Derasin Final4
Derasin Final4
Derasin Final4
Velma S. Labad
Abstract
Along this line, the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps), the
Philippines version of the conditional cash transfer, was implemented in the country
since 2008. The 4Ps has two components: health and education. Under the health
component, the program provides PhP6,000 annually (PhP500 per month) to each
family beneficiary for their health and nutrition expenses. Under the education
component, it provides PhP3,000 per child for one school year (i.e., 10 months) for
meeting educational expenses. Each family beneficiary shall receive for up to a
maximum of 3 children under the educational grant (Reyes, Tabuga, Mina, & Asis,
2013). But after almost 8 years of 4Ps implementation, how did it go along with
students academic performances specifically on their depth of vocabulary knowledge
and their reading comprehension? This is the primary question addressed in this study.
Theoretical Framework
This study is anchored primarily on Becker and Tomes (1986) model of human
investment which proposes that the amount, timing, and nature of resources allocated to
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child effects attainment. Likewise, this is also anchored on the socialization and role
model perspectives which assert that parents or older siblings transmit patterns of
behavior. Other theories are similarly considered such as, Bronfenbrenners (1994)
ecological systems theory and Colemans (1988) model of family background which
focuses on both the resources available to individuals or family units and how these
resources are transmitted (Havenman, & Wolfe, 1995). Finally, this study also
considered the resource dilution model.
Human capital is generally measured using parental education and refers to the
provision of tacit knowledge, social competence, and a cognitive environment
that promotes a childs learning. Social capital refers to approximated resources, such as
time and individuals, available for support and intellectual tasks; as well as social norms
and values (Coleman, 1988). Theories have been proposed to account for this
phenomenon, but there is little consensus about which explanation is the most powerful.
One reason is that, in spite of the stability of the phenomenon, there is also considerable
variation in strength of effects across educational systems and learning domains
(Barone, 2006). This is one endeavor, the present study wished to find out.
The resource dilution model is based on the assumption that parental resources
are finite and have to be shared between children within a family. Every additional
sibling means a reduction in the share allocated to each child, thus reducing one of the
foundations of their intellectual development. Financial resources, invested by parents in
a childs education for example, appear to be more vulnerable to the number of siblings
(Downey, 1995, 2001; Steelman, Powell, Werum, & Carter, 2002). According to the
resource dilution model, parental resources available do not decline linearly with every
additional child. Rather, the decline in parental resources as the number of children
within a family increases comes closest to the theoretical equation y=1/x (Downey,
1995), where x represents the total number of children in the family and y represents the
parental resources available such as financial resources for education.
Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 shows the conceptual paradigm of the study. The independent variable
is the secondary students socio economic status which includes: (a) parents
educational attainment (father and mother), (b) family income, (c) number of siblings,
and (d) birth order in the family. The dependent variable is the students depth of
vocabulary knowledge, and reading comprehension performances.
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Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Research Questions
This study aimed to find out whether secondary students socioeconomic status
could have an effect on the depth of their vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension performances. Specifically, the study aimed to find answers to the
following questions:
1) What is the profile of the socioeconomic status of secondary students in terms of: (a)
parental education (father and mother), (b) income, (c) number of siblings, and (d)
birth order?
2) What is the level of the students performance in reading comprehension and depth
of vocabulary knowledge?
Null Hypothesis
The following null hypothesis were formulated and tested at <.05 level of
significance.
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Method
Research Design
The study describes the socioecomic attributes of the students. These attributes
are the following: (a) parents (both mother and father) education attainment, (b)
income, number of siblings, (c) birth order. Likewise, it dwelt into the decription of the
students depth of vocabulary knowledge and their reading comprehesion. It further
investigated whether relationships existed among the students socioeconomic status,
depth of vocabulary knowledge and the reading comprehension. Finally, it investigated
the differences of the students depth of vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension when grouped according to their socioeconomic status.
Respondents
The respondents of the study were the secondary students of one of the public
high schools of Davao City. Universal and convenience sampling was employed. The
use of convenience sampling technique is discouraged due to its inability to generalise
research findings, the relevance of bias and high sampling error. Nevertheless
convenience sampling is the only option available in the study at hand. The seconday
school is convenient because access to the respondents is easily negotiated through
existing contacts (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2012).
There were over 7000 student populace, however only 3035 students have
completed all the 3 questionnaires and have returned signed informed consents from
their parents as well as their own informed assents. Moreover, the other variable
considered is whether the student is a beneficiary of 4Ps.
Research Instruments
Three sets of instruments were used in the study. The first instrument is the
questionnaire on the socioeconomic status of the respondents. It asked the following
information: (a) father and mothers educational attainment, (b) income, (c) number of
siblings, and (d) birth order of the family.
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The third questionnaire was the reading comprehension test. The test was
comprised of 4 reading passages. It is followed by a question with four choices to
choose from. The students were instucted to circle the letter of the best answer. It was a
20 item test. A sample question is shown:
Asking letter permissions. Letter permissions were written; first letter was
addressed to the Dean of the College of Education with subsequent request for a letter
endorsement for the Schools Division Superintendent (SDS) of DepEd, Davao City.
Second letter was addressed to the SDS with ensuing request for an endorsement letter
to the school principal. Third letter was addressed to the school principal with succeding
request for an endorsement letter addressed to the teacher advisers. Fourth letter was
addressed to the teacher advisers with further request for an endorsement letter
addressed to the respondents parents. Fifth letter was addressed to the parents to allow
their children to participate in the study.
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On the first day, light snacks were distributed first and then the word associate
tests were administered. It took the students 30 minutes to finish the test. And on the
second and final day, the same procedure was followed, light snacks preceded before
the administration of the reading comprehension test. The test was done in 35 minutes.
Checking, tallying, collating and recording of the data. The word associate and
reading comprehension tests were checked and scored. Data were encoded in excel for
easy encoding in the SPSS. The recording observed rigid matching of the respondents
scores in the word associate and reading comprehension tests. Likewise, it strictly
observed that the socioeconomic status of the students perfectly matched with that of the
students scores in the two other questionnaires.
Ethical Considerations
Equally, the students were informed that even if their parents have given their
informed consent for them to participate in the study; they are free to leave the room
should they desire not to participate in the study. They were duly informed that they will
take three tests- metacognitive and cognitive reading strategies, word associate and
reading comprehension tests. This will be done on three consecutive noon breaks
(between 12:00-12:30). They will be given light snacks prior to the administration of the
tests. However, even if they have taken the first test and decide later not to continue the
test, they are free to do so and nothing could be considered against their standing in
school.
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Statistical Design
Frequency, mean and standard deviation were used to get the profile of the
secondary students in terms of: (a) socioeconomic status, (b) metacognitive and
cognitive reading strategies, (c) word associates and reading comprehension tests.
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Figure 4 presents the number of
siblings in the family. As shown, a 70
typical family has 2 to 4 (66.5%) siblings. 60
This is followed by 5 to 7 siblings 50 only child
(20.5%). There are families who have 8 40 2-4 siblings
and above siblings (4.6%) and there are 30 5-7 siblings
also families who only have a child 20 8 above siblings
(8.4%). 10
0
Figure 4. Profile of the respondents number of
siblings (n=3035).
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Significant relationships of students reading comprehension
depth of vocabulary knowledge and their socio economic status
As can be gleaned in table 1, the mothers (r=.121, <.01; r=.169, <.01) and
fathers (r=.104, <.01; r=.135, <.01) educational attainment is significantly correlated
with reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge. This goes to say that
the higher the educational attainment of the parents, the better is the students
performance in reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge tests.
The result of the present study confirms Hamids (2011) study. His study
examined the relationships between secondary school students family socioeconomic
characteristics and their academic achievement in English in a rural sub-district in
Bangladesh. The result revealed patterned relationships between the students family
income and parental education and their academic achievement in English. Students
who had higher levels of parental education and family income were more likely to
obtain higher scores on the proficiency test as well as higher grades in English in the
Secondary School Certificate examination.
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Roscigno (2000) likewise, found that parent education correlated with student
reading comprehension in grades 1-8. Guthrie, Schafer, and Huang (2001) and Snow et
al. (1991) report similar results when examining the reading comprehension skills of
students in grade 4. Gill (1997) also notes a significant correlation between parent
education and reading comprehension in grade 6, but Snow et al. (1991) did not find
this relationship in grades 2 or 6. The small sample (N=32; 11 second graders, 12 fourth
graders, and 9 sixth graders) employed by Snow et al. (1991) may explain the variation
in their outcomes. Though, Poe, Burchinal, and Roberts (2004) investigation of the
relation between mothers education and grade 2 reading achievement (including
comprehension) in a sample of African American students also reported a correlation
which was not significant.
On the other hand, Rauh, Parker, Garfinkel, Perry, and Andrews (2003) report
that having a mother with less than a high school education resulted in a significant drop
in students reading percentile. While there is research suggesting a significant
relationship between parental education and reading comprehension, the nature of that
relationship has been shown to vary based on the sample and measures employed
(Lindo, 2007; Sirin, 2005). The present study manifested weak relationships among
secondary students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge and
their parents (mother and father) educational attainment. It can be noted that majority
of the respondents parents (37% for the fathers and 42.8% for the mothers) are high
school graduates; whilst, 19.5 percent of the fathers and 15.7 percent of the mothers are
professionals.
However, as regards the number of siblings in the family (r=-.055, <.01), only
depth of vocabulary knowledge registers inverse relationship. The inverse relationship
means that as the number of siblings in the family increases the students depth of
vocabulary knowledge performance decreases. The same effect was registered in the
studies of Steelman, Powell, Werum, and Carter (2002) and Sundet, Eriksen, Borren,
and Tamsb (2010). Their study investigated language measures in general, whilst, the
present study registered effect on the depth of vocabulary knowledge. Downey (1995)
argued that financial resources have a particularly strong tendency to dilute and the
knowledge that children pose a risk of poverty (European Commission, 2008); it is
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assumed that families with many children have fewer financial resources to provide
educational opportunities for their children. This echoed the argument of Zajonc (1975
in Guo, & VanWey, 1999), the chief architect of the highly influential confluence
model, where he wrote,
Nevertheless, the number of siblings in the family does not manifest relationship
with reading comprehension (r=-.029, .05). This means that whether the family has 8
or more siblings, their reading comprehension is not affected. However, Steelmans
(1985) review on this point presented a large body of research that shows that
the number of children in a family is negatively related to intellectual ability. The result
of the present study is a departure to the existing body of knowledge. Although
knowledge to date suggests that an inverse relationship exists between the number of
siblings and second language skills among bilingual children according to the resource
dilution model, no evidence exists confirming this assumption (Keller, Troesch, &
Grob, 2015). Ortizs (2009) study found no association between the number of children
and knowledge of English language skills, in the present study, no relationship exists
between the number of children and their reading comprehension.
It is also revealed in table 1 that birth order in the family (r=.007, .05; r=.021,
.05) is not correlated with reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
performance. To date no conclusive finding is revealed on this account. Ortiz (2009)
assumed better second language skills for later-born children, but failed to demonstrate
evidence in a group of Latino preschool children in the USA. No effect of birth order on
knowledge of the second language emerged either in David and Weis (2008)
longitudinal study with 13 French- and English speaking children nor in Caspar and
Leyendeckers (2011) study with 88 Turkish-German-speaking children. Bridges and
Hoff (2014) also examined older siblings influence on language skills in a total of 87
EnglishSpanish bilingual toddlers in the USA assessing English and Spanish language
skills using caregiver report measures. In contrast to the previous findings, in their
study, children with an older sibling showed more advanced English language skills.
Indeed, there are studies that showed that first-born children are read to more
often than later born children (Raikes, Pan, Luze, Tamis-Lemonda, Brooks-Gunn,
Constantine et al., 2006; Westerlund, & Lagerberg, 2008), that these children receive
more linguistic input from their mothers, and that the children are more often explicitly
encouraged to express themselves (Jones, & Adamson, 1987; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1998).
Some studies revealed a negative effect of birth order, there are also studies that found
no differences in standardized language tests or even suggested that later-born children
are at an advantage (Jenkins, & Astington, 1996; Oshima-Takane, Goodz, &
Derevensky, 1996; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1998; Bornstein, Leach, & Haynes, 2004;
Westerlund, & Lagerberg, 2008). For example, Oshima-Takane et al. (1996) showed
that later-born children used personal pronouns earlier, which the authors attributed to
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more frequent triadic interactions with the mother and the elder sibling. Hoff-Ginsberg
(1998) reported disadvantages in vocabulary and grammar in later born children, but
also noted a developmental advantage in conversational skills.
In addition, at school, older siblings learn the importance of local language skills
and bring that knowledge into the home. Younger siblings might profit from the insights
and second language skills of their older siblings and thus, improve their local language
skills (Wong Fillmore, 1991; Shin, 2002). These two approaches, the resource dilution
model as well as elder siblings as facilitators for the second language acquisition of their
younger siblings, explain the issue on different levels and are not mutually exclusive.
Thus it is conceivable that while the processes of interaction between siblings benefit
learning, the arrival of an additional sibling changes the relationship constellation and
the financial situation of a family to such an extent that the second-born child is placed
at a developmental disadvantage. To date, evidence for both lines of arguments is sparse
and mixed. This suggests a fertile ground for more research endeavors along this line.
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Table 2. Test of difference of students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
knowledge when grouped according to their mothers educational attainment
(n=3035).
Mothers educ Std.
N Mean F Sig.
attain deviation
Reading Elem graduate 355 1.33 .479 15.718 .000
comprehension HS graduate 1299 1.37 .491
Some college 904 1.46 .527
Professional 477 1.51 .544
Depth Elem graduate 355 1.87 .540 29.832 .000
of vocabulary HS graduate 1299 1.95 .517
knowledge Some college 904 2.07 .505
Professional 477 2.16 .611
Etim (2000) avers that parents will facilitate teaching and learning by
complementing the teachers work of supervising the childs schoolwork after school
hours. This is not feasible if the socioeconomic level of the parents cannot afford them
the provision of books and other learning materials for their children, or if the parents
are illiterate and belong to the low socioeconomic status class where they see no
relevance in academic interaction between parents and children. Itsuokor (1991) puts it
succinctly that children from educated homes tend to score higher than those from less
educated homes on tests of intelligence and reading comprehension. In like manner,
children of professionals, teachers and civil servants tend to score higher than children
of traders and unskilled workers on such tests. In the present study it points out that
fathers who are professionals are able to help their children in terms of reading
comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge.
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dialogical reading (Jordan, Snow, & Porsche, 2000). These language practices mirror
the language of books and school and foster good literacy skills (Tabors, Snow, &
Dickinson, 2001).
The findings are consistent with Muolas (2010 in Koskei, & Ngeno, 2015)
report that parental educational attainment correlated significantly with academic
achievement. Educated parents become more involved in the education of their children
and they can assist in school work. Educated parents also purchase books and other
learning materials/resources for their children who create school conditions to
successful performance but these learning conditions are absent in the poor uneducated
and rural family. Children whose parents educational attainment is low are unprepared
for school. They often lack readiness to learn, physical strength, and mental mindset
(Pellino, 2006 in Koskei, & Ngeno, 2015). This finding is similar with the result of the
present study. Secondary students whose parents are professionals and those who have
college credits score better in the depth of vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension tests.
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from higher income households. Willms (2007 in Ferguson et al., 2007) established that
children from lower socioeconomic status (SES) households scored lower on a receptive
vocabulary test than higher SES children. As Ozola (2008) revealed the socioeconomic
position of a family considerably influences students reading literacy achievements.
But this reversal of the existing finding is not surprising, in the study conducted
by Zimmer, Chayovan, Lin, and Natividad (2014) where they tested the relationship
between socioeconomic status and physical functioning among older adults in Taiwan,
Thailand, and the Philippines. The socioeconomic indicators used were limited to
education and income. Results revealed among others that income has strong
associations in Taiwan and Thailand and only a moderate association in the Philippines.
Although what was tested was the physical functioning, it could be argued that the same
could be applied in the cognitive aspect. This means further that there are other
variables that could account for the findings, like family genetic heritage. Parental
cognitive ability tends to be correlated with offsprings cognitive ability (Guo, &
VanWey, 1999). The study of Obasi (1999) also found no significant influence of
socioeconomic status on students academic performances. Although the result was
attributed to a faulty instrument used for data collection. He still maintains that parents
socioeconomic status has a significant influence on students academic performances in
social studies.
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Table 5. Test of difference of students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
knowledge when grouped according to the number siblings (n=3035).
Number Std.
N Mean F Sig.
of siblings deviation
Reading only child 254 1.44 .521 1.433 .231
comprehension 2-4 siblings 2019 1.42 .512
5-7 siblings 621 1.38 .512
8 above siblings 141 1.41 .509
Depth only child 254 2.07 .557 3.823 .010
of vocabulary 2-4 siblings 2019 2.02 .547
knowledge 5-7 siblings 621 2.00 .512
8 above siblings 141 1.88 .494
Parcel, Nickoll, and Dufur (1996) propose that having siblings is expected to
have a negative effect on development in that siblings serve to dilute the
financial support available to the child. Snow and Dickinson (1991) also report that the
size of students household at age 3 is negatively correlated with reading comprehension
in grade 4. Moreover, students academic achievement (including reading
comprehension) is significantly predicted by household composition (Patterson et al.,
1990). A familys composition is only one piece of the puzzle. Also of importance are
the parent practices and involvement in the childs life. Parcel et al. (1996) note parents
interactions with their children, and the time and attention parents provide, serve to
build childrens social capital. However, in terms of the depth of their vocabulary
knowledge (F=3.823, <.01), a significant difference existed. Post hoc test revealed that
those students who have more number of siblings have better depth of vocabulary
knowledge.
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Table 6. Test of difference of students reading comprehension, and depth of
vocabulary knowledge when grouped according to their birth order in the
family (n=3035).
Birth Std.
N Mean F Sig.
order deviation
Reading Youngest 993 1.42 .511 2.041 .130
comprehension Middle 1061 1.39 .505
Eldest 981 1.43 .522
Depth Youngest 993 2.01 .547 1.827 .161
of vocabulary Middle 1061 1.99 .518
knowledge Eldest 981 2.04 .555
The study concluded that those students whose monthly income is quite low,
whose parents are professionals, or who have earned units in college, and have less
number of siblings in the family performed better in the two tests. The implications of
the study point to the fact that the 4Ps beneficiaries are moderately helped in terms of
academic performance, specifically in terms of reading comprehension and depth of
vocabulary knowledge. It could be argued that the result is not impressive; however, the
program is just 8 years old. In the long run when these student beneficiaries finish their
schooling the impact would start to manifest. Among others, two conditions of the
program are for the students to stay in school and stay healthy (this includes the
mothers, especially those who are pregnant and are breastfeeding) by regularly visiting
the centers. This is an encouragement for the beneficiaries to strive to meet these
conditions otherwise; they will be out of the program. Future research should replicate
this study choosing the qualitative research design so that the respondents could freely
expressed their opinions regarding how they perform in school and how the program
helped them.
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