2013

Science and the Dead

A guideline for the destructive sampling of archaeological
human remains for scientific analysis

Advisory Panel on the

Archaeology of Burials in England

1
 Executive summary
Contents
Scientific analyses involving destruction of parts of bones and
Executive summary .......................................................................... 2
teeth from human remains are becoming increasingly widely
1 Preamble ................................................................................................... 3 used in archaeology. The more important techniques include
radiocarbon dating; carbon and nitrogen stable isotope studies
2 Overview of destructive sampling ........................................ 4
for shedding light on ancient diets; strontium and oxygen isotopic
2.1 Legal framework ........................................................................ 4
analyses to investigate geographical origins of people; DNA analysis
2.2 Ethical considerations ....................................................................... 4
for looking at genetic questions and for studying infectious
2.3 General considerations regarding diseases; and the cutting of histological sections to study changes
destructive sampling........................................................................... 5 due to age, disease and other factors. Institutions responsible for
3 Radiocarbon dating.......................................................................... 6 curating archaeological human remains, principally museums,
3.1 The science ................................................................................................ 6 archaeological field units and university departments, are
3.2 What can we learn from radiocarbon dating? ................... 7 increasingly receiving requests from researchers to sample remains
in their care. Clergy and others responsible for historic churchyards
3.3 Sampling for radiocarbon dating ............................................... 8
and other burial grounds are also receiving an increasing number
4 Stable isotopes and ancient diets .......................................... 8 of requests from those wishing to exhume remains for research
4.1 The science ................................................................................................ 8 purposes. The aim of this document is to provide a framework
4.2 What can we learn about diet from which will help those organisations in responding to such
stable isotope analysis?..................................................................... 9 applications. The remit of the document is English remains over
4.3 Sampling for carbon and nitrogen stable 100 years old.
isotope work .......................................................................................... 10 Following an introductory preamble, the legal framework
pertaining to destructive sampling is set out, and some pertinent
5 Strontium and oxygen stable isotope ratios ethical considerations are discussed. There then follows a series of
and geographical origins of people in the past....... 10 practical recommendations aimed at helping organisations in
5.1 The science ............................................................................................. 10 decision-making regarding requests for destructive sampling and,
5.2 What can we learn about mobility from stable in cases where destructive sampling is permitted, ways in which
isotope studies? ................................................................................... 10 it can be undertaken in order to minimise damage to remains.
5.3 Sampling for strontium and oxygen isotope The science behind radiocarbon, isotopic, DNA and histological
analyses .................................................................................................... 11 analyses is described, as are the likely nature of the bone or tooth
samples required for each technique. Several case studies are given
6 DNA ............................................................................................................ 11
for illustrative purposes.
6.1 The science ............................................................................................. 11
6.2 What can we learn from aDNA?............................................... 11 The main recommendations are as follows:
6.3 Sampling for aDNA ........................................................................... 12 In general, the benet of generating new knowledge by the
7 Bone histology ................................................................................... 12 application of techniques that require destructive sampling needs
to be weighed against the imperative of preservation of skeletal
7.1 The science ............................................................................................. 12
collections intact and, in the case of church burial grounds, the
7.2 What can we learn from the histological study
presumption of the church against disturbance of remains.
of bones and teeth? .......................................................................... 13
7.3 Taking histological samples ........................................................ 13 When faced with a request for destructive sampling the
following need to be assessed:
8 Case Studies......................................................................................... 14
8.1 The case of the Arctic explorer.................................................. 14 the likelihood of obtaining useful knowledge and the value
8.2 Parity and weaning in 18th- and of that knowledge;
19th-century London ...................................................................... 15 whether that knowledge could be obtained by non-destructive
8.3 The lost bones of Harold II, the last Saxon analyses;
king of England ................................................................................... 15
the experience and competence of those who intend to
9 Procedures and terms of access for human undertake the work;
remains: the example of St Peters Church the effects of the destructive analyses on the future research
Barton-upon-Humber .................................................................. 16 potential of the remains.
9.1 Pro forma for access to remains ............................................... 16
9.2 Procedures for considering requests for access
Expert casework advice should be sought, if needed, from
the Advisory Panel on the Archaeology of Burials in England
to remains ............................................................................................... 16 (APABE) or other sources.
9.3 Standard terms of access to the human remains
from St Peters Church, Barton-upon-Humber ............... 16 For burials of known identity, permission should be sought from
surviving family members, if known.
10 Further reading ................................................................................ 19
If sampling is approved, it should be minimally destructive
11 Where to get advice ....................................................................... 19 commensurate with the purposes of the research, and removal
of any material should be properly documented.
Acknowledgements ....................................................................... 19
Decisions concerning destructive sampling should be made in
the public interest and in an accountable manner.

2
1 Preamble testing and improving scientic techniques, Some of the discussion in this document
large numbers (more than 100) of skeletons may also be relevant to destructive
The scientific study of ancient human are often needed. In addition, technological sampling of other classes of archaeological
skeletons has traditionally relied upon advances have begun to facilitate the remains, particularly faunal remains.
measurement and visual examination of processing of large numbers of samples In keeping with APABEs remit, the
the remains. In recent years, scientific for DNA and other analyses. Requests scope of this document is restricted to
techniques involving destructive analysis for sampling large numbers of skeletons remains over 100 years old (herein termed
of samples taken from bones or teeth have from museum and other collections for archaeological) from burial sites in
become increasingly important. The earliest destructive analysis have grown in recent England. The focus is on skeletal remains,
of these laboratory analyses to find regular years and are likely to continue to do so. as these are normally the only parts
use in archaeology was radiocarbon dating, Increasingly, the different techniques are preserved in archaeological burials in
which started to become commonplace used in conjunction (e.g. DNA and stable England. Destructive analysis refers to
from the 1960s. More recently, analysis of isotopic techniques for personal removal of a bone, tooth, or parts thereof
stable isotopes from bones and teeth has identication). Hence, there has also been (herein termed sampling) for analyses
provided new insights into the diets and an increase in requests for the application which will result in the complete or partial
the geographic origins of populations and of multiple destructive techniques. destruction of the tissue removed. This
individuals in the past. Study of ancient Some large organisations may have guideline does not attempt to be
DNA has helped us investigate genetic suitably trained staff to advise on the best comprehensive, but focuses on the more
relationships and has also enabled the response to a request for destructive frequent types of analysis that require
study of the evolution of pathogenic sampling, and to formulate general policy, destructive sampling: radiocarbon dating,
bacteria from their DNA preserved in the but for many this is not the case. The aim stable isotope work, DNA analyses and
bones of those who died from infectious of this guidance is to provide non-specialists histological studies. Of course, those with
disease. Microscopic study of cut sections with responsibility for human remains with responsibilities for human remains may be
of bone has helped the diagnosis of disease, relevant scientic and other information faced with requests for destructive sampling
and may provide a way of investigating on destructive analyses to aid them in their for purposes besides those discussed in this
activity patterns in past populations. deliberations when they are faced with document. These include lead concentration
These newer techniques have not requests from researchers to obtain samples and isotopic analyses for assessing human
replaced traditional methods, but rather for destructive analysis from remains in lead burden and sources of lead ingestion
are used alongside them. The potential their care. It is also hoped that the in the past; trace element analyses for
increase in knowledge that such techniques document may prove useful to museums investigating diet; and analysis of mycolic
offer is clearly a positive development, but and other organisations which curate acids to look at infectious diseases, such
it has resulted in an increase in requests to human remains, such as archaeological as tuberculosis. Casework advice on
museums and other institutions that curate eldwork units and university departments, destructive sampling for these or other
human remains for work that involves when formulating their own policies in this techniques not covered in this guideline
destruction of samples from bones and area. In addition, the reader is reminded can be obtained from APABE.
teeth. In addition, clergy and others that the Advisory Panel on the Archaeology The structure of this guideline is as
responsible for churchyards and other of Burials in England (APABE) is available follows: After a brief outline of the legal
historic burial grounds are increasingly to provide specic casework advice on such and ethical framework for destructive
facing requests for exhumation of specic matters (www.britarch.ac.uk/apabe). sampling of human remains, there are
burials for research purposes. In these
cases, the proposed work often involves
forensic study of a burial of a known
historical gure, for example to conrm
their identity, to assess their genetic
relationship with living putative
descendants, or to answer questions about
their life or manner of death. Frequently,
these requests involve work using
destructive analyses of remains.
Some work on human remains, for
example detailed case studies to illustrate
a particular disease or work on remains of
identied historic personages, may target
a single skeleton. However, the focus of
the scientic study of human remains as
an academic discipline has largely shifted
from works focusing on a single or a few
interesting skeletons towards problem-
orientated studies with an emphasis on
the identication of patterning in data
at the population level. For research into
archaeological questions and for Fig 1 A sample being cut from a femur for radiocarbon dating. The bone is held in two small vices, padding being used to
methodological research directed at prevent damage to the specimen. The small rotary electric saw has been used to remove the sample.

3
sections devoted to the different techniques. human remains excavated from lie undisturbed. This does not, however,
These give a brief outline of the science, archaeological sites and curated in mean that human remains should never be
details of the sorts of things that can be museums or other institutions is not disturbed. Church law recognises that the
learnt, and the nature of the samples that normally subject to legal constraint. It is living, including church congregations,
may be required. generally the curating institution which have rights which may come into conict
This document draws upon the Guidance grants (or withholds) permission for with this principle. The Church also
for the Care of Human Remains in Museums destructive sampling of remains in its care. recognises that human remains, and the
(http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov. However, in cases where permission for archaeological evidence for the rites that
uk/+/http://www.culture.gov.uk/ exhumation(s) is sought from the Ministry accompanied their burial, are important
reference_library/publications/3720.aspx), of Justice for the specific purpose of sources of scientic information and that
published by the Department of Culture, scientific research involving destructive this information is of legitimate academic
Media and Sport. For Christian burials, it sampling, the Ministry will evaluate and public interest. Analysis of human
also draws upon the English Heritage/ carefully the proposals for destructive remains, including destructive analyses, is
Church of England document Guidance for sampling when the application for the therefore potentially acceptable provided
Best Practice for Treatment of Human exhumation licence is considered. Different that the research aims are adequately
Remains Excavated from Christian Burial constraints apply to remains less than 100 justied and permission has been granted
Grounds in England (http://www.english- years old, which are subject to the Human by the relevant authorities. Under the
heritage.org.uk/publications/human- Tissue Act (2004). Such remains lie beyond Church Faculty system, as well as
remains-excavated-from-christian-burial- the scope of this guideline, but in brief, authorising exhumation of burials, the
grounds-in-england/) particularly Section under this Act it is an offence to hold human Consistory Court also regulates their
E6, and on Guidance Notes 1 and 2 from tissue less than 100 years old without a treatment once exhumed, and therefore
the Association of Diocesan & Cathedral Human Tissue Authority Licence. In has the authority to grant or withhold
Archaeologists (http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ addition, consent of the person from whom permission for destructive sampling.
adca/projects-issues.html). the tissue came, or if they have died, from Proposals to remove and/or destroy parts
those close to them, for analysis of DNA is of skeletons are subject to rigorous scrutiny.
2 Overview of destructive sampling required. Analyses for the purposes of This is particularly so when the personal
medical diagnosis or treatment and for identity of the individual is known and
2.1 Legal framework criminal investigations are excluded. sensitivities are consequently heightened.
In England it is unlawful to disturb buried In burial grounds under Church of
human remains without lawful authority. England jurisdiction (mostly churchyards), 2.2 Ethical considerations
Secular burial law is generally aimed at ecclesiastical law, as well as secular statutes, A number of ethical considerations need
regulating the way in which human applies. Human remains cannot be disturbed to be borne in mind when considering
remains or grave markers are cleared from without ecclesiastical permission, usually applications for destructive sampling.
burial grounds. Permission to excavate issued in the form of a Faculty. The Church Some of these fall under the general rubric
archaeological burials is administered via of England considers that human remains of knowledge-based ethics. Analysis of
the Ministry of Justice. The secular legal should be treated with reverence and human remains offers important insights
system recognises the public benefit of respect, and ecclesiastical law is protective. into the human past. Their study may also
scientific work on human remains. It draws upon the principle that remains help to test and improve existing methods
Destructive sampling of collections of entrusted to the Church should normally of skeletal analysis, and to develop new
techniques that are useful both for
archaeology and forensic science. Most
would consider that the accrual of
knowledge is a significant benefit for
humanity. A museum or other institution
holding archaeological remains for research
purposes may be considered to have
stewardship of that material. That is, they
hold it in trust for the benefit of the wider
community and for the benefit of future
generations. There is, therefore, a moral
imperative towards the preservation of
collections in ways which safeguard the
information they contain. When it comes
to destructive sampling there is a tension
between the imperative to generate new
knowledge and the imperative towards
preserving collections intact. This dilemma
lies at the heart of decisions concerning
destructive sampling. In addition to the
above considerations, requests to the clergy
for exhumations of skeletal remains from
Fig 2 Four intersecting cuts from an electric rotary saw, like that illustrated in Fig 1, have been used to remove a quadrangle of churchyards for research purposes will
bone from a femur for radiocarbon dating. also need to be weighed against the

4
 2.3 General considerations regarding
a b destructive sampling
From the above discussion can be drawn
a set of general points to be considered
when assessing applications for destructive
analysis, either from remains curated in
museums or other institutions, or in the
form of requests that include exhumation
of selected remains from churches or
churchyards.

Are the questions to be addressed by

the work of general archaeological,
historical or other signicance?

If so, can they be addressed adequately

using non-destructive techniques? Only
if this is not the case should destructive
analyses be contemplated.

Are the researchers sufficiently

competent and experienced to conduct
the work proposed?
1cm
Any programme of destructive analysis
should be carried out within a coherent
Fig 3 (a, b) A fibula (one of the lower leg bones). A research programme and should stand a
sample for carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis realistic chance of advancing knowledge.
has been removed from the shaft of the bone. Despite
the bones slender shaft, removal of the sample has been
achieved without cutting completely through the bone,
If the feasibility of a technique is
preserving it intact for measurement. The sample was questionable, then thought should
removed using a small hand saw with a round-section 360 be given to conducting a pilot study
cutting blade. The lower part of this bone is thickened due on a small number of samples,
to disease. The sample was taken from the upper part to
avoid damaging this area. before permission is given for a fuller
programme entailing destruction of
larger numbers of samples.
Churchs presumption against disturbance
of remains. For work involving the exhumation
Targeting the remains of historic of identied individuals, permission
personages or other known individuals may should be sought from surviving family
raise additional concerns. On the one hand, members, if known.
study of known-identity burials may have
important scientic benets for example, Only the quantity of material needed to
address the research questions should
known age and sex skeletons are essential
be removed, and the number, location
for testing methods of estimating age and
on the skeleton, and size of samples that
determining sex from skeletal remains.
the researchers intend to remove should
However, in other cases, results may be
be made explicit. It should also be
of a sensitive nature that could offend or
remembered that as methods are rened
embarrass living descendants, and they
the general trend has been towards
may raise complex social or political
requirement for smaller samples, and
sensitivities. For example, work on DNA
this trend is likely to continue.
was conducted using remains from the
American President Thomas Jefferson to The likely effect of sampling on future
attempt to address the question of whether research potential of the remains is a
he had fathered a child by his female slave, key issue. To this end, the location in the
Sally Hemmings. The results were skeleton from which a sample is to be
inconclusive. In this case, as in some others, taken should be carefully considered:
associated social and political agendas, and
sensationalist reporting in the media, Sampling from anatomical landmarks
(points from which measurements
overshadowed the scientic aspects of the
are taken) or from areas important
work. In cases such as this, the question
for sex or age determination should
that must be addressed is whether the
be avoided.
project is in the wider public interest and
whether this is sufficient to override any Unless the study specically requires
wishes that an individual, family or it, sampling from diseased bone
community may have to privacy. should be avoided.

5
 Teeth are particularly rich in strengthen it. This may cause Decisions concerning permissions for
biological information and should not problems for some scientic analyses, destructive sampling should be made
be sampled unless the required data so sampling such areas is best avoided in the public interest. Those making
could not be acquired from sampling decisions should be willing to be held
If appropriate, thought should be given
bone. If a tooth is to be sampled, then accountable for their judgements.
to the visual impact of sampling for
its antimere (the corresponding tooth
example on the suitability of the
from the opposite side of the jaw)
specimen for future museum display.
3 Radiocarbon dating
should preferably be present.

Samples should preferably be taken

All sampling should be fully documented, 3.1 The science
so that future researchers can see what Isotopes are atoms of a chemical element
from bones or teeth that are already
has been taken. with different masses. Some are radioactive
incomplete, damaged or fragmentary.
and steadily decay, transmuting into other
In the past, chemical consolidants
Any unused samples should be returned elements. Others are stable they are non-
as they may obviate the need for future
may have been applied to radioactive and do not change in abundance
sampling.
archaeological bone to try and over time. Carbon has three naturally
The skeletal element that is to be occurring isotopes: 12C, 13C and 14C. These
sampled should be fully recorded and three isotopes do not occur equally, with
a measured prior to sampling. In some carbon in the atmosphere and biosphere
cases it may be appropriate to produce consisting of 99% 12C, 1% 13C and about one
a cast of the parts to be destroyed or to part in a million million of 14C. 12C and 13C
conduct a surface laser scan or CT scan are stable isotopes. 14C is radioactive with a
so that a virtual replica can be produced. half-life of 5730 40 years. From this it
Unless exhumation is for the specic derives its name radiocarbon.
purpose of research involving destructive Radiocarbon is formed in the upper
analysis, sampling should not normally atmosphere by the interaction of neutrons,
be permitted on site during excavation. produced by cosmic rays, with nitrogen
atoms. Once radiocarbon has been
Publications and, if appropriate, the raw produced it rapidly forms carbon dioxide
data arising from the scientic analyses
and mixes through the atmosphere,
should be lodged with the organisation
dissolves in the ocean, and enters the
which granted access to the remains.
terrestrial food chain through photo-
Casework advice should be sought from synthesis. Consequently, the 14C content of
APABE or other sources as necessary to a living terrestrial organism is in equilibrium
aid decision-making with that of the contemporary atmosphere.
When a plant, human or animal dies it
no longer takes in 14C and thus over time
b the proportion of radiocarbon falls at a rate
that is determined by the law of radioactive
decay. By measuring the proportion of 14C
that remains, it is possible to estimate the
time since the organism died.
Unfortunately, as the production of
radiocarbon in the atmosphere is not
constant, a year in the radiocarbon age
timescale does not have an equivalent
interval in the calendar timescale and for
this reason calibration is required. Progress
in the extent and resolution of the data
available for calibration means that the
current internationally agreed calibration
curve extends to 50,000 years before
present. This provides a common standard
and means that all calibrated dates are
comparable.
1cm Radiocarbon is present in such low
abundance it puts a statistical limit on the
Fig 4 (a, b) A disc of bone has been removed for trace precision of a radiocarbon determination.
element analysis from this femur using a 15mm diameter A fundamental aim during measurement is
plug-cutting drill. The shaft of a limb bone takes the form of
a cylinder of bone surrounding a cavity which, in life, contains therefore to measure the isotope ratio as
the marrow. The plug-cutter has removed a disc from one accurately and precisely as possible. The
wall of the cylinder. The bone is broken towards its lower end. two main methods of measuring 14C are
Further damage to this area was avoided during sampling
as the two sides of the break fit back together to form a decay counting methods (using liquid
complete specimen for measurement. scintillation and gas proportional counters)

6
and accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)
where the radiocarbon atoms are directly
detected. Since the mid-1980s the
introduction of accelerators for the direct
detection of radiocarbon has allowed a
whole range of much smaller samples to
be measured.
Bones and teeth are some of the most
complex materials commonly used in
radiocarbon dating. Bone, and dentine in
teeth, are composed of a mineral part
(hydroxyapatite, a form of calcium
phosphate) and an organic part, chiey
composed of the protein collagen. It is
normally carbon from the organic part that
is used for radiocarbon dating. Following
the death of an individual, degradation
of a bones molecular structure and the
incorporation of exogenous molecules as
a result of chemical and environmental
processes can inuence subsequent a
radiocarbon measurements. Research into
effective pretreatment methods continues,
with the aim of reducing the contaminants
present in the sample from the environment
and to minimise the addition of further
contaminants. With human bone, attempts
to improve on the widely used simple
extraction of protein (collagen) have
included molecular-size selection using
ultraltration and the selection of
individual amino acids.
Bones that have undergone thorough
burning at high temperatures (i.e.
cremation) no longer contain organic
carbon and so until recently have not been
suitable for radiocarbon dating. However, in
the last decade the successful dating of the
mineral part of burnt bone has opened up
the possibility of dating cremated deposits.
Humans have a markedly variable and
mixed diet and as such frequently derive
carbon from more than one reservoir. The
measurement of carbon and nitrogen stable b
isotope ratios (see Section 4) can be used to
Fig 5 (a, b) Part of a left hip bone. A 10mm-diameter disc of bone has been removed by a plug-cutting drill for the purposes of
determine the potential for diet-induced a histological study. Unlike limb bones, such as the femur in Fig 4, hip bones lack a marrow cavity, so it has been necessary to drill
radiocarbon offsets if an individual has right through the bone to remove the sample. The side from which the drill entered the bone (a) shows a hole with clean edges,
but on the other side (b) there has been some splintering of bone around the hole. This was caused as the drill broke through. It
taken up carbon from a reservoir not in
is difficult to prevent this sort of damage entirely because the irregular shape of a bone makes it impossible adequately to support
equilibrium with the terrestrial biosphere, the reverse side as it is drilled, but it can be reduced if the pressure on the drill is minimised as the hole nears completion.
for example, marine or carbonate-rich
freshwater resources. For technical reasons, events and the tempo of change. demographic change and variations in
this issue affects radiocarbon measurements Increasingly refined chronological health of the population that lived and died
on unburnt bone, but not those on cremated frameworks from burial grounds are in this part of London. The radiocarbon
bone. In practice, dietary effects have not enhancing understanding and appreciation dating programme also identied cases of
been found to be signicant for interpreting of the value of such burials, particularly pre-Columbian syphilis and mass burial pits
radiocarbon dates on human bone from when combined with other investigations predating the great Black Death outbreak
England before the Viking period. such as stable isotope analysis. of AD 1348.
The ability to chronologically divide Dating of the human maxilla from
3.2 What can we learn from the human population of cemeteries such Kents Cavern, Torquay, one of the most
radiocarbon dating? as St Mary Spital, London (10,516 mainly important Palaeolithic sites in the country,
Chronology provides a fundamental medieval burials) using radiocarbon dating sheds light on the origins of the earliest
structure for understanding the past, with and archaeological phasing means that anatomically modern humans in Europe.
timing unravelling the sequence of past it is possible to track developments in Dating of a selection of the 50 or more

7
 bodies once present in Avelines Hole, shown to be very successful in predicting
Burrington Combe, Somerset, conrmed whether a bone is suitable for dating.
the site as one of the largest early This prescreening method reduces the
Mesolithic burial sites in Europe. The amount of destructive sampling, in addition
results suggest use of the cave for burial to saving time and money spent on
over, at the most, a century or two, in the unsuccessful dating.
mid to late ninth millennium cal BC. For teeth, the preferred samples are
When considering individual radio- incisors, canines and molars, and attempts
carbon dates, it must be remembered that should be made where possible to leave
the bandwidth of calibrated radiocarbon enamel in good condition for other analyses
dates is not only a function of the errors (e.g. strontium and oxygen isotopes see
quoted on radiocarbon ages and on the Section 5). For cremated bone, a 2g sample
calibration data, but also on the shape of that needs to be fully calcined (i.e.
the calibration curve. Thus for some time completely white or grey) not just charred
periods the bandwidth is relatively large, is required. In exceptional circumstances
for example c 750400 cal BC for a person other material suitable for dating may also
who actually died in 500 BC, i.e. where the be preserved, e.g. hair, skin and other soft
actual ages fall on a plateau. It can also be tissue. For large human bone assemblages,
relatively precise: cal AD 14101470 for a the use of Bayesian simulation models to
person who died in AD 1425, where it falls identify the minimum number of samples
on a steep section of the calibration curve. needed to provide meaningful answers has
In the last decade the use of a Bayesian proved especially valuable.
statistical approach has proved to be the
most effective method available for 4 Stable isotopes and ancient diets
producing estimates of chronology. In
archaeological terms this means that we 4.1 The science
analyse new data that we have collected Carbon and nitrogen each have two stable
about a problem (the standardised isotopes. Ratios of the two stable isotopes in
likelihoods radiocarbon dates) in the each of these elements are different in
context of our existing experience and different classes of foods. These differences
knowledge about that problem (our prior are passed on to the tissues of the consumer.
beliefs for example, the stratigraphic Hence carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes
relationship between graves). This allows can be used to study ancient diets.
us to arrive at a new understanding of Carbon stable isotope ratios differ in
chronology which incorporates both our plants using different photosynthetic
existing understanding of the problem and pathways to manufacture carbohydrates
our new data (posterior belief). Bayesian from atmospheric carbon dioxide. Most
modelling of radiocarbon dates from temperate zone vegetation uses the so-
southern English long barrows has provided called C3 pathway. Some plants from
chronologies at a generational scale for warmer regions use the C4 pathway. In
these early Neolithic mortuary structures. addition, both carbon and nitrogen stable
isotope ratios differ in marine and
3.3 Sampling for radiocarbon dating terrestrial foods. In north-west Europe
The most common human remains there are no indigenous C4 foods, so most
submitted for dating are unburnt bones stable isotope work has concentrated on
from which typically 1g of bone is needed studying marine contributions to diets. For
for AMS dating and about 200g for liquid nitrogen isotopes, there is a small trophic-
scintillation and gas proportional counters. level effect, so ratios change as one ascends
Samples from the larger dense bones of the a food chain. In principle, this means that
body (femur, tibia, humerus or mandible) it may be possible to say something about
are preferred. Sampling of complete the relative importance of meat versus
unburnt bones for AMS dating is usually plant foods, but in practice interpretation
undertaken with a mechanical drilling kit. in these terms is often difficult because a
Fig 6 A right femur from which multiple samples have been The preservation of unburnt bone can number of non-dietary factors also seem
removed for various purposes over the years. The midshaft be greatly inuenced by the burial to exert (fairly minor) inuences on
and the subtrochanteric areas (indicated by the two dotted
lines) have been avoided as these are important landmarks environment, resulting in chemical and nitrogen isotope ratios in bone. Because
for measurements and other osteological observations. This physical degradation. Over 90% of the breastfeeding infants are exclusively
burial also preserved a left femur, and in this case a decision collagen content can be lost in some consuming a product of the mothers body,
was taken to keep that bone fully intact and to repeatedly
sample this bone. When several samples are removed from environments, which restricts the potential they are one trophic level higher. Nitrogen
one bone, care should be taken that the structural integrity for radiocarbon and stable isotope analysis. isotope ratios have been used to study the
of the bone is not unduly compromised. In this case the A rapid technique, determining the %N duration of breastfeeding in past societies.
femur was strong and well-preserved, so it was thought that
the removal of samples would not lead to significant risk of content of whole bone, which requires very Intact collagen preserves lifetime
inadvertent breakage during handling. little material (< 5mg bone), has been carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios,

8
and this is the part of the bone usually stable isotope ratios in bone collagen archaeological sites, depending upon the
analysed in dietary studies. In living people, may prove a useful indicator of the questions to be investigated.
collagen in bone is continually renewed. meat: vegetable ratio of the diet. Depending A number of studies have looked at the
During infancy this process is rapid, but by on local geology, sulphur stable isotopes may way in which diet changed with the advent
adulthood it slows down, so that analysing be different in terrestrial and freshwater of farming in the Neolithic period. Results
adult bone collagen gives a measure of diet foods, so sulphur isotope ratios in bone show that prior to the Neolithic, coastal
averaged over years or decades. Collagen in collagen may also have dietary potential. groups in Britain relied heavily on sea foods,
dentine from the teeth is not renewed like In the laboratory, tests are done to but these resources were abandoned with
that in bone, so analysing this material identify whether a sample contains intact the introduction of farming. In Britain, this
gives indications of diet whilst the dentine collagen. Usually, bone and tooth samples change in diet seems to have occurred
was forming as the tooth developed during from burials on English archaeological sites abruptly rather than gradually, unlike in
childhood. All the nitrogen in collagen, and contain sufficient intact collagen for some other parts of Europe where marine
most of the carbon, comes from dietary successful stable isotope determinations, so foods continued to be exploited in
protein, so results tell us mainly about the stable isotope work normally produces signicant quantities into the Neolithic.
protein part of the diet. Some workers also usable results, but in cases where collagen Other work has focused on how a persons
advocate analysing carbon stable isotopes survival is thought to be doubtful, social position inuenced their diet, and
from bone mineral (there is no nitrogen in measurement of nitrogen content, as how diet varied with geographical location.
the mineral part of bone). This has the described in Section 3.3, can be used as a At Roman Dorchester, isotopic work
advantage that results appear to reect pre-screening technique. Dietary indicated that the wealthier members of
whole diet rather than being biased towards information cannot be obtained from society consumed more marine foods. Stable
protein, but a drawback is that bone mineral isotopic analysis of cremated bone. To isotope work on skeletons from communities
is very vulnerable to alteration of its analyse stable isotopes in collagen, the near the coast and from a large inland town
chemical and isotopic composition in the collagen is extracted from the bone or showed that in late medieval times (11th
soil. Methods have been developed to wash dentine in the laboratory and then puried. 16th century AD) the inhabitants consumed
out extraneous carbon which has This material is then burnt and the more marine foods than did individuals
contaminated the bone mineral from the resulting gases analysed using an isotope- from a small inland rural community.
soil, but their effectiveness is unclear. ratio mass spectrometer. This measures This is consistent with other evidence in
The great majority of dietary work the relative abundance of the different suggesting that there was a developed sea
involving stable isotopes uses carbon and isotopes present. shing industry in the late medieval period,
nitrogen, but some other elements are also with trade in salted sh to inland
beginning to attract attention. Hydrogen 4.2 What can we learn about diet from commercial centres, but that sh may not
stable isotope analysis? have been very important in rural diets. By
Fig 7 A fourth lumbar vertebra. A slice about 0.5cm in To study diet, carbon and nitrogen stable contrast, analysis of skeletal material from
width has been removed as part of a histological study of isotopes are usually used together. Most the early medieval period (5th7th century
osteoporosis. Although the study produced valuable data,
the extent of the destruction involved has compromised
work attempts to address questions of broad AD) showed that little seafood was
subsequent work. For example, bone density measurement archaeological or historical interest, so consumed, even by coastal communities.
(another way of studying osteoporosis) involving this multiple skeletons rather than single burials Breastfeeding practices have received
vertebra is not now possible. Measurement studies are also
compromised. For example, this individual had to be omitted
are normally the focus. Currently, most increasing archaeological attention, as they
from a study investigating how the shape of vertebrae studies use anything from about 30 to more are important determinants of family size
influenced the occurrence of stress fractures of the lumbar than 100 skeletons, often from several and of maternal and infant health in
spine in this population.

Fig 8 This already incomplete vertebra has been sampled for DNA. A cube about 1cm3 has been cut
from the spongy bone using a scalpel. Two of the other vertebrae from this individual showed abscessing,
1cm apparently due to tuberculosis, and aims of the DNA work were to try to confirm this diagnosis and to
attempt to determine whether the disease was bovine tuberculosis contracted from cattle or whether
it was the form of the disease transmitted person to person. To have sampled the diseased vertebrae
would have destroyed significant parts of the bony lesions, so a decision was taken to sample from an
undiseased vertebra even though this may have reduced the chances of detecting pathogen DNA. In fact,
the DNA amplifications were successful. They confirmed the diagnosis and indicated that the person had
the form of the disease contracted from other people rather than from infected cattle or dairy products.

1cm

9
premodern communities. This can be nitrogen stable isotope measurements of similar geology regardless of geographic
investigated with nitrogen isotope analysis, routinely reported along with radiocarbon separation. Oxygen isotopes are generally
either using bone samples from infants and ages on dating certicates can be. This is most useful for distinguishing among
children of different ages, or using adult because they are measured on an isotope- individuals on a fairly large spatial scale;
skeletons, sampling from parts of teeth that ratio mass spectrometer. When both strontium isotopes may, depending on
were developing at different times during radiocarbon dating and dietary studies are geology, enable smaller spatial distinctions
childhood. At a British medieval site, envisaged, with careful planning destruction to be made. In practice, most workers use
nitrogen isotope data suggested that of material can be kept to a minimum. both strontium and oxygen isotopes in
breastfeeding was continued until children conjunction in order to narrow down the
were about 18 months old. This prolonged 5 Strontium and oxygen stable number of possible locations where a
period of breastfeeding seems to have had isotope ratios and geographical person may have spent their childhood.
benecial results: infant mortality in that origins of people in the past Nevertheless, isotopic determinations are
community appeared low by premodern most suitable for excluding certain locations
standards. 5.1 The science as places of childhood residence, and would
Strontium isotope ratios vary in different not without other evidence allow a location
4.3 Sampling for carbon and nitrogen types of rock. There are therefore to be identied unambiguously.
stable isotope work systematic differences in plants and animals
Typically, less than 0.5g of bone is needed in areas with different geology, and these 5.2 What can we learn about mobility
for carbon and nitrogen stable isotope are passed on to the tissues of consumers. from stable isotope studies?
determinations. For adults this is normally Oxygen isotopes vary in rainwater in In archaeology, applications of strontium
taken from a long-bone shaft. Collagen in different regions according to factors which and oxygen stable isotope analysis may
these locations is renewed more slowly than include climate, altitude and distance from entail studies of one or a few burials. These
in other bones such as ribs, and so provides the coast. Oxygen isotope ratios vary in normally involve those that are unusual in
a good overall indication of long-term diet. different living organisms, and hence in some way, for example, regarding where
When bone samples are used to assess age different foods, but this does not matter or how the deceased were buried, or they
of weaning in infants and children, typically very much for human studies as the isotopic may have been buried with grave goods
bones with more rapid turnover (those that composition of drinking water is the prime suggesting a non-local origin. However,
are rich in spongy bone, e.g. ribs) are determinant of the oxygen isotopic increasingly, studies involving greater
sampled so that the delay with which the composition of human tissues (an exception numbers of burials are being undertaken
weaning signal is manifest in bone is is suckling infants during breastfeeding in order to address broader questions.
minimised. Archaeological bones are often oxygen isotope ratios are altered). For example, an unusual prehistoric
fragmentary. If an appropriately sized bone Unlike most carbon and nitrogen stable mass grave containing seven individuals
fragment is present then this is normally isotope work, strontium and oxygen isotope (three adult males, a teenager and three
used for analysis. Otherwise a small saw is analyses use the mineral part of skeletal children) was found recently near
used to cut a piece of bone of suitable size. tissues and not collagen. As mentioned Stonehenge. The remains date to the later
Care is taken not to cut completely through above, the mineral part of bone and dentine third millennium cal BC. Oxygen and
an intact or minimally damaged bone. One appears very vulnerable to changes in strontium stable isotope determinations
way of doing this is to make two closely composition during burial, but dental from the teeth of the adults showed that
placed parallel saw cuts which pass less than enamel appears highly resistant to they had originated from outside the local
halfway through the bone; the saw can then alteration. Therefore, most strontium and area. Wales was one possibility compatible
be twisted to break the slice of bone free. oxygen work on human remains uses dental with the isotope results. An initial
Increasingly, breastfeeding studies are enamel. Unlike bone, dental tissues are not suggestion was the Preseli Hills, the likely
using micro-sampling of dentine from teeth continually renewed, so the isotopic origin of the bluestones used in the building
from adult skeletons. Recent technical composition of dental enamel reects the of Stonehenge. This could show a
developments mean that many samples of locale in which the person lived as a child fascinating connection, but this was only
tissue which developed at different ages when the enamel was forming. A local one possibility for the place of origin of
may be obtained from a single tooth, but baseline for oxygen or strontium values in these people; others included western
doing this involves cutting the tooth the location in which the individual was England, Brittany and Portugal.
vertically, partially destroying it. buried (and by implication lived At the Roman Fort at Catterick, North
As mentioned in Section 3.1, carbon immediately prior to death) can be Yorkshire, burials dating from the 2nd3rd
and nitrogen stable isotope determinations established from geological or rainfall maps centuries AD showed greater isotopic
are routinely conducted on bone samples or, better still, from analysis of local diversity than burials from the 4th century.
submitted for radiocarbon dating. This is archaeological remains of domestic animals This seemed consistent with the idea that
because it is important to detect individuals not likely to have roamed far. If the isotopic in the Roman army an early policy of more
who consumed signicant amounts of composition of dental enamel differs from diverse recruitment was later supplanted
marine foods, as incorporation of marine this baseline, then the person likely spent at by greater recruitment from the local
carbon into bone collagen tends to make least part of their childhood elsewhere. population.
radiocarbon dates too old, and a correction Oxygen isotope ratios in waters in Turning to a later period, in the early
is needed for this. Although carbon stable Britain overlap with those in other medieval (5th6th century AD) cemetery at
isotope measurements made on AMS locations, for example, in continental West Heslerton, North Yorkshire, isotopic
machines and used to correct for fraction- Europe, particularly north-western areas analyses suggested that about one-sixth of
ation as part of radiocarbon dating cannot and parts of the Mediterranean basin. the burials were of rst-generation migrants,
be used in dietary studies, the carbon and Strontium isotopes will be similar in regions perhaps originating from Scandinavia.

10
 At Whithorn cathedral priory, Scotland, and analysed in ancient human and other
oxygen and strontium analysis of burials of biological remains. Because there is so little
high-ranking late medieval (11th14th of it, ancient DNA (aDNA) normally needs
century AD) clergy suggested that they to be amplied into sufficient quantities
originated outside the local area, unlike before it can be studied. The usual way
lower status and lay individuals who of doing this is with a technique called
seemed to have spent their childhoods polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which
locally. That these important positions is a way of generating many copies of a
were not held by locals was consistent with selected region of a DNA fragment.
documentary sources which suggested that A particular DNA sequence of interest in
outside political interests held sway in the mitochondrial DNA is more likely to survive
a
appointment of clerics to senior positions the ravages of time than a sequence in
at Whithorn. Appointees were often senior nuclear DNA simply because there were
men from important Scottish monasteries more copies to start with. Therefore, much
or clerks in the households of the king aDNA work uses mitochondrial DNA. In
or nobility. human remains, both human DNA and DNA
from infecting micro-organisms that were
5.3 Sampling for strontium and oxygen present at time of death have been
isotope analyses successfully studied.
Strontium and oxygen isotopic analyses Much aDNA work fails to produce
normally require dental enamel, not bone. results. This may be due to poor survival of
About 50mg of material is needed, and DNA in the remains in question or for other
sampling typically partially or wholly reasons. Success rates in published aDNA
destroys the enamel crown of a tooth. studies vary widely, and doubtless many of
Some studies may require analysis of the less successful works fail to reach the
enamel from more than one tooth from publication stage. Predicting in advance b
each individual sampled different teeth whether aDNA work is likely to be successful
develop at different times during infancy is very difficult. Factors that favour aDNA
and childhood so analysing more than one survival include a cool, dry burial
tooth enables more detailed work to be environment and relatively recent date (i.e.
done on childhood residence. Because of an age in centuries rather than millennia).
the effect of breastfeeding on infant oxygen Acidic and free-draining soils may destroy
isotope ratios, the parts of tooth crowns not only the DNA but even the skeletal
that formed in infancy are best avoided remains themselves. Cremated bone is not
in work studying mobility, but these parts generally suitable for DNA studies.
can be sampled as another way of looking
at breastfeeding practices. Cremation 6.2 What can we learn from aDNA?
normally destroys tooth crowns so isotopic Generally speaking, aDNA work can shed
studies cannot be performed. light on genetic relationships between c
people or populations, and can help us to
6 DNA determine the sex of a person when it is not
possible from the bones. It can also help to
6.1 The science identify and study infectious diseases in
DNA is the molecule that contains the the past.
genetic information necessary for living With regard to broad genetic questions
organisms to develop, function and about the history of human populations,
reproduce. It is present in two locations in recent work on DNA from Neanderthal
human cells. Most DNA is located in the skeletal remains suggests that up to about
chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell. 4% of DNA in modern Europeans may come
Some also lies in the mitochondria, the from Neanderthals, implying that a small
cells energy-generating units. Most amount of inter-breeding did occur between
chromosomal or nuclear DNA is inherited Neanderthals and early modern humans,
from both parents; mitochondrial DNA is but this is controversial. Study of Mesolithic
inherited solely from the mother. and Neolithic human DNA suggests that
Mitochondrial DNA is present in multiple some of the rst Neolithic farming groups
copies each cell contains about 8,000 in Europe share affinities with modern d
identical copies of mitochondrial DNA but south-west Asian populations, and genetic
only one set of chromosomes. discontinuities have been found between
Fig 9 A molar tooth before (a, b) and
When an organism dies, the long DNA Mesolithic hunter-gatherer and Neolithic after (c, d) removal of part of the crown
molecules rapidly degrade leaving only farming groups. These results seem for isotopic analysis. Although some
small amounts of DNA composed of short consistent with other evidence in measurement and other studies of crown
morphology will now not be possible on
fragments. In the 1980s it became clear that suggesting the spread of farming to Europe this specimen, much of the crown has been
these fragments of DNA could be detected from a centre in the Near East was not just preserved intact.

11
a transmission of ideas but involved at least needed to establish good evidence for Death in medieval Europe was caused by
some migration of people. descent, and hence for the personal identity the plague bacillus Yersinia pestis, which
Individual relationships and patterns of the buried individual. It is normally some had doubted. It also revealed that it
of kinship can sometimes be discerned, difficult to trace such lines over many was caused by a variant of the bacterium
providing insights into the social generations, and breaks in descent lines which apparently no longer exists. This may
organisation of early populations. A direct often occurred in the past due to adoption help explain apparent differences in
child-parent relationship was suggested in a or illegitimacy. virulence between ancient and modern Y.
4,600-year-old grave containing two adults In most cases, we can determine the sex pestis infections.
and two children from Germany, providing of adults by looking at the bones, but if the
the oldest evidence of a nuclear family. diagnostic parts are missing or damaged 6.3 Sampling for aDNA
Much analysis of modern DNA is this may not be possible. In addition, sex DNA analysis generally involves removing
concerned with issues of personal identication is difficult in infants or a small sample (varying from milligrams
identication and relationships in a legal children. Therefore, here are potential up to about one gram) from a bone or
setting. In modern forensic cases, personal uses of aDNA. Among Romano-British tooth. DNA is present in all cells (with a
identication can normally be established populations, infanticide (killing of newborn few exceptions such as red blood cells).
with some certainty. Forensic work children) seems to have been commonly The skeleton, the bone and the dentine of
generally relies on matching multiple practiced to limit family size. Some have the teeth each contain cells and hence are
sequences of nuclear DNA with a close postulated people in Roman times preferred potential sources of DNA. DNA is not
relative. However, this approach, and the male children, so more female infants may present in tooth enamel as it lacks a cell
high degree of certainty associated with it, have been killed. However, aDNA analysis structure. Even if a body preserves some
is not usually feasible with aDNA due to its of infant bones from Roman sites in Britain soft tissue, DNA generally survives better in
degraded nature. Nevertheless, questions provided no support for this, boys and girls the skeleton. In general, human DNA seems
of identity and genetic relationships of being present in similar numbers. to survive best in dentine, so teeth generally
identied historic individuals can Study of the DNA of pathogenic offer better prospects than bone. Samples
potentially be investigated using aDNA bacteria present in human remains can aid are generally drilled from dentine from the
extracted from their remains. Comparisons the study of disease in earlier times. For tooth interior. With care, much of the tooth
of DNA extracted from ancient bones with example, some Iron Age skeletons recovered can be preserved intact. Removing bone for
the DNA of known or putative close from a cemetery in Siberia showed spinal DNA work usually involves cutting away a
relatives (living or dead) may be used to abscesses that seemed to be due to small cube with a scalpel or, for harder
conrm the identity of the deceased, or to tuberculosis. Study of pathogen DNA from bone, using a small saw.
refute or support individuals who claim a the burials conrmed this and, furthermore, For work on DNA of infecting bacteria,
biological relationship to the deceased. indicated that the disease was the type the best places to sample from are usually
However, attempts often fail to provide transmitted from animals (probably cattle) the diseased parts of the skeleton (if there
conclusive results. This may reect rather than caught from other people. are any) as this is where concentration of
problems with the amplication of the Conversely, work on remains from a pathogens was often greatest. For infections
aDNA due to poor DNA survival or for other medieval English village found that the that are disseminated via the bloodstream,
reasons. In addition, DNA from a relative skeletal tuberculosis cases were exclusively skeletal sites without bone lesions may also
via the direct male or female line from the of the type transmitted person-to-person. give positive results. Taking a DNA sample
deceased or his/her siblings is normally Recent work has conrmed that the Black from a bone lesion may mainly or entirely
destroy the diseased area, severely
compromising any future work.

7 Bone histology

7.1 The science

Histology is the microscopic study of cut
sections of tissue. Under the microscope,
most bone is not amorphous, but has a
regular internal structure. In the dense
bone (called cortical bone) that makes up
most of the limb bones and forms the outer
layer of other bones, channels transmit tiny
blood vessels which nourish the bone, and
layers of bone are arranged concentrically
around these vessels, forming microscopic
structures called osteons. Various factors
may cause minor or major alterations in
the microscopic structure of bone. These
changes may be noted as present or absent
or else the frequency or size of various
Fig 10 A cranium showing an area of pitted bone on its surface. Within this diseased area, a cube of bone (arrowed) has been features may be quantified (often using
removed for histological analysis using a small hand saw. The sample was taken from an area that was already rather damaged.
The nature of the bony changes suggested that this was a case of prostate cancer that had spread to the skeleton, and the computer image analysis software), a
histological examination of the bone sample supported this. process called histomorphometry.

12
 There are some differences in the eye, and smaller ones can be studied characteristic feature of vitamin D
microstructure of human and animal bones, microscopically on the tooth surface, at deciency, which manifests as rickets in
so it may be possible to determine whether least in unworn teeth. However, layers children and osteomalacia in adults.
small bone fragments are human using deposited near the beginning of tooth Vitamin D is made in the skin on exposure
histology. This can also be done on formation are covered by later ones, so for to natural light, so the prime cause of
cremated bone fragments, although the study of these a vertical section of the vitamin D deciency was lack of exposure
allowance has to be made for shrinkage tooth needs to be cut. of the skin to sunlight, either because
of osteons on burning. Because it is laid down throughout life, natural light was attenuated by industrial
As a person grows older, various counting incremental layers in cementum pollution or because some people failed to
alterations occur in bone microstructure, (the material that coats the roots of the expose their skin for occupational, cultural
including aspects of the size and character teeth and helps anchor them into the jaw) or other reasons. In cases where diagnosis
of the osteons. Quantitative study of these has been suggested as a method for is unclear, obtaining a histological section
changes has been suggested as a way of estimating age at death in adults. The helps identify whether vitamin D deciency
estimating age at death in adults. However, method involves cutting a vertical section was present. For example, ve adult
like other techniques for age determination and counting the lines under the skeletons from a 19th-century burial site in
in adult skeletons, it does not seem very microscope. Results so far have been mixed, Birmingham showed clear signs of
reliable, and debate continues over what but more work on skeletons of known age at osteomalacia. A further two had ambiguous
features should be counted and where in death (e.g. those with gravestones or coffin changes, but a diagnosis of osteomalacia
the skeleton samples should be taken. plates) is needed to evaluate the technique. was conrmed using bone histology.
Another thing that may inuence size Soil-dwelling micro-organisms attack Osteoporosis causes loss of bone density
and density of osteons is the mechanical bone collagen during burial. As well as in the elderly, especially women, and
forces placed on a bone during life. This reducing the collagen content, this results renders them vulnerable to fracture,
has led some people to argue that this is a in dissolution and redeposition of bone particularly hip fracture. Study of bone
way of investigating activity patterns in mineral at the microscopic level. This density showed that women from a
past peoples. The usual technique is to results in increased porosity and progressive medieval village lost similar amounts of
compare microstructure in a load-bearing obliteration of microarchitectural features. bone density after the menopause as
bone, such as a femur or other limb bone, There is no correlation between surface modern women. However, the medieval
with that in a rib from the same individual appearance of bone and destruction of the women did not show the hip fractures that
to control for the effects of age and other histological structure. Outwardly well- are a prominent and life-threatening
physiological factors. Again there is debate preserved bones can show highly degraded feature of the disease today. There are a
over what aspects of microstructure best microstructural features and vice versa. It number of possible reasons for the lack of
reect mechanical loading in life. Age has been shown that survival of DNA tends hip fractures in the medieval group. One,
determination and activity studies target to be poorer in bones with advanced which was suggested by a study of cut-
cortical bone. microstructural deterioration but the sections of vertebrae, was that structural
As well as causing grossly visible relationship is not strong enough to predict features key to the strength of the spongy
changes in the bones, skeletal disease may DNA survival in individual cases. trabecular bone of the hip and spine
also affect bone microstructure. This means persisted into old age, aiding maintenance
that examination of histological sections 7.2 What can we learn from the of structural integrity even in the face of
can help us diagnose disease. For diseases histological study of bones and teeth? loss of bone density, helping to protect the
that cause distinct lesions on bone, what Studies of disease may concentrate on a women against fracture.
is needed is generally a section cut from single or a few skeletons suspected of Study of microstructural deterioration
the lesion itself. Some diseases, such as having a particular disease. Sometimes, of bone during burial can help us
osteoporosis and rickets, affect the sampling of more individuals may be understand how bone degrades in the soil.
metabolism of the skeleton as a whole. In required in disease studies. For example, At a churchyard in a deserted English
such cases, the sampling site is not normally many skeletons of different ages at death village, medieval bones showed severe
constrained by the location of lesions. might be sampled to investigate the extent microstructural degradation, but this was
The three types of hard tissue that make of age-deterioration in structural features of much less marked in later burials (17th
up teeth dentine, enamel and cementum bone in osteoporosis. Reasonable numbers 19th century). Studies like this have the
are deposited in layer structures, the former of skeletons (over about 30) are needed for potential to inform us of the rates of decay
two during childhood, the latter throughout studies of patterning in disturbances in of bone under different soil conditions.
life. Irregularities in the incremental layers enamel development and for investigating
in enamel correspond to disturbances in differences in activity patterns within or 7.3 Taking histological samples
enamel formation, which in turn may relate between communities. Work on testing Samples, generally less than 1cm wide, are
to episodes of disease or poor nutrition methods of age determination usually taken by sawing free a slice of bone (usually
during the time in childhood when the requires large numbers (about 100 or more). a half section so as not to cut completely
enamel was laid down. Studies of the Histology is becoming an increasingly through the bone), or by removing a plug
frequency and timing of these features important aid to the diagnosis of disease of bone with a small drill. The sample
enable the study of patterns of childhood in ancient bones. It is of more use in then needs to be prepared, a process that
disease and malnutrition. Most of the some types of disease than others it is normally involves embedding it in a resin
enamel layers outcrop on the surface of the particularly useful in the study of disease and grinding and polishing the surface to
tooth, so irregularities in them can be caused by imbalances in bone metabolism, be examined. If samples of diseased bone
observed without damage to the specimen. such as osteoporosis and vitamin deciency are required then this may significantly
Large defects can be seen with the naked conditions. Poor mineralisation of bone is a compromise future studies of the lesions.

13
Work aimed at investigating activity monument. Studies done in the 19th The memorial was not on land subject
patterns normally requires more than century by the great Victorian biologist to Church of England jurisdiction, so
one bone to be sampled per skeleton. In Thomas Henry Huxley led to the belief that permission to disturb the remains was
some cases advanced microstructural the skeleton was of Henry LeVesconte, a sought from the Ministry of Justice. This
deterioration can make it impossible to lieutenant aboard one of Franklins ships. was forthcoming, with the proviso that
study many microstructural features, and In 2009, a plan was implemented for a the remains be reinterred beneath the
it is difficult to predict in advance the programme of building works which monument when the building works
preservation of bone at the histological included the removal of the Franklin were complete.
level (the outward appearance of the bone Monument to a more prominent position in The authorities at Greenwich
is no guide to this). the chapel at the Old Royal Naval College. contacted the closest living relative of
This provided an opportunity for the rst Henry LeVesconte, and obtained his
8 Case Studies modern scientic examination of the agreement to the removal of the remains
skeleton. The purposes of the scientic work and to their scientic study which, it
8.1 The case of the Arctic explorer were two-fold. First, to try and conrm or was explained, might potentially involve
In the Old Royal Naval College at Greenwich refute the personal identication made in destruction of bone or tooth samples. The
there is a monument to the mid-19th- the 19th century and, second, to attempt to remains were removed to a laboratory for
century expedition to the Canadian Arctic shed light on reasons for the loss of the scientic analysis.
commanded by Sir John Franklin. The expedition. This latter has been debated Henry LeVesconte was known from
purpose of the expedition was to discover over the last 150 years, and various theories historic documents to have spent his
the North-West Passage, but disaster have been put forward. These include that childhood in Devon. In an effort to try
overtook it and all members perished. the men may have suffered lead poisoning and check this identication, a tooth was
In the late 19th century a skeleton of an from the tinned food that the expedition removed from the skeleton, and strontium
officer from the expedition was recovered was provided with, or that they may have and oxygen isotope analysis undertaken.
from the Arctic and interred beneath the been weakened by tuberculosis. The strontium values were not very

Fig 11 (a) Part of a humerus

a b c (upper arm bone). Attempts
were made in the 19th century
to repair a break in this specimen
by inserting a gutta percha dowel
reinforced with wire (which can
be seen just protruding from the
top of the bone). The other limb
bones in this skeleton were intact,
so this one was selected for
sampling for radiocarbon dating.
An X-ray (b) was taken prior to
sampling so that the dowel could
be visualised. The wire shows
clearly, and within the bone the
end of the dowel, projecting just
beyond the wire, is faintly visible.
This enabled the 19th-century
repair to be avoided when the
sample was removed (c).

14
diagnostic they matched those found some of the researchers who had been Head of Collections, and Head of
in many regions of Britain (although they involved in the work on the skeleton. Department. The analyses were undertaken
did allow areas on chalk geology to be blind the researcher who conducted
excluded) but the oxygen isotope ratio 8.2 Parity and weaning in 18th- and the isotope determinations did not know
was atypical of south-west Britain and 19th-century London the sex, age or parity status of individual
more consistent with an origin in eastern The human osteological series from Christ skeletons until after the analyses
Scotland or eastern England. This meant Church Spitalfields, London, includes many were complete.
that the original identication of the skeletons of adults and juveniles who could The study revealed no signicant
skeleton as LeVesconte was unlikely to be be identified from the inscriptions on their difference in isotope determinations
correct. Several officers on the expedition coffin plates. The series is held temporarily between adult males and adult females
are known to have grown up in regions at the Natural History Museum in London with no documented pregnancies, few
consistent with the isotopic results. under a Faculty and with permission from pregnancies or many pregnancies. The
Portraits of some of these men exist, and the friends of Christ Church Spitalfields. study did not support the suggestion that
facial reconstruction from the skeleton It has been widely used for osteo- parity status could account for male and
permitted tentative identication of the archaeological, forensic and clinical female differences in nitrogen isotope
remains as of one of the ships assistant research. In particular, the coffin plate ratios in archaeological populations.
surgeons, who came from Fife in Scotland. series of identified skeletons has been Results do not prove that parity does not
The researchers informed the LeVesconte used to test and develop techniques for affect nitrogen stable isotope ratios since
relative of the results, and initiated contact estimation of age at death, sex other factors such as sample size, possible
with living relatives of the expeditions determination, and to evaluate other under-recording of pregnancies (which
assistant surgeon to inform them of the ideas and assumptions concerning the were estimated from baptism registers) and
ndings and to attempt to reconstruct interpretation of human skeletons. bone turnover during the interval between
family history with a view to assessing the Nitrogen stable isotope determinations last pregnancy and death could inuence
viability of conrming the identity of the are routinely used as a measure of trophic the outcome of this study. The weaning
burial using DNA analysis. However, level, and can be used to track the weaning study provided useful information on the
it transpired that conrming the process. Studies of adult skeletons at some diversity of nursing behaviour in 18th- and
identication using DNA was unlikely to archaeological sites have revealed that 19th-century London. It also revealed that
be feasible because genealogical research adult males and females had different nitrogen stable isotope ratio elevation
showed that the individual in question values, suggesting a possible difference associated with breastfeeding can be
fathered no recorded children and no in male and female diet. An alternative detected in the ribs of infants by the age
continuous male or female line could be explanation is that nitrogen stable isotope of 56 weeks, which is useful information
traced from his siblings. ratios in female skeletons were lower due for the interpretation of other
The skeleton showed no obvious signs to a succession of pregnancies (nitrogen archaeological series.
of tuberculosis, but the disease does not metabolism may be altered during
always affect the bones. A bone sample pregnancy). The series from Christ Church 8.3 The lost bones of Harold II, the last
from a vertebra was analysed for bacterial Spitalelds provided an opportunity to test Saxon king of England
DNA from the microorganisms that cause this idea since parity status has been King Harold II was killed in 1066 at the
the disease, and this proved negative. researched using historical records. If the Battle of Hastings. His burial place has
This could mean that the DNA failed to number of pregnancies has an effect on never been conclusively identified. The
survive or that the individual did not have nitrogen stable isotope ratios, it is predicted Bayeux Tapestry shows Harold praying
tuberculosis. Microscopic study of a cut that adult females who had not had at Bosham Church prior to his journey to
section of cortical bone indicated that children would have the same values as Normandy in 1064. The Holy Trinity
the microstructure of the bone survived adult males, females who had experienced Church, Bosham, has been suggested as a
very well. Although not conclusive, this many pregnancies (four or more) would possible last resting place for his remains.
suggests that bacterial DNA probably have lower values, and females who had In 1954, during works renewing the floor
ought to have survived if the individual experienced one to three pregnancies of the church, a medieval stone coffin was
had had tuberculosis, so the negative would show intermediate values. encountered, and was reported to contain
results may more likely mean that he did An application was submitted for the bones of an adult male. Could this
not have the disease. sampling rib bone from skeletons of adult burial be Harold? A project initiated in
The part of the tooth that was not used females of known parity, a control sample 2003 aimed to excavate the grave and take
for the isotope work and a sample of bone of adult males and a series of infants and a bone sample for DNA analysis to try and
were used for analysis of lead. Work on juveniles in order to (1) investigate the shed further light on this possibility. A
this is still ongoing, but it is hoped that the possible effect of parity on isotope television production company undertook
content and distribution of lead within the determinations and (2) reconstruct weaning to meet the costs of the work. Because
tissues at a microscopic level may help to behaviour in 18th- and 19th-century the burial lay in a church still in use for
shed more light on the lead-poisoning London. The application specied that worship, it was on land subject to the legal
theory. samples would be removed alongside an effects of consecration. Therefore, the
The remains were reburied beneath the existing break and that skeletons with no granting of a Church of England Faculty
Franklin Memorial in 2009, and a special damaged ribs would not be sampled. All was required if the work was to proceed.
memorial service was held. It was attended bones were photographed by the curator The Consistory Court of the Diocese of
by descendants of the explorers, and and images were attached to the destructive Chichester met to consider the case.
representatives from Canada, including the testing application. The application was The Consistory Court was mindful of
Canadian High Commissioner, as well as by considered and approved by the curator, the presumption in ecclesiastical law

15
against disturbance of human remains. 9 Procedures and terms of 9.3 Standard terms of access to the
However, it also recognised the legitimate access for human remains: the human remains from St Peters Church
historic interest in establishing the burial example of St Peters Church Barton-upon-Humber
place of King Harold, the only monarch Barton-upon-Humber
since Edward the Confessor for whom Procedures for consideration of
this is not known. It was therefore open St Peters Church Barton-upon-Humber is applications
in principle to allowing the work, no longer used for worship, and is under Access to the skeletal material kept at
provided that the applicants could make the care of English Heritage. Part of the Barton is normally restricted to suitably
a compelling case for it. To help the Court church is used for the storage of over 2,700 qualified individuals conducting research in
arrive at a decision they took advice from burials excavated during archaeological a relevant discipline, although requests for
appropriate experts. investigations in the church and churchyard. access for other reasons will be considered.
A report from a historian considered The church is still consecrated. Placement Postgraduate students may be granted
the likelihood, based on historic evidence, of remains here satisfies a wish expressed access provided a supervisors letter of
that Harold was interred at Bosham, and by the Church that human remains should recommendation is submitted. Under-
considered other existing theories that he be returned to consecrated ground after graduate applications will be considered
was buried at Waltham Abbey or his body excavation, and at the same time allows only in exceptional circumstances.
was disposed of at sea. The report the remains to continue to be accessed by Applications will be considered by
indicated that although it was impossible researchers. They are an internationally the Barton Human Remains Research
to disentangle fact from literary or important collection, and are much in Committee (BHRRC) and applicants will
politically inspired artice, the most demand for research purposes. To illustrate be informed of their decision
compelling case could be made for some of the procedures for managing The BHRRC reserves the right to seek
Waltham Abbey, a foundation that Harold access to this collection, including for the external advice as necessary
himself had endowed. Neither written purposes of destructive sampling, the pro
sources, nor the Bayeux Tapestry, forma which applicants need to complete General terms of access
supported Bosham as a burial place. is reproduced below, as are the procedures Applicants are reminded that it is a legal
With regard to the scientic analysis, for considering applications for access, and ethical obligation that human remains
the applicants proposed removing a sample and the terms under which access may be at all times treated with respect
of bone from the femur of the burial for be granted. Human skeletal remains are fragile.
their DNA work (the 1954 excavation had Applicants should handle remains with care
shown that the burial lacked a skull so there 9.1 Pro forma for access to remains at all times.
were no teeth to sample). For the purposes Pro formas help ensure that the correct Any material removed from boxes for
of identication, the DNA would need to be information is gathered prior to study on- or off-site should be returned to
compared with that of paternal ancestors or considering an application, and that its correct bag and box after study.
descendants. The applicants proposed different applications are treated fairly The BHRRC should be informed of
comparison with present-day members of and openly. Set out below is the pro forma any problems associated with the curation
the Godwin family, Harolds living relatives. which applicants need to complete to of the collection, e.g. damage to or
Y chromosomal DNA would potentially be request access to the human remains stored deterioration of specimens.
useful if a direct patrilineal descent could at St Peters Church. Note that part B of The BHRRC should be provided with a
be traced genealogically from Harold or a the form refers to requests for destructive copy of the dissertation, thesis or published
sibling. This seemed highly unlikely over so sampling. articles based on the study of material in
many centuries, but nevertheless, three the collection.
people came forward, each claiming a 9.2 Procedures for considering requests English Heritage and the BHRRC should
direct patrilineal link with Harold. for access to remains receive acknowledgement in any published
However, testing of their DNA showed they A Barton Human Remains Research articles based on study of remains in the
had three different Y chromosome Committee (BHRRC) was set up to collection.
sequences. Because a comparator who administer access to the remains at Whilst working on the remains at
could demonstrate an unambiguous direct St Peters Church. The BHRRC comprises Barton, all reasonable requests from the
patrilineal link with Harold was lacking, representatives of the English Heritage and English Heritage staff at Barton Church
exhuming the remains and sampling them Parochial Council of St Marys Church, should be complied with.
for DNA seemed futile. Barton-upon-Humber, as well as external The BHRRC reserves the right to confer
Taking into account the advice they experts in human remains. The aim was to additional terms of access in individual
had received on the historical and scientic assemble a committee with a mixture of cases as it sees t.
aspects of the case, the Consistory Court expertise and experience in Church, The BHRRC reserves the right to
concluded that, although the question of curatorial, archaeological and scientific terminate access if the access conditions are
King Harolds burial place was of potential matters. The BHRRC considers requests violated.
interest, the applicants proposed for access to human remains using the flow-
programme of archaeological and scientic chart set out below. Where the proposed Additional conditions covering loans
work was not likely to advance knowledge work involves destructive analyses, it of material
in that respect. It was felt that the case considers the proposals against the criteria Researchers must not remove any remains
made by the applicants was insufficient set out in Section 2.3 of the current from site without written permission from
to override the presumption of non- document. the BHRRC
disturbance of human remains. Hence, In cases where permission has been
the application was refused. granted by the BHRRC to remove remains

16
 APPLICATION FOR RESEARCH ACCESS TO THE ENGLISH HERITAGE
HUMAN SKELETAL COLLECTION AT BARTON-UPON-HUMBER
PART A: to be completed by all applicants
Applicant
Name: Academic affiliation:
Email: Telephone:
Postal address:

Academic status of applicant

Masters student/PhD student/University employee (please specify job title)/Other (please specify):

Name of supervisor
Email: Telephone:
Postal address:
FOR STUDENT APPLICATIONS A SUPERVISORS LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION
SHOULD BE SUBMITTED ALONG WITH THE COMPLETED FORMS

Aims and purpose of research. Please explain briefly the nature of your research and why the skeletal material you are
requesting access to is needed for it. Include the overall rationale for your research and how the Barton collection contributes
to this. Please also specify whether you require access to the entire collection or a subset of it (eg juvenile skeletons etc).
Please summarise the above in no more than 500 words.

Data to be recorded and methods to be used

Dates when access will be required

Is loan of material requested? YES/NO

If yes please give details of material required; loan period requested; where material will be kept whilst on loan

Does the work involve destructive analysis YES/NO

If yes, please fill in PART B of this form

Is publication intended? YES/NO If yes please give details

I have read and accept the procedures and terms of access

Signature of applicant (scanned signature acceptable)

Countersignature by supervisor (students only; scanned signature acceptable)

PART B: to be completed by applicants conducting destructive analyses

Please detail what destructive techniques are to be used

What specific research questions will the analyses address?

What is the likelihood of useful information being obtained?

Please indicate:
a what skeletal elements are to be sampled and at what location on the bone
b how many specimens will be sampled
c how much tissue will be taken from each specimen
d how samples will be removed.
Please also specify the context numbers that you intend to sample from, if known at this stage.

Please email completed forms to Simon Mays: simon.mays@english-heritage.org.uk

17
from site, a loan agreement form must be
completed and countersigned by the EH Application pro forma sent out in
curator/registrar at the time remains are response to contact by applicant
taken. wishing to access remains
In cases where BHRRC grants
permission for loan of material, a date by
which material should be returned will be
specied.
Loans will normally be for a period of Completed application form Any further
less than 6 months. Requests for loans for received by Chair of BHRRC detail needed
periods of more than 6 months will only be from applicants
considered in exceptional circumstances.
elicited by
Researchers should be able to provide
Chair
safe and secure transportation for remains Approach Completed application forms
borrowed, and details should be agreed external and any further information
with the curator. advisor(s) circulated to BHRRC, together
Researchers should ensure that any if needed with Chairs provisional decision
remains borrowed are kept in a secure store
under conditions which ensure the physical Revise decision
integrity of the remains and which comply if needed
with standards set out in Guidance for the
Care of Human Remains in Museums (DCMS, Chair collates comments from
2005) and Guidance for Best Practice for
BHRRC members
Treatment of Human Remains Excavated from
Christian Burial Grounds in England (English
Heritage, 2005). These and any further
conditions of loan will be incorporated into Final decision reached and
a loan agreement signed by both parties. applicant informed

Additional conditions covering

destructive analyses Permission Permission
No samples should be removed for refused granted
destructive analysis without written
permission from the BHRRC.
For permission for destructive analysis
to be given, the BHRRC needs, minimally,
Paperwork Applicant
to satisfy itself that the research questions
archived informed of
could not be adequately addressed using
general and
non-destructive techniques; that the
any specific
analyses have a realistic prospect of conditions
producing useful knowledge; and that the of access
sampling strategy is designed to keep
damage to the collection to a minimum.
When samples are removed for Flowchart summarising procedures
destructive analysis, a list of the samples for consideration of requests for
taken should be presented to the BHRCC. access to the human remains stored in Paperwork
In addition, a note should be placed in the St Peters Church Barton-upon-Humber archived
box from whence each specimen was taken
giving brief details of the sample removed;
the analysis that will be performed on it;
the date the sample was removed; and the
name and affiliation of the researcher who
took the sample.
Any unused samples removed for
destructive analysis should be returned by
the researcher to their correct bag and box.

18
10 Further reading 11 Where to get advice Acknowledgements

The following books are introductions to the The Advisory Panel on the Archaeology of This document began life as a guide to
scientific study of human remains aimed at Burials in England (APABE) was set up in sampling human skeletal remains for DNA
the non-specialist. They contain sections on 2010 under the auspices of the Ministry of and, following consultation, was subsequently
the techniques described in this guideline. Justice, English Heritage and the Church of broadened to encompass other scientific
England. APABE gives free casework advice techniques that require destructive sampling.
Mays S 2010. The Archaeology of Human to professionals involved in archaeological APABE has advised throughout the
Bones, 2nd edition. Routledge, London. projects in England dealing with human development of the guideline. We are grateful
remains. Its members cover a wide range of to the following for their comments on the
Roberts C A 2009. Human Remains in expertise, and its remit encompasses advice DNA draft: The Association of Diocesan and
Archaeology: A Handbook. Practical on ethical and legal matters as well as Cathedral Archaeologists, Michael Binder
Archaeology Handbooks No. 19. Council scientific advice. APABE can be contacted (University of Durham), Marta Diaz-Zorita
for British Archaeology, York. via its website: www.britarch.ac.uk/apabe Bonilla (University of Durham), British
Association of Biological Anthropology and
To follow up the case studies: Osteoarchaeology, Don Brothwell (University
of York), Keri Brown (University of
The case of the Arctic explorer. Mays S, Manchester), Terry Brown (University of
Ogden A, Montgomery J, Vincent S, Manchester), Gill Campbell (English
Batterby W, Taylor G M 2010. New light on Heritage), Cathedral and Church Buildings
the personal identification of a member of Division (Church of England), Marieke Gernay
Sir John Franklins last expedition to the (University of Durham), Rebecca Gowland
Arctic, 1845. Journal of Archaeological (University of Durham), Andrew Hammon
Science 38: 15711582. (English Heritage), Charlotte Henderson
(University of Durham), Honouring the
Parity and weaning in 18th- and Ancient Dead, Institute for Archaeologists,
19th-century London. Nitsch E K, Tina Jakob (University of Durham), Malin
Humphrey L T, Hedges R E M 2011. Holst (York Osteoarchaeology), Greger Larson
The effect of parity status on delta(15)N: (University of Durham), Edmund Lee (English
looking for the pregnancy effect in 18th Heritage), Kirsty McCarrison (University of
and 19th century London. Journal of Durham), Janet Montgomery (University of
Archaeological Science 37: 31913199. And: Durham), Oxford Archaeology, Pagans for
Nitsch E K, Humphrey L T, Hedges R E M Archaeology, Mike Parker Pearson (University
2011. Using stable isotope analysis to College London), Julie Peacock (University of
examine the effects of economic change Durham), Fiona Pitt (Plymouth City Museum
on breastfeeding practices in Spitalfields, and Art Gallery), Mike Pitts (Editor, British
London, UK. American Journal of Physical Archaeology), Natasha Powers (Museum of
Anthropology 146: 619628. London Archaeology), The Prehistoric Society,
Charlotte Roberts (University of Durham),
The lost bones of Harold II, the last Saxon and Sarah Tarlow (University of Leicester).
king of England. The judgement of the We thank the following for their
Consistory Court of the Diocese of comments on the more recent draft of the
Chichester regarding the Bosham case is set document: Elizabeth Adey (Luton
out in http://www.diochi.org.uk/ Museums), Polydora Baker (English
downloads/Consistory%20Court/ Heritage), British Association of Biological
Judgements/031210%20Bosham%20 Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology,
Holy%20Trinity%20%20Judgment%20 Nigel Brown, Martin Cooke (Royal College
dated%2010%20December%202003.PDF of Surgeons), Maurice Davies (Museums
Association), Laura Hadland (Leicester
Museums), Jacqui Huntley (English
Heritage), Robert Kruszynski (Natural
History Museum), Andrew Millard
(University of Durham), Lisa Moffatt
(English Heritage), Janet Montgomery
(University of Durham), Oxford
Archaeology, Charlotte Roberts (University
of Durham), Lynne Stumpe (Liverpool
Museums), Tim Vickers (Luton Museums),
Jim Williams (English Heritage) and Fay
Worley (English Heritage). We are grateful
to Janet Montgomery, University of Durham
for Figure 9 and to the Museum of London
for the left-hand cover photograph.

19
Front cover: left: an archaeological excavation at a post- English Heritage is the Governments
medieval cemetery; centre: sampling a bone for radiocarbon statutory advisor on the historic
dating; right: a bone from which multiple samples have
been taken. environment. English Heritage provides
expert advice to the Government on all
matters relating to the historic environment
and its conservation.

For further information and copies of this

publication, quoting the Product Code,
please contact:

English Heritage
Customer Services Department
Swindon SN2 2EH
Telephone: 0870 333 1181
Email: customers@english-heritage.org.uk

If you would like this document in a

different format, please contact our
Customer Services Department:
Telephone: 0870 333 1181
Fax: 0179 341 4926
Textphone: 0179 341 4878
Email: customers@english-heritage.org.uk

Text compiled by Simon Mays, Joseph Elders,

Louise Humphrey, William White and
Peter Marshall

Copyright Advisory Panel on the

Archaeology of Burials in England

Published February 2013

Edited and brought to press by

Sarah Enticknap, English Heritage Publishing
Designed by Pauline Hull
Produced by English Heritage Publishing
Printed by Butler Tanner & Dennis Ltd

Published in association with The Advisory

Panel on Archaeology of Burials in England
(APABE)

Product Code 51801