Discriminative Listening
Discriminative Listening
Discriminative Listening
Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference
between difference sounds is identified. If you cannot hear differences, then you
cannot make sense of the meaning that is expressed by such differences.
We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language early, and later are
unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other languages. This is one reason
why a person from one country finds it difficult to speak another language perfectly, as
they are unable distinguish the subtle sounds that are required in that language.
Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in another
person's voice will be less likely to be able to discern the emotions the other person is
experiencing.
Listening is a visual as well as auditory act, as we communicate much through body
language. We thus also need to be able to discriminate between muscle and skeletal
movements that signify different meanings.
Critical listening
Critical listening is listening in order to evaluate and judge, forming opinion about what
is being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths and weaknesses, agreement
and approval.
This form of listening requires significant real-time cognitive effort as the listener
analyzes what is being said, relating it to existing knowledge and rules, whilst
simultaneously listening to the ongoing words from the speaker.
Appreciative listening
In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate, for example
that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening when we are
listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.
Empathetic listening
With every different situation, the way you listen requires a different approach. You may
be trying to learn something new, develop a relationship, build an appreciation for
something, discriminate or even make a logical evaluation. If youve never really had
success in this area, start with this course on how to become someone that people
love to talk to. Generally you need to be able to receive, focus and understand to be
able to listen, but each different type has different special skills that are needed to
master the techniques.
Discriminative
In this listening type the objective is to focus on the sounds. At its most basic level this is
akin to distinguishing the speakers gender, or the number of people in a conversation.
This is the most important type, because it forms the basis of the other four. People who
are sensitive to the speakers tone, rate of speech, pitch and emphasis allow you to
better understand when there are differences in meaning. When considering
discriminative listening there are three key parts:
1. Ability to hear. If you lack an ability to hear well you will have difficulty when you
try to discriminate between sounds. In different people this can be more acute on
specific frequencies, where they may have more trouble picking sounds from a
bass voice than a highly pitched voice.
In our own language we rapidly learn to distinguish the different sounds, but it soon
forms a habit which makes it very difficult to hear the different sounds in another
language. This is the reason many people struggle to speak a second language
perfectly, because they are unable to fully distinguish all of the subtle sounds.
Comprehensive
The ultimate goal of comprehensive listening is to understand the message the speaker
is communicating. The problem is that many people often interpret the same
conversation in different ways, depending on their individual and social backgrounds. To
fully comprehend what is being said requires you to hear the words, understand the
body language and take it to the next step by extracting the key message from a long
spiel.
This listening type is found in nearly all aspects of our life, and is one of the primary
ways that we learn. In university we listen to lectures from the instructor, and what we
learn is based on how well we can listen. The same applies to your work, as you listen to
new procedures, instructions, briefings and reports, how well you can do your job is
directly related to understanding what youre being told. If you dont listen effectively,
your work will suffer.
Comprehensive listening demands that you concentrate on the message and its source,
and you can work to improve your ability by focusing on these three variables.
1. Vocabulary. Its hard to determine the precise relationship, but having a larger
vocabulary significantly increases your ability to understand whats being said.
Luckily its never too late to improve the different words you know, so make a
conscious effort to learn new words and understand the unfamiliar. This recent
post is a great start if youre trying to expand your business vocabulary. In a
pinch you can also use the context of whats being said to help you understand a
word you dont know, but this can hinder your overall understanding if you get it
wrong.
2. Concentrating. Its difficult to stay focused when youre in a lecture that isnt
exciting, or a meeting in the office that is drawn out and dancing around the
point. Weve all had times in our lives where we can admit that we havent
concentrated on what was being said to us. Sometimes this happens because
your attention is divided, or the listener is preoccupied with something else.
Sometimes the listener is simply more concerned with their own needs, and lacks
the curiosity, interest and energy to stay focused. Good concentration skills
require motivation and discipline.
3. Memory. Because you cannot process information without using your memory,
its critical in comprehensive listening. It helps you to establish expectations of
what youll encounter, and gives you the background and experiences to function
in the world. Understanding at its simplest point is knowing the meaning behind
words, concepts and ideas, so you can communicate with other people. If youre
interested in harnessing all the power of your memory check out this course
and learn how to drastically increase your memory.
Relationship
Relationship listening is a therapeutic listening type, because the ultimate goal of the
listener is to be a sympathetic ear, without requiring detailed verbal responses. The best
example is helping a friend talk through a problem, and is critical as a base for building
strong interpersonal relationships. Being the person thats there for a friend when they
need to get things off their chest is what can make your friendship even stronger.
Relationship listening does require you to listen to the information, the focus you need to
have is on simply understanding the speaker. There are three key behaviors that help to
boost your abilities in this listening type:
1. Being present. You need to be paying attention to the speaker. This is critical
because they have a problem they want to tell you about, and you cant let your
focus drift. All your focus needs to support that youre listening, and be careful
because whilst you can read the speakers non-verbal behavior, they can also
read yours! Make sure you are present and pay attention to the speaker. One of
the best ways to do this is with eye contact, looking comfortably at the speaker
helps you connect much better than a frequently shifting gaze as you look all
around the room. Your body language also reinforces your attention, leaning
towards the speaker with an open posture shows your interest, while leaning
back with crossed arms shows a lack of it. Build on this with smiles, frowns,
nodding and small phrases like oh I see, uh huh and yes are all supportive,
and using a pleasant tone of voice with a genuine concern for the other party will
help your relationship immensely.
2. Being supportive. There are many responses that can have an adverse affect
on your relationship, and you should never interrupt the speaker, change the
subject or spin the conversation so you can talk about yourself. All of these prove
your lack of concern for the speaker, and in many cases giving advice and
attempting to influence the conversation will have an adverse effect on the
relationship youre trying to build. Often the best response is to remain silent,
because many speakers are simply looking for a sounding board someone to
listen while they talk through the problem they are having. To be a great
relationship listener you need to know both when to talk and when to listen, and
they generally listen much more than they actually talk. Aim to be discrete, show
a belief in the ability of the speaker and have patience as they talk it out. Master
these three and youll make great progress as a relationship listener!
3. Being empathetic. This is all about feeling and thinking with the speaker. If
youre truly an empathetic listener you can see the problem from the speakers
eyes and feel what they feel. If you can do this effectively, youll form very strong
relationships with your friends. Obviously the more experience you have in your
life allows you a better chance to do this, as an individual who has never gone
through a divorce, lost a child, or declared bankruptcy is going to have a much
more difficult time relating to their friends who are going through a similar
problem. The risk is that you cant be effective as an empathetic listener without
getting involved, and sometimes you can learn more than you really wanted to
know.
Focus on learning the most you can about the other person, and accept them even if
there are certain aspects of their behavior you dont agree with. Were all capable of
being fantastic relationship listeners, and doing it well will strengthen your interpersonal
relationships immensely.
Critical
When listeners have to evaluate a message and respond with their opinion, this is called
critical listening. You need to scrutinize what is being said, and play an active role
because it usually requires you to make a decision, form an opinion or solve a problem.
Making a judgment requires you to assess the situation, and requires you to both listen
to whats being said while analyzing it at the same time.
Being able to listen critically is fundamental to being able to truly learn. All of the
decisions we make on a daily basis have a basis (however small) in critical listening. Its
important that you have an open mind and not let bias or stereotypes influence your
judgment, and by doing so youll become a much better listener. Focus on these three
aspects as you perfect your critical listening skills
1. Is the speaker a credible source, who is both an expert on the subject being
discussed and that I can trust to be giving honest and unbiased information?
2. Reflect on whats being said and decide for yourself if its true. Consider the
sources of information, the data used, and if it really is the right conclusion that
has been drawn.
3. Think about the speakers intent, and make sure youre not following an
emotional response. Sound critical listening skills are based on logic.
Appreciative
The final type of listening is listening for the sake of pure enjoyment. This includes
music, theater, television, radio and films, where the ultimate response is the one from
the listener (not the speaker). Listening appreciatively differs for everyone, and the
quality of it depends on three factors.
1. Presentation. This includes the medium, the setting and who the speaker is.
Sounds can be produced in many different ways, and their presentation is key
most of us have particular ways we like to listen.
Being an appreciative listener is not fixed, and as you learn and discover more about
yourself, you can open your mind and appreciate more of what is out there in the world
and become a better appreciative listener.
Most people take listening for granted. They see it as something that just happens and
dont ever make an effort to develop their skills. Its only when you stop and look into the
details that you realize its one of the most important skills you can develop, and will
have a positive impact on every other aspect of your life. Not only personally, but in your
business as well. Find out in this course how you can apply all of this to really listen
to your customers. Start your journey today and build your own fantastic skill set for
every type of listening.
Chapter 4
Types of Listening
Different situations require different types of listening. We may listen to obtain
information, improve a relationship, gain appreciation for something, make
discriminations, or engage in a critical evaluation.
Informative Listening
Informative listening is the name we give to the situation where the listeners
primary concern is to understand the message. Listeners are successful insofar
as the meaning they assign to messages is as close as possible to that which the
sender intended.
There are three key variables related to informative listening. Knowing these
variables can help you begin to improve your informative listening skills; that
is, you will become increasingly successful in understanding what the speaker
means.
Look for these and other contextual clues to help you learn new words and
improve your vocabulary.
There are many reasons people dont concentrate when listening. Sometimes
listeners try to divide their attention between two competing stimuli. At other
times, listeners are preoccupied with something other than the speaker of the
moment. Sometimes listeners are too ego-involved, or too concerned with their
own needs to concentrate on the message being delivered. Or perhaps they lack
curiosity, energy, or interest. Many people simply have not learned to
concentrate while listening. Others just refuse to discipline themselves, lacking
the motivation to accept responsibility for good listening. Concentration
requires discipline, motivation, and acceptance of responsibility.
c. It allows you to understand what others say. Without simple memory of the
meaning of words, you could not communicate with anyone else. Without
memory of concepts and ideas, you could not understand the meaning of
messages.
Relationship Listening
1. Attending. Much has been said about the importance of paying attention,
or attending behavior. In relationship listening, attending behaviors indicate
that the listener is focusing on the speaker. Nonverbal cues are crucial in
relationship listening; that is, your nonverbal behavior indicates that you are
attending to the speaker or that you arent!
Sometimes the best response is silence. The speaker may need a sounding
board, not a resounding board. Wise relationship listeners know when to
talk and when to just listenand they generally listen more than they talk.
Obviously, the person who has had more experience and lived longer stands a
better chance of being an effective empathic listener. The person who has never
been divorced, lost a child to death, been bankrupt, or lost a job may have a
more difficult time relating to people with these problems than one who has
experienced such things.
Empathic behavior can be learned. First, you must learn as much as you can
about the other person. Second, you must accept the other personeven if you
cant accept some aspects of that persons behavior. Third, you must have the
desire to be an empathic listener. And you must remember that empathy is
crucial to effective relationship listening.
Appreciative Listening
1. Presentation. I just mentioned that I prefer gospel music to hard rock. But I
dont enjoy all gospel. For example, I dont enjoy gospel music when it is
presented in a glitzy settingor when it is performed by someone who fails
to demonstrate an understanding of the musics meaning. (I might add that I
dont usually enjoy gospel when it is off-key or poorly donebut there are
exceptions, such as the time I heard a 103-year-old man sing Amazing Grace.
Never have I enjoyed it more!)
I enjoy gospel music when I hear it in the little churches of rural Alabama. I
also enjoy it when it is presented in the large church I attend in Montgomery. I
also very much enjoy presentations of gospel music on radio, on television, or
in concert by well-known performers who understand its meaning.
I enjoy hearing good speakers, speakers whom I admire, and speakers who
have expertise. I frequently attend lectures at Air University by speakers who
have all three of these characteristics. Among the speakers I have heard there
recently: General Charles Chuck Horner, the air component commander of
Desert Storma war dominated by airpower; Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dr
John White; former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Colin
Powell; and US Ambassador to the UN, Jeanne Kirkpatrick. I have heard many
other outstanding speakers at Air University, of coursethese four simply
came to mind readily as examples of speakers who had all three of the
characteristics mentioned above: all were good speakers; all had my
admiration; and all had a great deal of expertise.
Presentation encompasses many factors: the medium, the setting, the style and
personality of the presenter, to name just a few. Sometimes it is our perception
of the presentation, rather than the actual presentation, that most influences our
listening pleasure or displeasure. Perception is an important factor in
appreciative listening.
2. Perception. For years, I did not care to listen to jazz music. I had always
believed that people like mefrom a conservative rural midwestern
backgroundwouldnt like jazz. Then I started to work for a new bossa
general officer who enjoyed jazz. I admired him very much. My mind was now
open to listen to jazz. My perception was changing, and I began to enjoy jazz
music.
Six years ago, I wrote a book called Speaking Effectively: A Guide for Air
Force Speakers.* The book you are now reading is a companion volume to that
one. I wrote the first book in longhand; Im composing this one on my PC.
Fortunately for me, my attitude toward computers has changed. If my attitude
had changed six years sooner, I could have written the earlier book in less time
and saved both time and effort for the publisher.
__________
*John A. Kline, Speaking Effectively (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press,
1989).
Perceptions influence all areas of our lives. Certainly, they are crucial
determinants as to whether or not we enjoy or appreciate the things we listen to.
Obviously, perceptions also determine what we listen to in the first place. As
we said earlier, listening is selective.
Many people enjoy the sounds of large-city traffic. Perhaps their growing up in
a large city was a happy experience for them. The blare of horns honking, the
sound of roaring engines accelerating, even the shrill shriek of sirens piercing
the airall these things may remind them of pleasant times in their lives. They
appreciate hearing these sounds.
But we can change! Lets return to the example of how I learned to enjoy
listening to jazz. I did not enjoy jazz music when I first heard it. Then I worked
for a man who enjoyed it. More than once when we were TDY, I sat with him
in the evenings listening to jazz combos or jazz pianists . . . and I learned to like
jazz. We should not shut our minds to the fact that we can learn to like, enjoy,
and appreciate new and different things. We can learn to be better appreciative
listeners.
Critical Listening
The subject of critical listening deserves much more attention than we can
afford it here. But there are three things to keep in mind. These three things
were outlined by Aristotle, the classical Greek rhetorician, more than 2,000
years ago in his treatise, The Rhetoric.* They are as follows: ethos, or speaker
credibility; logos, or logical arguments; and pathos, or psychological appeals.
__________
*Aristotle, Art of Rhetoric (NEW YORK: Viking Penguin, 1992).
2. Logos. Even speakers with high ethos often make errors in logic, not by
intention, but by accident, carelessness, inattention to detail, or lack of analysis.
Critical listeners have a right to expect well supported arguments from
speakers, arguments that contain both true propositions and valid inferences or
conclusions.
When evaluating arguments, listeners should ask several questions about the
proposition or statements made:
c. Are the sources of the data known to the listeners? In other words do listeners
know where the information came from?
e. Is the data representative? That is, would all the data, or at least a
preponderance of it show the same thing?
The above questions may all be answered to your satisfaction, yet the logic may
be faulty. For perhaps the data do not lead to or justify the inferences or
conclusions drawn. Listeners should ask themselves the following questions:
c. Does the data justify the inference drawn or the conclusion given?
d. Does the inference or conclusion follow from the data, or is there a non
sequitur, which means literally, it does not necessarily follow?
e. Is there evidence of strong logical thinking by the speaker?*
__________
*In Speaking Effectively (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1989), I
discuss the concept of logical thinking in more detail than is given here.
Both ethos and logos are crucial elements of critical listening. But reliance on
just these two elements without consideration of pathos would be akin to
attempting to sit on a three-legged stool with one leg missing. Pathos is the
third leg.
Speakers may appeal to any one or several needs, desires, or values that are
important to us including: adventure, thrift, curiosity, fear, creativity,
companionship, guilt, independence, loyalty, power, pride, sympathy, altruism.
There are many others, of course; the list is a long one.
There are several questions critical listeners should ask themselves when
assessing the pathos element:
e. Next week or next year will I be satisfied with the decision I am making
today?
Effective critical listening depends on the listener keeping all three elements of
the message in the analysis and in perspective: ethos, or source credibility;
logos, or logical argument; and pathos, or psychological appeals.
Discriminative Listening
Although discriminative listening cuts across the other four types of listening,
there are three things to consider about this type of listening.
1. Hearing ability. Obviously, people who lack the ability to hear well will have
greater difficulty in discriminating among sounds. Often this problem is more
acute for some frequencies, or pitches, than others. For example, a person may
be less able to discriminate when the sound is coming from a bass voice than
from a higher pitched one.
__________
*I am indebted for these examples and other ideas to Andrew Wolvin and
Carolyn Gwynn Coakley, Listening (Madison, Wis.: Brown and Benchmark,
1996).Gen John M. Loh, What It Takes to Be a Commander, Air Force
Times, 17 October 1994, 41.
3. Integration of nonverbal cues. The previous chapter pointed out how action,
nonaction, and vocal factors were important in understanding messages.
Nowhere is attention to these factors more important than in effective
discriminative listening. Words dont always communicate true feelings. The
way they are said, or the way the speaker acts, may be the key to understanding
the true or intended meaning.