification and verification of client requirements. Effective
cost expenditure. The contractor's commitment is, of course, inspection and testing procedures should be established and
made in his tender: thereafter he will exert control mainly agreed by all parties. There is a tendency for some clients to
through the allocation and use of resources. economize in the allocation of engineering staff to inspect
fabrication and supervise construction. When this follows the
award of a contract to a low bidder without prequalification it
33.2.4 Project management
does not surprise the Author that the client may be dissatisfied
The role of project management is to exercise overall control of with the completed works.
the project from its inception through to the completion of Quality Assurance systems can assist project management in
commissioning. Thus, the ultimate responsibility for project the setting and achievement of project objectives. According to
 a recent Construction Industry Research and Information Asso- 33.3 Commercial considerations and
ciation (CIRIA) report:8 cashflow
Quality Assurance is a systematic way of ensuring that
organised activities happen the way they are planned. It is a Projects and contracts involving engineering construction are
management discipline concerned with anticipating problems commercial ventures. Both the client promoting a project and a
and with creating the attitudes and controls which prevent contractor employed by him are investing money and taking
problems arising. financial risks in order to achieve some desired return. Project
and contract management is concerned with the control of both
The report continues: investment and risk with the aim of achieving this return.
Quality Assurance is concerned with systematically providing The client invests money in the realization of the project to
evidence to the client that all reasonable actions have been provide either a service or the production of goods. The project
taken to achieve the required quality. But it is also concerned is conceived and developed to meet a predicted demand for the
with spelling out the risks involved in any civil engineering services or goods: a motorway, a hospital, a power station and a
project, and advising the client on operation and mainten- shoe factory are all examples of projects. In the first two cases,
ance. the return obtained from the investment is represented by
benefit to the users, whereas the unit price charged for the
Properly practised, the system requires precision of communica- product of a commercial factory will be calculated to ensure an
tion and this, in the Author's opinion, is its greatest value to attractive profit to the investors. The power station must both
project management. provide a statutory service and make a small profit.
Quality Assurance is usually associated with manufactured The client may also be called the promoter or the employer.
products and with complex multi-disciplinary projects where He is concerned with the flow of money to and from the project
safety and quality of plant operation are the primary objectives. - the project cashflow - throughout the life of the project from
The application of such systems to any project should depend its conception to the end of some defined period of operation, a
on whether there is benefit. In the civil engineering context, care period that may extend over many years. Projects are conse-
must be taken to ensure that the adoption of a Quality Assur- quently capital intensive, i.e. a large amount of investment is
ance system does not result in rigid adherence to unnecessarily required over a long period of time before a substantial benefit is
demanding specifications. Neither must the system inhibit the achieved. This is well illustrated in Figure 33.3. Even in that
flexibility and judgement required for the management of the manufacturing project with a relatively short life cycle of 12
uncertainties associated with the one-off job. years, the client will have capital committed for almost 7 years
before a positive balance is shown in the project account.
33.2.6 Safety He may also enter into a legal agreement or contract with a
contractor, or a number of contractors, for the construction of
The nature of construction work makes it vulnerable to acci- the project. Contractors are commonly specialists in a particular
dents and project management must at all times enforce safety field and may also undertake the detailed design of their work if
procedures. This is an area where great benefit to the physical so required by the client.
well-being of staff, to morale and to the progress of the works A contractor's pattern of investment is very different and the
could be achieved by the adoption of effective safety Quality time-scale of his involvement is much shorter. His cashflow may
Assurance programmes.9-10 well comprise a substantial investment in construction plant,

Base case
Target completion date
Cumulative value ( million)

6 month delay in
commissioning

Reduced production
growth rate
Paybackperiod

Period number (months)

Figure 33.3 Cashflow diagram for new manufacturing
plant. Delay in commissioning the plant generates a significant
increase in capital investment
labour, and materials, particularly in the early stages of a
contract, offset by regular monthly payments received from the Total price
client for work completed. The contractor must apply his

Cumulative value ( million)

expertise to produce a method statement for construction, Total cost
assess the risks, and submit a tender that is both realistic and
competitive. His targets are defined in his estimate and tender;
thereafter he controls against them. The plan on which the

Contract completion
tender is based will represent the most efficient use of the
contractor's resources to achieve the work defined in the con- Predicted
tract documents. It follows that any delay or change in the work revenue (2)
content may also affect the timing of the flow of money to and
from the contractor, and may involve additional funding from
his capital as illustrated in the contract cashflow example given
in section 33.3.2 below. If the disruption is caused by the client,
the contractor will expect to be recompensed.
At any time, a contractor will probably be employed on a Contract duration (weeks)
variety of contracts in different locations for different clients and
will also be tendering for future work. His commercial skill is to
utilize a relatively small amount of capital and to 'turn it over'
as many times as possible by employing it to finance several

Cumulative value ( million)

contracts. The corporate cashflow and total financial risk will be
very sensitive to changes in the timing of flows of money. It is
important to appreciate the very different investment patterns
experienced by clients and contractors as these greatly influence
both attitudes and procedures adopted within the contractual
relationship.

33.3.1 Cashflow Revenue payment delayed

bv 6 weeks (4)
In order to quantify both the demand for money to meet the
project or contract costs and the pattern of income it will Revenue with mobilization fee (3
generate it is necessary to predict the cashflow. A cashflow is a
financial model of the project or contract which quantifies the
actual flow of money, i.e. it takes account of delays between
Contract duration (weeks)
incurring a commitment and making a money transaction. The
model is compiled simply by adding the costs and revenues to
every activity on a bar chart programme which extends over the
entire life-cycle of the project or contract.
Cumulative value ( million)

When developing cashflow it is vital to distinguish between

different categories of charge: Delay
(1) Fixed charges which occur when certain stages are reached, Planned completion

Actual completion
e.g. a mobilization payment at the start of a construction
contract.
(2) Time-related charges which are paid or received in regular
increments over a period of time, e.g. the cost of site Delayed
overheads, the weekly hire charge for a crane and pay- revenue
ments to employees. payment
(3) Quantity proportional charges which are related to the
quantity of material used or to the number of units of
production of a factory or power station. Contract duration (weeks)
(c)
Only in this way will it be possible to use the model to predict
realistically the effect on investment or return of such diverse Figure 33.4 Contract cashflow. The contractors' investment is
factors as variations in output, delay, disruption, cost or wast- sensitive to change in payment and to delay
age of materials.

between the curves represents the funding to be provided by the

33.3.2 Contract cashflow contractor. This would be considerably reduced if the client
The significance to the contractor's cashflow of different pat- agreed to a 10% advance mobilization payment (3), or increased
terns of payment from the client and of delays is illustrated in if payments were received late (4), as illustrated in Figure
Figure 33.4 by consideration of a small hypothetical contract of 33.4(b).
2 years' duration. The effect of delay in completion is also serious as cost
The estimated cost curve (1) is seen in Figure 33.4(a) to be a increases and payment for completed work is delayed (see
flat 'S' due to the dominance of time-related costs for resources Figure 33.4(c)). If the delay was caused by factors outside the
and overheads. The anticipated predicted revenue (2) assumes contractor's control, an extension of time may be granted and
monthly payments for work completed and a 4-week delay payment increased but this will depend on the circumstances
between certification and payment by client. The shaded area and the contract conditions.
 In all cases, the effect on the contractor's investment is and priorities defined for the job and be aware of constraints.
significant. The cumulative effects of reduction of credit by These will include: (1) restrictions on access to parts of the
suppliers, delay in payment by the client, perhaps on several works; (2) likely periods of bad weather which may inhibit
contracts, can be that a contractor will be led quickly into particular operations; and (3) availability of resources.
bankruptcy! Although the efficient use of key resources will be considered in
detail at a later stage of the refining process, awareness of levels
of skills, machines and materials likely to be available will, of
33.4 Construction planning course, aid the preparation of a realistic first draft.
Assumptions are invariably made as the plan is developed
The success of a project or contract will depend greatly on and it is essential that these should be stated clearly so that
careful and continuous planning. The activities of designers, everyone using it is aware of its validity.
manufacturers, suppliers and contractors must be organized When compiling the programme the planner is concerned
and integrated to meet the objectives set by the client and/or the with:
contractor. Sequences of activities will be defined and linked on
a time-scale to form the programme to ensure that priorities are (1) Resources: with the allocation and utilization of people
identified and that efficient use is made of expensive and/or with expertise and skills, fabrication facilities, construction
scarce resources within the perceived physical constraints affect- plant and materials.
ing the job. (2) Activities: packages of work which consume resources and
Remember, however, that because of the uncertain nature of are defined by considerations of:
construction work it should be expected that the plan will (a) the type of work (and therefore the type of resource
change. It must therefore be updated quickly and regularly if it required);
is to remain a guide to the most efficient way of completing the (b) the location of the work;
job. The programme should therefore be simple - so that (c) any restraints on the continuity of the activity.
updating is straightforward and does not demand the feedback Each activity will be identified and appear as a bar or other
of large amounts of data from busy men - and flexible, so that symbol on the programme.
all alternative courses of action are obvious. (3) Logic: with the relationships and links between activities
The purposes of planning are therefore: which will be represented by lines or arrows on the
programme. Most programmes will contain obvious se-
(1) To persuade people to perform their tasks before they quences of activities which will provide the basic shape of
delay the operations of other groups of people, and in such the diagram. It is also advantageous to identify any
a sequence that the best use is made of available resources. opportunity to overlap activities, i.e. an activity may start
(2) To communicate with those people. before the preceding one is completed. In this way the
(3) To provide a framework for decision making in the event overall duration of the job may be minimized, frequently
of change. with consequential savings in cost. Initially each activity
should be shown at its earliest possible start.
It is difficult to enforce a plan which is conceived in isolation, (4) Duration of each activity which is a function of the
and it is therefore essential continually to involve the people quantity of work to be done, the number of units of
responsible for the constituent operations and to encourage resource allocated to the activity, and their predicted
their commitment as the plan is developed and revised. Ideally, output.
it should provide a flexible framework within which they can It is important to think of duration in this way as all
exercise their own initiative. these factors may be variable. The quantity of work, e.g.
Programmes are required at various stages in the contract; volume of excavation or number of drawings, may be more
when considering feasibility or sanction, at the precontract stage or less than originally estimated, one or more teams may be
and during the contract. They are required by the client and the allocated to the activity, and their predicted production
contractors. They may be used for initial budget control or for may or may not be achieved. Any change will affect the
day-to-day construction work. They may pertain to one con- activity duration and in turn alter the overall demand for
tract, or a number of contracts in one large project. resources, the total duration of the job, the cost and the
Before compiling a programme, the planner is therefore faced cashflow.
with a number of decisions and must decide on:
The initial allocation of resources to an activity will be a matter
(1) The appropriate level of detail for the programme. The of judgement and is quite likely to be changed subsequently.
golden rule is to keep it simple. A programme of 100
activities is easy to comprehend; one of 1000 activities is (5) Potential problems and uncertainties must be identified and
not. Initially, divide the job into the minimum number of the implications and possible responses considered. The
large work packages and develop detajft later only in greater the uncertainty, the more flexible the programme
specific areas where it is required due to^the complexity of must be in order to provide alternative courses of action.
the work or when there is need to determine precise This may be achieved either by allocating additional re-
resource requirements. sources or by extending the contract duration. In either
(2) The choice of programming technique. Particularly import- case, the estimated cost will increase and it is therefore
ant in this choice is the level of management at which the essential to link the programme with the cost forecast.
programme is to be used, and the level of detail required. (6) Overall duration of the job calculated when all the activities
The main programming techniques are given in section at their assumed durations have been assembled within the
33.4.3 below. overriding constraints which form the framework of the
programme.
33.4.1 Compiling a programme
This is a process of repeated refinement. Before sketching out 33.4.2 Resource scheduling
the first draft, the planner must be familiar with the objectives Whichever programming technique is used, the next important
 Establish site
Divert drain KEY
Block / A / Foundations Foundations
Brickwork Bricklaying
Carpentry Carpentry
Finishing
Block 'B' Foundations Finishing
Brickwork Concrete frame
Carpentry
Finishing
Block 1C' Foundations
Brickwork
Carpentry
Finishing
Block 'D' Foundations
Brickwork
Carpentry
Finishing
5 store
block
Y Foundations
Concrete
frame ~
Brickwork _._
Finishing
Shops & Foundations
maisonettes Concrete
frame
Brickwork
Finishing
Miscellaneous

HISTOGRAM SHOWING
DEPLOYMENT OF
BRICKLAYERS

Figure 33.5 Bar chart programme. The work is organized to

achieve the project objectives and efficient use of resources
step in refining the plan would be to consider the overall major advantage is that the computer may be utilized to explore
demand for key resources. The definition of key resources is many possible combinations of the timing of individual activi-
likely to differ for different types of project and particularly for ties in order to achieve really efficient use of resources. Networks
their location. Consideration will be given especially to those are rarely the best method of communication with the people
resources which are scarce and/or expensive. It is clear that the actually responsible for performing the constituent activities,
adjustment, or levelling, of one resource will have an effect on and the results of the analyses will normally be translated into
the usage of others. Generally, resource levelling is only applied some other form of working programme such as a bar chart.
to a few resources, particularly if it is being done manually. The
use of a computer can allow greater sophistication. Precedence diagrams and activity networks. The Author advo-
cates the use of a simple precedence system which is illustrated
in Figure 33.1. This system utilizes preprinted node-sheets and
33.4.3 Programming techniques thereby enables the engineer to devote less time to drawing and
33.4.3.1 Bar charts more to planning. It also offers a simple method of overlapping
activities and is easy to update and revise. Individual activities
The best form of plan for site use is the bar chart (a simple are represented by rectangular nodes which are linked by
example is shown in Figure 33.5). In this example the planner dependency lines to form the network.
was required to give priority to construction of blocks A and B Several overlaps are shown in the example. The figure 7 on the
and to complete the housing development in 82 weeks. Brick- dependency line between activities 7 and 13 indicates that
layers were seen to be the key resource. Note the following construction of the plant should start a maximum of 7 months
aspects of the diagram: before completion of design. It has been the Author's experience
that it is the activity durations and overlaps which change most
(1) Each activity is shown in its scheduled position which frequently when updating a programme. Consequently, he has
results in efficient use of resources. The histogram shows found that definition of overlaps in this simple manner simpli-
continuous use of the same teams of bricklayers. fies revision of the programme.
(2) The logic of the inter-relationship of activities and move- Float is also identified quickly from the diagram. The imposi-
ment of resource teams is shown clearly. tion of fixed start and completion dates in this example has
(3) The space within the bars can be used for figures of output resulted in all activities displaying at least 1 month of total
or resource demand, and there is room beneath to mark float - as calculated from the difference between earliest and
actual progress. latest start of any activity.
(4) Important constraints and key dates are marked to ensure Precedence diagrams provide an excellent basis for the deve-
that these are clearly communicated to all concerned with lopment of cost models as illustrated when Figure 33.1 is
the project. extended to cover the operational phase of the project in Figure
(5) Five weeks of float have been allowed. 33.2.

33.4.3.2 Line of balance 33.5 Cost estimating

This simple technique was developed for house building and is
also useful for other forms of repetitive work, such as producing Estimates of cost and time are prepared and revised at many
and distributing prefabricated units. The axes are the number of stages throughout the development of a project or contract.
completed units and time: the work of each gang appears as an They are all predictions of the final outcome of the job and the
inclined line, the inclination being related to the output of the degree of realism and confidence achieved will depend on the
gang.11 level of definition of the work and the extent of risk and
uncertainty. Consequently, the accuracy of successive estimates
should improve as the project or contract develops. The most
33.4.3.3 Locationtime diagram important estimates prepared are probably for a project, at
In cross-country jobs such as major roadworks, the erection of sanction, and for a contract, at tender, for it is at these points
transmission lines, or pipelaying, the performance of individual that the client and contractor become committed.
activities will be greatly affected by their location and the
various physical conditions encountered. Restricted access to
the works, the relative positions of cuttings and embankments, 33.5.1 Requirements of an estimate
sources of materials from quarries and temporary borrowpits, The requirements of an estimate are:
the need to provide temporary or permanent crossings for
watercourses, roads and railways, and the nature of the ground, (1) To predict the most probable cost of the works and also to
will all influence the continuity of the construction work. The define the range within which the final cost is likely to lie.
output achieved by similar resources of men and machines may (2) To produce a forecast of expenditure: the cashflow based
vary when they are working in different locations. In such on the project programme.
circumstances the programme may best be developed on axes of
location and time on which all obstacles or features may be These predictions will be influenced by factors peculiar to the
marked. The work of each resource team will again appear as an particular project under consideration. Location, logistics,
inclined bar with inclination related to the output of the gang.12 weather, availability and capacity of resources and market
factors will all affect the final price. The estimate must therefore
be compiled with the circumstances of the project clearly in
33.4.3.4 Network analysis mind and all assumptions, uncertainties and exclusions should
These techniques are used to evaluate programmes where com- be stated. Ideally, any estimate should be presented as a most
plex or multiple relationships exist between a number of activi- probable value and a tolerance together with a range of less
ties. The greatest benefit is the discipline imposed on the planner likely values to emphasize that it is an estimate.
when compiling the logic of the network, i.e. when specifying It is important to realize that the precise value of a specific
the individual activities and the links between them. A further single-figure estimate made at an early stage of the project or
contract is most unlikely to be achieved due to the uncertainty tion, or 'built-up' rates from his own analysis. As the
associated with civil engineering work. technique relies on historical data it is subject to the
general dangers outlined above.
The technique is most appropriate to building and
33.5.2 Cost-estimating techniques repetitive work where the allocation of costs to specific
All these techniques rely on historical data of some kind and it is operations is reasonably well-defined. It is essential that
prudent to note the following points: the rates are selected from an adequate sample of similar
work with reasonably constant levels of productivity and
(1) Ideally, the data should be from a sufficiently large sample limited distortions arising from construction risks and
of similar work in a similar location and constructed in uncertainties, e.g. access problems. The technique is less
similar circumstances. Unfortunately, this is rarely the case appropriate for civil engineering where the method of
and corrections have to be applied. construction is more variable and where the uncertainties
(2) Cost data needs to be related to a specific historical date, of ground conditions are more significant.
chosen with care. Historical costs must be corrected for The unit rate technique does not demand an examina-
inflation, changes in exchange rates and market factors. tion of the programme or method of construction and the
estimate is frequently compiled by the direct application of
The five basic estimating techniques available to the estimator historical 'prices'. It therefore does not require an analysis
are summarized below. of the real costs of the work, neither does it encourage
consideration of the peculiarities, constraints and risks
(1) Global. This term describes the 'broadest brush' category affecting the particular project. Nevertheless, unit rate
of technique which is derived from libraries of achieved estimating is probably the most frequently used technique.
costs of similar projects related to the overall size or It can result in reliable estimates when practised by exper-
capacity of the asset provided. This technique may also be ienced estimators with good, intuitive judgement and the
known as 'rule-of-thumb' or 'ballpark' estimating. Ex- ability to assess the realistic programme and circumstances
amples are: of the work.
(a) cost per square metre of building floor area or per (5) Operational (resource-cost). This is the fundamental esti-
cubic metre of building volume; mating technique wherein the total cost of the work is
(b) cost per megawatt capacity of power stations; compiled from consideration of the constituent operations
(c) cost per kilometre of roads; or activities defined in the construction method statement
(d) cost per tonne of output for process plants. and programme and from the accumulated demand for
The technique relies entirely on historical data and there- resources. Labour, plant and materials are costed at cur-
fore must be used in conjunction with inflation indices and rent rates. The advantage of working in current costs is
a judgement of the influence of the construction market obtained.
appropriate to the envisaged timing of the project. Global The most difficult data to obtain are the productivities of
estimates can only be used to give a rough indication of the labour and construction plant in the geographical location
order of cost in the appraisal and definition stages of and special circumstances of the project under consider-
project development. ation. Claimed outputs of plant are obtainable from sup-
(2) Factorial. These techniques are used widely for early pliers' handbooks but these need to be reviewed in the light
estimates of the cost of process plants, power stations, etc. of actual experience. Labour productivities will vary from
where the core of the project consists of major items of site to site depending on management, organization, indus-
plant which can be identified and for which current budget trial relations, site conditions, etc. and also from country to
prices may be obtained from suppliers. country.
The techniques provide factors for a comprehensive list The operational technique is, by far, the best method of
of peripheral costs such as pipework, electrics, instruments, evaluating uncertainties and risks, particularly those likely
structures and foundations. The estimate for each peri- to cause delay.12 Because the technique exposes the basic
pheral will be the product of its factor and the estimate for sources of costs, the sensitivities of the estimate to alterna-
the main plant item.13 tive assumptions/methods can be investigated easily and
A detailed programme is not a necessity but it is recom- the reasons for variations in cost appreciated. It also
mended that one is prepared. This will be valuable particu- provides a detailed current cost/time basis for the applica-
larly in identifying problems of construction which will go tion of inflation forecasts and, hence, the compilation of a
undetected if the technique is applied in a purely arithmeti- project cashflow.
cal way, and is required for cashflow prediction. The This is the most reliable estimating technique for civil
technique has the considerable advantage of being predo- engineering work. Compilation is relatively painstaking
minantly based on current costs, thereby taking account of and time consuming compared with other techniques, but
market conditions and needing little, if any, reliance on when preparing an operational estimate the estimator will
inflation indices. Factorial techniques are not normally gain a realistic appreciation of the risk and special circum-
reliable for site works. stances of the project.
(3) Manhours. This technique is only suitable for labour-
intensive construction, design-office activities, and opera-
tions such as mechanical erection work where reliable
records of hourly productivity of different trades are 33.6 Project appraisal
available. The total manhours estimated for a given opera-
tion are then costed at the current labour rates and added Project appraisal is a process of investigation, review, and
to the costs of materials and equipment. The advantages of evaluation undertaken as the project or alternative concepts of
working in current costs is obtained. the project are defined. This study is designed to assist the client
(4) Unit rates. The estimator selects historical rates or prices to reach informed and rational choices concerning the nature
for each item in the bill of quantities using either informa- and scale of investment in the project. The core of the process is
tion from recent similar contracts, or published informa- an economic evaluation - based on a cashflow analysis of all
costs and benefits which can be valued in money terms - which The simple precedence diagram (Figure 33.1) has been de-
is also therefore called cost/benefit analysis. veloped into a flow chart (Figure 33.2) and extended to include
Appraisal is likely to be a cyclical process repeated as new 9 years of plant operation. The diagram also gives some
ideas are developed, additional information received and uncer- indication of the patterns of costs and revenue.
tainty reduced until the client is able to make the critical The plant is designed for development in two stages, the first
decision to sanction implementation of the project and commit with a manufacturing capacity of 5000 units and the second
the investment in anticipation of the predicted return. raising this to the maximum of 8000 units. During an appraisal
study, uncertainty frequently exists with regard to the demand
for the product and is indicated by the definition of a range of
33.6.1 Risk and uncertainty possible output. The forecast curve assumes a 20% per annum
The greatest degree of uncertainty about the future is encoun- growth in the market but a range of 15 to 25% is considered
tered early in the life of a new project. Decisions taken during possible. If the growth rate fell below the favoured 20% it is
the appraisal stage can have a very large impact on final cost, likely that stage 2 would not be implemented.
duration and benefits. The extent and effects of change are If all the predictions of costs, revenues, markets and pro-
frequently underestimated during this phase although these are gramme over the 12-year project life were correct, the project
often considerable, particularly in developing countries and would require maximum investment of 4.96 million and would
remote locations. ultimately generate a surplus of 18.5 million as shown in the
At this stage, the engineering and project management input basecase cumulative cashflow curve (the full line in Figure 33.3).
will normally concentrate on providing: Other parameters used to quantify this investment could be:

(1) Realistic estimates of capital and running costs. Payback period 80 months
(2) Realistic time-scales and programmes for project imple- Net present value @ 10% discount rate 6.13 million
mentation. Internal rate of return (i.r.r.) 27.6%
(3) Appropriate specifications for performance standards.
and it is strongly advised that a similar range of criteria are
At appraisal, the level of project definition is likely to be low and employed when determining any investment.
therefore risk response should be characterized by a broad- It is, of course, most unlikely that those precise values will be
brush approach.14 It is recommended that effort should be achieved due to all the risks and uncertainties which exist at the
concentrated on: early stage of project development. The chain line in Figure 33.3
indicates that, should the market growth rate be only 15%, the
(1) Seeking solutions which avoid/reduce risk. surplus would be reduced to 12.8 million and i.r.r. to 22.9%.
(2) Considering whether the extent or nature of the major risks The obvious effect of a 6-month delay in completion of the
are such that the normal transfer routes may be unavail- plant, shown by the broken line in Figure 33.3 would be to
able or particularly expensive. reduce the surplus to 15.9 million and i.r.r. to 23.7%. A far
(3) Outlining any special treatments which may need to be more serious consequence could be loss of the market to a
considered for risk transfer, e.g. for insurance or uncon- competitor.
ventional contractual arrangements.
(4) Setting realistic contingencies and estimating tolerances
consistent with the objective of preparing the best estimate
of anticipated total project cost.
(5) Identifying comparative differences in the riskiness of
alternative project schemes.

Engineers/project managers will usually have less responsibility

for identifying the revenues and benefits from the project: this is
Internal rate of return (%)

usually the function of marketing or development planning

departments. The involvement of engineers/project managers in
the planning team is recommended as the appraisal is essentially
a multi-disciplinary brainstorming exercise through which the
client seeks to evaluate all alternative ways of achieving his
objectives.
For many projects this assessment is complex, as not all the
benefits/disbenefits may be quantifiable in monetary terms. For
others it may be necessary to consider the development in the
context of several different scenarios (or views of the future). In
all cases, the predictions are concerned with the future needs of
the customer or community. They must span the overall period
of development and operations of the project which is likely to
range from a minimum of 8 or 10 years for a plant manufactur-
ing consumer products, to 30 years for a power station and
much longer for public works projects. Phasing of the develop-
ment should always be considered.

33.6.2 Project evaluation % change in variable

The process of economic evaluation and the extent of uncer- Figure 33.6 New manufacturing plant: sensitivity diagram.
tainty associated with project development is illustrated by the This 'spider' diagram communicates the relative effect of major
appraisal of a hypothetical new manufacturing plant. variables on the viability of the project
 The effect on the investment of variation in a whole range of
factors is well shown in the sensitivity diagram (Figure 33.6).
Each variable is considered independently and it is obvious that
market factors are dominant. Delay in completion is also shown
to have a serious effect on the return obtained from the
investment. The great value of this diagram is that it indicates
where further effort is needed to reduce uncertainty, perhaps by
additional market surveys in this case. It also suggests that
management policy must give priority to timely completion of

Probability (%)
the plant.
In practice, a combination of all these uncertainties and risks
is likely to be experienced and a better prediction of the

prediction 27.6%
probable range of outcome of this project can be obtained from
the cumulative probability diagram (Figure 33.7). This diagram
is generated by substituting 1000 combinations of these factors

Original
in the basic model on a random basis in a Monte Carlo
simulation.14-16 The base case prediction is seen to be optimistic
when uncertainties are taken into account as there is a 77%
probability that i.r.r. will be less than 27.6%. It is predicted that
there is 50/50 chance of achieving an i.r.r. of 21% but that
extreme values of zero and 40% are just possible. Although
analyses of this type require judgement to be made on the likely
range and probability distribution of each variable, the Author
strongly recommends that this discipline of a rigorous risk
analysis is adopted for all major projects.
The output of power and market factors is also seen to
Internal rate of return (%)
dominate the sensitivity diagram for a real project, the proposed Figure 33.7 New manufacturing plant: cumulative
Severn tidal power scheme,15 (see Figure 33.8). Again, the most probability diagram. There is a 77% probability that the internal
sensitive engineering factors are delays in completion of the rate of return will be less than the base case prediction of 27.6%
works and installations of the turbines.

Variable
Cost of turbines
Installation of turbines
Delay in construction
Material embankment cost
Dredging and foundation cost
Transmission cost
Energy output
Change in variable (%)

Mechanical maintenance
Civil maintenance

NPV ( million)
Figure 33.8 Severn tidal power scheme: sensitivity
analysis. The amount of power produced, the selling price, and the
delay in completion of the project again have the most serious
effect on project viability
33.7 Engineering contracts (2) The organizational system for design and construction.
(3) The type of contract.
Construction work of all types is normally undertaken by a (4) The Conditions of Contract and other contract docu-
contractor, a specialist in the particular field of work, who is ments.
employed for this purpose by the client. In most cases, the client (5) The tendering procedure.
will invite a number of suitable contractors to submit tenders
and subsequently will award the contract on the basis of the The project manager must then choose from the optious avail-
lowest realistic and acceptable tendered price. able within each of these five strategic areas.
This approach is adopted worldwide and has led to the
development of well-defined systems of working and Standard
Conditions of Contract for different types of work. Each of 33.7.2 Choice of contract type
these traditional procedures has been developed to meet a There are three essential requirements of any contract:
particular set of circumstances and will work well, provided
their limitations are accepted, as the associated case law is well (1) Incentive. The aim is to provide an adequate incentive for
established. efficient performance from the contractor. This must be
It is, however, important for engineers to realize that, because reflected by an incentive for the client to provide appropri-
of the diversity of both construction work and clients' require- ate information and support in a timely manner.
ments, no single uniform approach to contractual arrangements (2) Flexibility. The aim is to provide the client with sufficient
can be specified or advocated. A number of alternative strategies flexibility to introduce change which can be anticipated but
are available to the client and each contract should be formu- not defined at the tender stage. An important and related
lated with the specific job in mind. For example, a client may requirement is that the contract should provide for syste-
wish to be directly involved in site management or may prefer to matic and equitable evaluation of such changes.
delegate this responsibility entirely to the contractor, the need (3) Risk sharing. The aim should be to allocate all risk between
for early completion of the work may dictate that the contractor client and contractor. This must take account of the
is appointed before design is completed, risks may be appor- management and control of the effects of risks which
tioned in various ways between the parties, the contractor may materialize. The contractor will include a risk contingency
be required to undertake the detailed design or to provide sum in his tender as protection against the risks he has been
varying amounts of finance - these and many other consider- asked to carry.
ations will all influence the client's contract strategy.
Obviously, this strategy will also be greatly affected by the The inter-relationship of these requirements with the type of
nature of the work to be completed under the contract. The contract is demonstrated in Figure 33.9 in which the require-
fabrication and positioning of an offshore oil production plat- ments are expressed in terms of contractor's incentive, client's
form is a high-risk venture which may involve advanced or new flexibility and exposure to risk. It is apparent that, generally, a
technology and will be subject to severe time constraints. The contractor's incentive and a client's flexibility tend to be incom-
contract for building a chemical plant may include the provision patible. For example, a lump-sum contract imposes maximum
of unique process know-how offered by the contractor who will incentive on the contractor but also implies a very high level of
consequently undertake detailed design, construction and com- constraint on the client against introducing change. The con-
missioning of the plant. Tunnelling implies uncertainty - and verse is true at the other extreme of a cost-reimbursable plus
therefore risk - about ground conditions, whilst minor road- percentage fee contract.
works or house building are likely to involve repetitive use of There are many detailed points of difference between the
traditional techniques with relatively little financial risk and the various types of contract. Those of most importance to the
overriding requirement of minimum cost.16 client in making an appropriate choice are summarized below.

33.7.1 Contract strategy

The term 'contract strategy' is used to describe the organizatio- Lump SUIT
nal and contractual policies chosen for the execution of a
specific project.17 The development of a contract strategy is an Lump sum + variations
important task for the client or his project manager. It com-
Bills of quantities
Employer's flexibility

prises a thorough assessment of the choices available for the

implementation and management of design and construction. A
pattern of inter-related decisions is required which seeks to Schedule of rates
maximize the likelihood of achievement of key project objec-
tives. The selected strategy is likely to be optimal in that it must
satisfy a variety of constraints and be sufficiently robust to Target cosl
withstand the uncertainty associated with the project.
The decisions taken during the development of a contract Cost + fixed fee
strategy affect: (1) the responsibilities of the parties; (2) they
influence the control of design, construction and commissioning
and, hence, the co-ordination of the parties; (3) they allocate
risk and define policies for risk management; and (4) they define Cost +
the extent of control transferred to contractors. Therefore, they % fee
affect cost, time and quality. Employer's risk Max.
The first step in the development of a contract strategy is to
identify the areas which constitute the strategic choices. These Contractor's MJn.
are: incentive
(1) The project management objectives as defined by the Figure 33.8 Characteristics of different types of
client. construction contract
33.7.3 The main types of contract building construction but are rarely appropriate to civil engi-
Types of contract are virtually classified by their payment neering works. In these systems, an external organization - the
system: (1) price-based - lump sum and admeasurement (prices management contractor or construction manager - is employed
or rates are submitted by the contractor in his tender); and (2) specifically to manage and co-ordinate design and construction
cost-based - cost-reimbursable and target cost (the actual costs on behalf of the client. The systems are frequently adopted to
incurred by the contractor are reimbursed, together with a fee achieve early completion of the project by 'fast tracking' or by
for overheads and profit). overlapping and integrating design and construction. They are
most appropriate for construction which can be split into a
series of well-defined contract packages, each of which is
33.7.2.1 Price-based contracts awarded immediately the relevant design is completed.
The management contractor is normally employed on a cost-
Lump-sum contracts. Lump-sum contracts are based on a reimbursable basis and, although the construction contracts are
single price tendered for the whole works. Payment may be of the familiar admeasurement form, it is important to realize
staged at time intervals or related to achieved milestones. Lump that the allocation of risk between the parties may be considera-
sum does not necessarily imply a fixed price; in particular, price bly changed.2
may be adjusted for cost escalation.
The implications are that complete, final design is available at
tender and that minimal changes or variations are expected. No
contractual mechanism is specified for price adjustment and 33.8 Contractual measurement and
such contracts are therefore rarely used in engineering construc- valuation
tion.
A high degree of tender competition may be achieved and the The type of contract, the level of detail required in contractual
price may include a high level of financing by contractor. measurement and the method of valuation of the work are inter-
related.
Admeasurement contracts. These are based on bills of quanti- Several procedures are provided in admeasurement contracts
ties or schedules of rates in which items of work are specified for civil engineering works for valuation and payment in respect
with quantities. Contractors then tender unit rates or prices of changes to the work defined in the contract documents.
against each item. Payment is usually monthly and is derived
from measuring quantities of completed work and valuing at (1) Changes to quantities of measured work listed in the bill of
rates in the tender, or new rates negotiated from tender rates. quantities are priced on a pro rata basis, the actual
Mechanisms are provided for adjusting both price and time, quantity of work completed being substituted for the
as discussed in section 33.8 in the likely event of change. This original estimated figure in the final account. Under the
facility to introduce limited variation is frequently abused and Institution of Civil Engineers19 and Federation Internatio-
design may be only partially complete at tender. Extensive nale des Ingenieuers Confeils (FIDIC). Conditions of
change and delay will generate claims and the final price is Contract there is, in theory, no limit to the adjustment
invariably different from the tender total. The price will include permitted to any quantity but it should be noted that under
an allowance for any financing required by the contractor and a Clause 56(2) of the former (fifth edition) the tendered rate
risk contingency. may be varied following such adjustment. In some other
Conditions of Contract, a definite range of adjustment to
Cost-reimbursable contracts. These are based on payment of quantity, over which the tendered rate is deemed to be
actual cost incurred by the contractor plus a specified fee for valid, is specified.
overheads and profit. The contractor's cost accounts are open to (2) Variations to the work defined in the contract may be
audit by the client (Openbook Accounting). Payments may be ordered by the Engineer who will issue a written variation
monthly in advance, in arrears, or from an imprest account. order. The Engineer is empowered to fix the value of the
Cost-reimbursible contracts are normally used when the work covered by the variation order after consultation
client wishes to employ a contractor at an early stage of project with the contractor and, wherever possible, utilizing ten-
definition and design, or when there are major risks associated dered rates in the bill of quantities. Should the contractor
with the contract. There is little contractual incentive for the dispute the engineer's valuation, the contractor may claim
contractor to perform and the final price will depend both on additional payment.
the extent to which risks materialize and on the efficiency of the (3) The contractor may also claim additional payment and/or
contractor. The client carries the risk and will therefore require extension of time should he incur additional cost on
to participate in contract management. account of 'unforeseen conditions' or delay. The Engineer
will assess the value of each claim from evidence submitted
Target-cost contracts. Target cost is based on the setting of a by the contractor.
probable (or target) cost for the work. The target cost will The Engineer is empowered to settle all disputes between
subsequently be adjusted for major changes in the work and cost the client and the contractor. If either party is dissatisfied
inflation. The contractor's actual costs are monitored and with his decision they may then resort to arbitration.
reimbursed as in a cost-reimbursable contract. Any difference
between actual cost and target cost is shared in a specified way 33.8.1 Bills of quantities
between the client and the contractor. There is a separate fee for
overheads and profit. The conventional British and international civil engineering
By using target-cost contracts, it has been possible to achieve contracts are of the admeasurement type wherein the contract
a high degree of collaboration between the parties. They are price is accumulated in the bills of quantities. These list and
most suitable for high-risk contracts where the work content is quantify the constituent items of work, each of which is priced
well defined, such as tunnels.18 individually by a tendering contractor. The quantities of work
are stated to be the best estimate which can be made by the
Engineer prior to tender: all work items are subsequently
33.7.4 Management contracting remeasured during the course of the contract and valued at the
Various forms of management contract are widely used in rates tendered by the successful contractor.
 The bill of quantities is one of the contract documents and has completed work. Method-related charges are introduced to
several main functions: permit tenderers to enter their own items in the first section of
the bill of quantities for any operations whose costs are not
(1) To itemize and quantify the elements of work to be directly linked to the quantities of permanent works. The rates
completed within the contract. entered against the bill of quantities are consequently more
(2) To facilitate comparison of tender prices. realistic and are dominated by material costs.
(3) Interim and final valuation of completed work. The principal improvements in measurement procedures are
(4) Evaluation of change and variation. seen to be:

(1) Items and prices take account of method of construction.

33.8.2 The concepts incorporated in the traditional (2) Systematic evaluation of variations and claims arising
bills of quantities from disruption and delay.
The admeasurement contract developed from the lump-sum (3) Greater similarity between cost and price.
contract in order to provide essential flexibility as jobs become
larger and more complex and the traditional admeasurement The production of estimates in an operational form which is
procedures and bills of quantities have been developed from the directly related to his programme has greatly facilitated cost
following simple concepts: forecasting by the contractor. Similarly the separation of
method-related charges in the bill of quantities permits the
(1) All prices are deemed to be proportional to the quantity of meaningful correlation of price and time which is essential for
work completed: all quantities are remeasured on comple- cashflow forecasts by the contractor, budget forecasts by the
tion of the contract. client and the mutual evaluation of contractual changes.
(2) The client will pay only for completed permanent works. Important points to note are:
(3) The payment lines are specified.
(4) The contractor can price the component items in any way (1) Method-related charges are specified as either fixed or
he wishes. time-related and are entered in the Preliminary and General
(5) The tender price is to be the total price for completing the section of the bill of quantities. They are all priced as Lump
works specified in the contract documents. Sums.
(2) Where the contractor enters such method-related items
arising from his method of construction, they must be
33.8.3 Development of the bills of quantities defined in sufficient detail for the Engineer to be able to
The simple and expedient procedures outlined above proved identify the particular resource.
acceptable and equitable for repetitive and labour-intensive (3) It is most important to note what method-related charges
work. They are rarely adequate nowadays for the evaluation of are not subject to remeasurement. They may, however, be
plant-intensive work or for contracts including significent items adjusted where relevant under a variation order.
of temporary work when there is a significant incidence of
variation or delay. There are several reasons for this. The prices 33.8.5 Pricing and tendering policy
entered in the traditional bill of quantities rarely represent the
true cost of completing the work defined in the individual items The contractor may translate cost into the priced items in the
as the contractor's costs are not all directly related to the bill of quantities in any way he wishes, i.e. he may separate all or
quantity of work completed. It follows that any adjustment of some of his method-related charges and 'weight' items to
price resulting from a change in quantity of a particular item is improve cashflow. In doing so, he must consider both the effect
unlikely to represent the true variation in cost. on his investment and the possible consequences of variations to
A significant part of a contractor's costs are time-related and the work defined in the bill of quantities. The incentive for a
it is these costs which are affected by disruption or delay. Time- contractor to separate method-related charges normally stems
related charges are not, however, separated in the traditional bill from an improvement in cashflow; in consequence, he provides
of quantities and it is therefore not possible to evaluate systema- less investment and may reduce his tender price.
tically the very issues which are a major source of contractual
claims.
As the incidences of change and variation have increased, 33.9 Project management
various attempts to improve measurement and valuation pro-
cedures have included: The responsibility of the project manager normally spans de-
sign, construction and commissioning. His function is to control
(1) Additional 'preliminary' items for overheads and specified the sequence of events and decisions leading to the completion
facilities to be provided by the contractor. of the project. Indecision is costly, as resources - design teams,
(2) Separation of major temporary works items. manufacturers and contractors - are employed and will require
(3) Limits on the range of permissible variation for individual compensation if their work is disrupted. Nevertheless, change is
billed items and for the total extent of variation within the a characteristic of the engineering phase of projects involving
contract. construction and the project manager must be prepared to take
(4) Separation of 'method-related' charges. the necessary corrective action.
If he is to fulfil his task of control of the realization of the
project on behalf of the client, the project manager cannot
33.8.4 Method-related charges divorce decisions taken on engineering matters from all other
Systematic evaluation of a range of changes and variations, factors affecting the investment. Control may only be achieved
including delays, may be achieved by the separation of method- by regular reappraisal of the project as a whole so that the
related charges in the bill of quantities. This approach was current situation in the design office, on fabrication, on the
introduced in the British Civil Engineering Standard Method of supply of materials, and on site may be related to the latest
Measurement (CESMM) in 197620 and moves away from the market predictions. If this is done the advantage to be gained,
concept that all charges are proportional to quantities of say, from early access of land may be equated with any
additional costs in full knowledge of the value of early or timely and the future: time devoted to the reporting and collec-
completion. The continual updating of a simple 'time and tion of historical data should be kept to a minimum.
money' model of the project originally compiled for appraisal as In his planning, the client must take a broad view of the
illustrated in section 33.6 will greatly facilitate effective control project and aim to co-ordinate design, construction,
during the engineering phase.21 commissioning and subsequent operation and mainten-
ance. Interaction of contractors, access, statutory require-
ments and public relations must all be considered.
33.9.1 Guidelines for project management
A contractor will plan in more detail and aim to achieve
The project management process is briefly summarized below: continuous and efficient deployment of his resources.
Because of the greater likelihood of change, the contrac-
(1) The success of a project or contract depends greatly on tor's programme should be flexible and subject to con-
the management effort expended by the client prior to stant review.
sanction and by both parties prior to award of a contract. (8) The plan used by senior staff should clearly show the
(2) The client commits himself to investment in the project on financial consequences of alternative courses of action
the basis of the appraisal completed prior to sanction. and of indecision. It is therefore convenient to develop the
The appraisal must be realistic and identify all risk, plan as a time-and-money model of the project or con-
uncertainties and potential problem areas. Single-figure tract which will react realistically to changes in timing,
estimates are misleading and should be supported by method, content and cost of work. Realism is largely
figures showing the range of likely outcome of the invest- dependent on the correct definition and allocation of
ment. costs and revenues as either fixed, time-related or quan-
(3) The client has a crucial role to play during implemen- tity-proportional charges.
tation of the project, and the early appointment of an Time-related costs are significant in all types of con-
experienced project manager to pursue his interests is struction work and predominate in many civil engineering
essential. He must be supported by an adequate project projects. Adherence to the programmed time schedule for
team set up in good time. The function of this team is co- the work will therefore also control both cost and invest-
ordination of all aspects of the project and particularly ment.
the contribution of the client organization. (9) Time lost at the beginning of a project can rarely be
The prime roles of the project manager are to drive the recovered: particular attention must therefore be given to
project forward and to think ahead; he must therefore the start-up of the project. Similarly, sufficient time must
delegate routine functions and concern himself with any be allowed for mobilization by each contractor.
problem areas. (10) Consideration of alternative contract strategies will fre-
(4) It is essential that project management ensures that the quently focus attention on deficiency of information and
client clearly defines the project objectives together with on the problems which will hinder the project objectives.
the ranking of their relative importance. The likelihood of Selection of an appropriate contract strategy at an early
a successful project is greatly improved when all key stage of project implementation is perhaps the most
managers of design, construction and supporting groups important single activity of the project management team.
are fully informed and committed to these objectives. The (11) Appointment of a contractor on the sole criterion of
project objectives should also be communicated to the lowest bid price will not necessarily lead to a harmonious
other parties (contractors, consultants, etc.) involved in contractual relationship. The lowest tender may not pro-
project implementation. duce the lowest contract price.
The dominant considerations must be fitness for pur- Both parties are making their commitment at this point
pose of the completed project and safety during both the and should be fully aware of both the client's objectives
construction and operation phases. Thereafter, the nor- and the contractual responsibilities.
mal primary project objectives are concerned with cost, Selective tendering followed by rigorous bid appraisal,
time and quality. These are inter-related and may conflict. including study of the contractor's programme and re-
The fact that the client does not see any return on his source allocation, will do much to ensure that the con-
investment until the project is commissioned suggests that tractor has not misjudged the job and that his price is
timely completion should be a prime objective. realistic. The production of his own operational type of
(5) Engineering projects are normally of short duration and cost estimate will greatly aid the project manager in this
are completed against a demanding time-scale. Adequate appraisal.
staff of the right quality must therefore be appointed and The client must check that all his obligations can be
given training in the appropriate techniques and pro- honoured before award of the contract.
cedures. All staff concerned with contract management (12) The items in the bill of quantities or other contractual
must be familiar with the contractual procedures financial document should reflect the method of construc-
employed. tion. Similarity between the tendered prices and the
(6) Although the scope of the project will be agreed at contractor's costs will greatly aid evaluation of change
sanction it is probable that conceptual design, which will and equitable adjustment of price for inflation.
determine the final layout and size of the functional units, (13) Throughout the implementation period of the project the
will follow early in the engineering phase. It is recom- client or his representative will inspect and approve the
mended by the Author that the conceptual design is quality of workmanship of contractors and manufac-
rigorously reviewed as this is the main opportunity both turers. Again, an adequate number of staff with relevant
for cost saving and for ensuring that the proposals meet experience must be employed. Prior definition and agree-
the client's objectives. Particular attention should be ment of acceptable standards is essential and all parties
given at this stage to subsequent operation and mainten- should be aware of tolerances. There is a tendency for
ance of the project. design engineers to specify unnecessarily high standards,
(7) Effective control of the project or contract will only be the achievement of which may prove difficult and/or
achieved through continual planning and replanning. expensive. The desired quality of workmanship must
Management effort should be concentrated on the present always be considered in relation to the client's other prime
 objective, usually timely completion and economical cost. Construction Industry Research and Information Association,
(14) Clients frequently underestimate both the extent and Report No. 109, CIRIA, London.
consequence of change. The project manager should 9 Davies, V. J., Dodd, L. A., Mills, T. R., Tietz, S. B., Woods, D.
assess rigorously the cost and benefit of all design changes R., Barker, J. E., King, F. W., Harlow, W. A., Summersgill, L,
Rust, C. E., Eye, D. and Beagley, C. (1986) 'Conference on
before they are implemented. Priority should be given to Engineering for safety.' Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs, 80, 13-119;
timely completion of the project. (discussion, February 1987).
The better organized the contractor, the more likely it 10 New Civil Engineer (1986) 'ICE to press for greater safety
is that he is working to a tight, well-resourced pro- enforcement', New Civ. Engr, no. 718.
gramme. The disruptive effect of variation may therefore 11 Lumsden, P. (1968) The line of balance method. Pergamon Press,
be serious. Oxford.
Modifications to manufacturing plant are sometimes 12 Thompson, P. A. (1981) Organization and economics of
best implemented during some future shutdown of the construction. McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead.
plant for maintenance. 13 Institution of Chemical Engineers (1979) A new guide to capital
cost estimating. Institution of Chemical Engineers, London.
(15) Involvement in prolonged bargaining over claims is a sign 14 Perry, J. G. and Hayes, R. W. (1985) 'Risk and its management in
of failure. Evaluate and agree payment for variations and construction projects'. Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs, 78, 499-520.
claims as the job progresses. The valuation should be 15 University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
based on prices, resource output and efficiencies similar to (1980) Severn tidal power: sensitivity and risk analysis. Project
those incorporated in the contractor's tender. Management Group. UMIST, Manchester.
(16) Projects and contracts are managed by people who are 16 Science and Engineering Research Council (1987) Risk
directing and communicating continuously with other management in engineering construction. SERC, Thomas Telford,
London.
human beings. Great attention must be paid to the
17 Perry, J. G. (1988) Contract strategies for construction. Collins,
selection and motivation of staff. Personality and ability London.
to think ahead are as important as technical know-how. 18 Perry, J. G., Thompson, P. A. and Wright, M. (1982) Target and
Project and contract management staff must be given cost-reimbursable construction contracts. Construction Industry
adequate authority to manage in their dynamic working Research and Information Association, Report No. 85, CIRIA,
environment without continual reference to head office. London.
For both the client and contractor, one man in each 19 Institution of Civil Engineers (1979) Conditions of contract, 5th
organization - the project/contract manager - must ulti- edn. ICE, London.
20 Institution of Civil Engineers (1985) Civil engineering standard
mately be responsible and be known to be responsible, for
method of measurement. Thomas Telford, London.
the realization of the project or contract. Each must be 21 Thompson, P. A. and Willmer, G. (1985) 'Caspar - a program for
identified with, and committed to, the project. engineering project appraisal and management. Proc. Civ. Comp.,
1,83.

References
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