13/6/2015 History of Arts

0 Ms Siguienteblog guadalupe.odiard@gmail.com Escritorio Salir

HistoryofArts

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Ceramicstirrupspoutvessel
representingacrustacean.Moche
CultureartworkfromPeru,made
between100BCEand700CE.
Arthistory
Inthehistoryofart,prehistoricartisallartproduced
series
LadyYumiMichiyo inpreliterate,prehistoricalculturesbeginning
Prehistoricart
alittlebitchildishbutbeautiful., somewhereinverylategeologicalhistory,and
Ancientarthistory
generallycontinuinguntilthatcultureeitherdevelops
Westernarthistory
Viewmycompleteprofile writingorothermethodsofrecordkeeping,oritmakes
Easternarthistory
significantcontactwithanotherculturethathas.
Islamicarthistory

Theveryearliesthumanartifactsshowingevidenceof Westernpainting

workmanshipwithanartisticpurposeareasubjectof Historyofpainting

somedebateitisclearthatsuchworkmanshipexisted Arthistory

by40,000yearsagointheUpperPalaeolithicera.
FromtheUpperPalaeolithicthroughtheMesolithic,cavepaintingsandportableartlike
figurinesandbeadspredominated,withdecorativefiguredworkingsalsoseenonsome
utilitarianobjects.IntheNeolithicevidenceofearlypotteryappeared,asdid
sculpturemegaliths.EarlyrockartalsofirstappearedintheNeolithic.Theadventof
metalworkingintheBronzeAgebroughtanotherincreaseinmediumsusedforart,an
increaseinstylisticdiversity,andthecreationofobjectsthatdidnothaveanyobvious
functionotherthanart.Italsosawthedevelopmentinsomeareasofartisans,aclassof
peoplespecializingintheproductionofart,aswellasearlywritingsystems.BytheIron
Age,civilizationswithwritinghadarisenfromAncientEgypttoAncientChina.andthe
constructionof

Manyindigenouspeoplesfromaroundtheworldcontinuedtoproduceartisticsworks
distinctivetotheirgeographicareaandculture,untilexplorationandcommercebrought

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recordkeepingmethodstothem.Somecultures,notablytheMayacivilization,
independentlydevelopedwritingduringthetimetheyflourished,whichwasthenlaterlost.
Theseculturesaregenerallyconsideredprehistoric,especiallyiftheirwritingsystems
havenotbeendeciphered.

Palaeolithicera
MiddlePaleolithic
TheearliestundisputedartoriginatedwiththeAurignacianarchaeologicalcultureinthe
UpperPaleolithic.However,thereissomeevidencethatthepreferencefortheaesthetic
emergedintheMiddlePaleolithic,from200,000to50,000yearsago.Some
archaeologistshaveinterpretedcertainMiddlePaleolithicartifactsasearlyexamplesof
artisticexpression.

PreHomosapiens

Homoerectushadlongbeforeproducedseeminglyaimlesspatternsonartifactssuchas
isthosefoundatBilzingslebeninThuringia,andthesemightbeunderstoodasa
precursortoart,aswellastorevealsomeintentoftheartificertodecorate,tofashion
beyondpracticalnecessity.Thesymmetryandattentiongiventotheshapeofatoolhas
ledauthorstoseeAcheuleanhandaxeslaurelpointsasartisticexpressionsaswell.The
MaskofLaRocheCotardhasalsobeentakenasevidenceofNeanderthalfigurativeart,
althoughinaperiodpostdatingtheircontactwithHomosapiens.andespecially

ThereareotherclaimsofMiddlePaleolithicsculpture,dubbedthe"VenusofTanTan"
(before300kya) [1] andthe"VenusofBerekhatRam"(250kya).Bothareidentifiedas
naturalrockformationwithjustincidentiallikenesstothehumanform,butsomescholars
havesuggestedthatsomescratchesingroovesontheBerekhatRamobjectmaybe
takenasevidencethattheobjecthadbeen'worked'toreinforcethecoincidential
likenesstoafemaletorso.

Blomboscave

In2002inBlomboscave,situatedinSouthAfrica,stoneswerediscoveredengravedwith
gridorcrosshatchpatterns,datedtosome70,000yearsago.Thissuggestedtosome
researchersthatearlyHomosapienswerecapableofabstractionandproductionof
abstractartorsymbolicart.AlsodiscoveredattheBlomboscavewereshellbeads,also
datingtoca.70,000yearsago.SeveralarchaeologistsincludingRichardKleinof
StanfordarehesitanttoaccepttheBlomboscavesasthefirstexampleofactualart.

UpperPaleolithic

Aurochsonacavepaintingin
Lascaux,France.

TheoldestundisputedworksofartwerefoundintheSchwbischeAlb,Baden
Wrttemberg,Germany.Theearliestofthese,theVenusfigurineknownastheVenusof
HohleFels,datestosome40,000yearsago.FurtherdepictionalartisfromtheUpper

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Palaeolithicperiod(broadly40,000to10,000yearsago)andincludesbothcavepainting
(suchasthefamouspaintingsatChauvet,Altamira,PechMerle,andLascaux),portable
art(suchasanimalcarvingsandsocalledVenusfigurinesliketheVenusofWillendorf),
andopenairart(suchasthemonumentalCaValleyandMazoucoinPortugal,Domingo
GarcaandSiegaVerde,bothinSpain,FornolsHautinFrance).

VenusofWillendorf

AcaveatTurobonginSouthKoreacontaininghumanremainshasbeenfoundtocontain
carveddeerbonesanddepictionsofdeerthatmaybeasmuchas40,000yearsold.[2]
PetroglyphsofdeerorreindeerfoundatSokchangrimayalsodatetotheUpper
Paleolithic.PotsherdsinastylereminiscentofearlyJapaneseworkhavebeenfoundat
KosanrionJejuisland,which,duetolowersealevelsatthetime,wouldhavebeen
accessiblefromJapan.[3]

TheBradshawsareauniqueformofrockartfoundinWesternAustralia.Theyare
predominantlyhumanfiguresdrawninfinedetailwithaccurateanatomicalproportioning.
Theyhavebeendatedatover17,000yearsold.[citationneeded]

TheoldestpetroglyphsaredatedtoapproximatelytheMesolithicandlateUpper
Paleolithicboundary,about10,000to12,000yearsago.TheearliestundisputedAfrican
rockartdatesbackabout10,000years.Thefirstnaturalisticpaintingsofhumansfound
inAfricadatebackabout8,000yearsapparentlyoriginatingintheNileRivervalley,
spreadasfarwestasMaliabout10,000yearsago.Notedsitescontainingearlyart
includeTassilin'AjjerinsouthernAlgeria,TadrartAcacusinLibya(AUnescoWorld
Heritagesite),andtheTibestiMountainsinnorthernChad.[4] Rockcarvingsatthe
WonderwerkCaveinSouthAfricahavebeendatedtothisage.[5] Contentiousdatesas
farbackas29,000yearshavebeenobtainedatasiteinTanzania.AsiteattheApollo11
CavecomplexinNamibiahasbeendatedto27,000years.

Asia
Asiawasthecradleforseveralsignificantcivilizations,mostnotablythoseofChinaand
SouthAsia.TheprehistoryofeasternAsiaisespeciallyinteresting,astherelativelyearly
introductionofwritingandhistoricalrecordkeepinginChinahasanotableimpactonthe
immediatelysurroundingculturesandgeographicareas.

AKoreanNeolithicpotintheNational
MuseumofKorea,foundinBusan,

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datedc.3500BCE

Korea
TheprehistoryofKoreanendsmostdefinitivelywiththefoundingoftheThreeKingdoms
ofKorea,whicharedocumentedina12thcenturyCEChinesetext,theSamgukSagias
beginninginthefirstcenturyBCE.MentionofearlierhistoryismadeinotherChinese
texts,likethethirdcenturyCESanguoZhihowever,thissectionwillfocuson
archaeologicalartisticfindsuptothefoundingoftheThreeKingdoms.

Jeulmunperiod

ClearerevidenceofculturebecameclearerinthelateNeolithic,knowninKoreaasthe
Jeulmunpotteryperiod,withpotterysimilartothatfoundintheadjacentregionsofChina,
decoratedwithZshapedpatterns.TheearliestNeolithicsiteswithpotteryremains,for
exampleOsanri,dateto60004500BCE.[3] Thispotteryischaracterizedbycomb
patterning,withthepotfrequentlyhavingapointedbase.Ornamentsfromthistime
includemasksmadeofshell,withnotablefindsatTongsamdong,Osanri,andSinamri.
HandshapedclayfigurineshavebeenfoundatNongpodong.[6]

LargeMiddleMumun(c.800BCE)
storagevesselunearthedfromapit
houseinornearDaepyeong

Mumunperiod

DuringtheMumunpotteryperiod,roughlybetween1500BCEand300BCE,agriculture
expanded,andevidenceoflargerscalepoliticalstructuresbecameapparent,asvillages
becamelargerandsomeburialsmoreelaborate.Megalithictombsanddolmens
throughoutKoreadatetothistime.Thepotteryofthetimeisinadistinctiveundecorated
style.Manyofthesechangesinstylemayhaveoccurredduetoimmigrationofnew
peoplesfromthenorth,althoughthisisasubjectofdebate.[7] Atanumberofsitesin
southernKoreatherearerockartpanelsthatarethoughttodatefromthisperiod,mainly
forstylisticreasons.[8]

WhiletheexactdateoftheintroductionofbronzeworkintoKoreaisalsoamatterof
debate,itisclearthatbronzewasbeingworkedbyabout700BCE.Findsinclude
stylisticallydistinctivedaggers,mirrors,andbeltbuckles,withevidencebythefirst
centuryBCEofawidespread,locallydistinctive,bronzeworkingculture.[9]

Goguryeotombmural

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ProtohistoricKorea

Thetimebetween300BCEandthefoundingandstabilizationoftheThreeKingdoms
around300CEischaracterizedartisticallyandarchaeologicallybyincreasingtradewith
ChinaandJapan,somethingthatChinesehistoriesofthetimecorroborate.The
expansionistChineseinvadedandestablishedcommanderiesinnorthernKoreaasearly
asthefirstcenturyBCEtheyweredrivenoutbythe4thcenturyCE.[10] Theremainsof
someofthese,especiallythatofLelang,nearmodernPyongyang,haveyieldedmany
artifactsinatypicalHanstyle.[11]

ChinesehistoriesalsorecordthebeginningsofironworksinKoreainthefirstcentury
BCE.Stonewareandkilnfiredpotteryalsoappearstodatefromthistime,althoughthere
iscontroversyoverthedates.[12] PotteryofdistinctlyJapaneseoriginisfoundinKorea,
andmetalworkofKoreanoriginisfoundinnortheasternChina.[13]

Europe
Mesolithicperiod
TheMesolithicperiodhassomeexamplesofportableart,likepaintedpebbles(Azilien)
fromBirseck,EremitageinSwitzerland,andinsomeareas,liketheSpanishLevant,
stylizedrockart.Patternsonutilitarianobjects,likethepaddlesfromTybrindVig,
Denmark,areknownaswell.

Neolithicperiod

SculpturefoundinSerbia,6,500BC

TheMesolithicstatuesofLepenskiVirattheIronGate,Serbiadatetothe7thmillennium
BCEandrepresenteitherhumansormixturesofhumansandfish.

InCentralEurope,manyNeolithiccultures,likeLinearbandkeramic,LengyelandVina,
producedfemale(rarelymale)andanimalstatuesthatcanbecalledart.Whetherthe
elaboratepotterydecorationof,forexample,theeliesovceandpaintedLengyelstyle
aretobeclassifiedasartisamatterofdefinition.

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Spreadofmegalithicarchitecturein
westernEurope

MegalithicmonumentsarefoundintheNeolithicfromMaltatoPortugal,throughFrance,
andacrosssouthernEnglandtomostofWalesandIrelandTheyarealsofoundin
northernGermanyandPoland,aswellasinEgyptintheSaharadesert(atNabataand
othersites).Thebestpreservedofalltemplesandtheoldestfreestandingstructureson
EartharetheMegalithicTemplesofMalta.Theystartinthe5thmillenniumBC,though
someauthorsspeculateonMesolithicroots.Becauseoffrequentreuse,thisisdifficult
toprove.Therearemanysitesforrockandcaveartofengravedanimalandhuman
scenesintheSaharanarea.WhilethebestknownoftheseisStonehenge,wherethe
mainstructuresdatefromtheearlyBronzeAge,suchmonumentshavebeenfound
throughoutmostofWesternandNorthernEurope,notablyatCarnac,France,atSkara
BraeintheOrkneyIslands,inPortugal,andinWiltshire,England,theareaof
Stonehenge,theAveburycircle,thetombsatWestKennet,andWoodhenge.Onetomb
foundinNewgrange,Ireland,hasitsentrancemarkedwithamassivestonecarvedwith
acomplexdesignofspirals.ThetombofKnowthhasrockcutornamentsaswelloneof
themmaybetheoldestknownimageoftheMoon.Manyofthesemonumentswere
megalithictombs,andarchaeologistsspeculatethatmosthavereligioussignificance.
KnowthisreputedtohaveapproximatelyonethirdofallmegalithicartinWesternEurope.

EntrancestonewithmegalithicartatNewgrange

OnthecentralAlpsthecivilizationoftheCamunnidid350.000petroglyphs:seerock
DrawingsinValcamonica.

BronzeAge

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Threemenperformingaritual,
Bohusln,Sweden

Duringthe3rdmillenniumBCE,however,theBronzeAgebeganinEurope,bringingwith
itanewmediumforart.Theincreasedefficiencyofbronzetoolsalsomeantanincrease
inproductivity,whichledtoasurplusthefirststepinthecreationofaclassof
artisans.Becauseoftheincreasedwealthofsociety,luxurygoodsbegantobecreated,
especiallydecoratedweapons.Examplesincludeceremonialbronzehelmets,
ornamentalaxheadsandswords,elaborateinstrumentssuchaslurer,andother
ceremonialobjectswithoutapracticalpurpose.Rockart,showingscenesfromthedaily
lifeandreligiousritualshavebeenfoundinmanyareas,forexampleinBohuslnSweden
andtheValCamonicainnorthernItaly.

IronAge
TheIronAgesawthedevelopmentofanthropomorphicsculptures,suchasthewarrior
ofHirschlanden,andthestatuefromtheGlauberg,Germany.Hallstattartistsintheearly
IronAgefavoredgeometric,abstractdesignsperhapsinfluencedbytradelinkswiththe
Classicalworld.

A1stcenturyBCmirrorfoundin
Desborough,Northants,showingthe
spiralandtrumpettheme.

ThemoreelaborateandcurvilinearLaTneartisticstyledevelopedinEuropeinthelater
IronAgefromacentreintheRhinevalleybutitsoonspreadacrossthecontinent.The
richchieftainclassesappeartohaveencouragedostentationandClassicalinfluences
suchasbronzedrinkingvesselsattesttoanewfashionforwinedrinking.Communal
eatinganddrinkingwereanimportantpartofCelticsocietyandcultureandmuchoftheir
artwasoftenexpressedthroughplates,knives,cauldronsandcups.Horsetackand
weaponrywerealsosubjectsdeemedfitforelaboration.Mythicalanimalswerea
commonmotifalongwithreligiousandnaturalsubjectsandtheirdepictionisamix
betweenthenaturalisticandthestylized.Megalithicartwasstillpracticed,examples

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includethecarvedlimestonepillarsofthesanctuaryatEntremontinmoderndayFrance.
Personaladornmentincludedtorcnecklaceswhilsttheintroductionofcoinageprovideda
furtheropportunityforartisticexpression.Althoughthecoinsofthisperiodarepoorly
madederivativesofGreekandRomantypes,themoreexuberantCelticartisticstyleis
stillvisible.

ThefamouslatefourthcenturyBCEchariotburialatWaldalgesheimintheRhineland
producedmanyfineexamplesofLaTneartincludingabronzeflagonandbronze
plaqueswithrepousshumanfigures.Manypieceshadcurvy,organicstylesthoughto
bederivedfromClassicaltendrilpatterns.

InmuchofwesternEuropeelementsofthisartisticstylecanbediscernedsurvivingin
theartandarchitectureoftheRomancolonies.InareaswhereRomaninfluencewas
missingaltogether,thelaterIronAgeartistictraditioncontinuedwellintothehistoric
period,perhapsmostfamouslyinIrelandandNorthumbria.

Africa
SouthernAfrica

ThereisasignificantbodyofrockpaintingintheregionaroundMatoboNationalParkof
Zimbabwedatingfromasearlyas6,000BCEto500CE.[14]

ABushmanrockpaintingofaneland
atDrakensberg

SignificantbushmanrockpaintingsexistintheWaterbergareaabovethePalalaRiver
andaroundDrakensberginSouthAfrica,someofwhichareconsideredtoderivefrom
theperiod8000BCE.Theseimagesareveryclearanddepictavarietyofhumanand
wildlifemotifs,especiallyantelope.Thereappearstobeafairlycontinuoushistoryofrock
paintinginthisareasomeoftheartclearlydatesintothe19thcentury.Theyinclude
depictionsofhorseswithriders,whichwerenotintroducedtotheareauntil1820s.[15]

Namibia,inadditiontotheApollo11complex,hasansignificantarrayofBushmenrock
artnearTwyfelfontein.Thisworkisseveralthousandyearsold,andappearstoendwith
thearrivalofpastoraltribesinthearea.[16]

EastAfrica

IntheHornofAfricatherearestonemegalithsandengravings,someofwhichare3,500
yearsold.DilloinEthiopiahasahilltopcoveredwithstonestelae,oneofseveralsuch
sitesinsouthernEthiopiadatingfromthe10thtothe14thcentury.[17]

SaharanAfrica

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Rockcarvingofanelephantat
TadrartAcacus

Theearlyartofthisregionhasbeendividedintofiveperiods:

BubalusPeriod,roughly128kya
RoundHeadPeriod,roughly108kya
PastoralPeriod,roughly7.54kya
HorsePeriod,roughly32kya
CamelPeriod,2,000yearsagotothepresent

WorksoftheBubalusperiodspantheSahara,withthefinestwork,carvingsof
naturalisticallydepictedmegafauna,concentratedinthecentralhighlands.TheRound
HeadPeriodisdominatedbypaintingsofstrangelyshapedhumanforms,andfew
animals,suggestingtheartistswereforagers.TheseworksarelargelylimitedtoTassili
n'AjjerandtheAkakusMountains.Towardtheendoftheperiod,imagesofdomesticated
animals,aswellasdecorativeclothingandheaddressesappear.PastoralPeriodartwas
morefocusedondomesticscenes,includingherdinganddancing.Thequalityofartwork
declined,asfiguresbecamemoresimplified.[18]

TheHorsePeriodbeganintheeasternSaharaandspreadwest.Depictionsfromthis
periodincludecarvingsandpaintingsofhorses,chariots,andwarriorswithmetal
weapons,althoughtherearealsofrequentdepictionsofwildlifesuchasgiraffes.Humans
aregenerallydepictedinastylizedway.Someofthechariotartbearsresemblanceto
templecarvingsfromancientEgypt.Occasionally,artpanelsareaccompaniedby
Tifinaghscript,stillinusebytheBerberpeopleandtheTuaregtodayhowever,modern
Tuaregaregenerallyunabletoreadtheseinscriptions.ThefinalCamelperiodfeatures
carvingsandpaintingsinwhichcamelspredominate,butalsoincludehumanswith
swords,andlater,gunstheartofthistimeisrelativelycrude.[19]

Americas

MostearlyhumansitesinSouthAmericashowevidenceofstonetools,hearths,and
otherpracticalartifactsclearevidenceofartisticintentsisnotusuallyevident.Thevery
earliestevidenceofartisticendeavourdoesnotappearforsometime.

StirruphandledCupinisqueceramic
vase1250BCEfromtheLarco
Museum

PeruandthecentralAndes

Lithicandpreceramicperiods

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Peru,includinganareaofthecentralAndesstretchingfromEcuadortonorthernChile,
hasarichculturalhistory,withevidenceofhumanhabitationdatingtoroughly
10,000BCE.[20] Priortotheemergenceofceramicsinthisregionaround1850BCE,cave
paintingsandbeadshavebeenfound.Thesefindsincluderockpaintingsthat
controversiallydateasfarbackas9,500BCEintheToquepalaCaves.[21] Burialsitesin
PerulikeoneatTelarmachayasoldas86007200BCEcontainedevidenceofritual
burial,withredocherandbeadnecklaces.[22]

TheearliestceramicsthatappearinPerumayhavebeenimportedfromtheValidivia
regionindigenouspotteryproductionalmostcertainlyarrivedinthehighlandsaround
1800BCEatKotosh,andonthecoastatLaFloridacirca1700BCE.Oldercalabash
gourdvesselswithhumanfacesburnedintothemwerefoundatHuacaPrieta,asite
datingto25002000BCE.[23] HuacaPrietaalsocontainedsomeearlypatternedanddyed
textilesmadefromtwistedplantfibers.[24]

InitialPeriodandFirstHorizon

AnimageoftheLanzndeityonthe
greatwallatChavndeHuantar,a
FirstHorizonsite

TheInitialPeriodinCentralAndeancultureslastedroughlyfrom1800BCEto900BCE.
TextilesfromthistimefoundatHuacaPrietaareofastonishingcomplexity,including
imagessuchascrabswhoseclawstransformintosnakes,anddoubleheadedbirds.
Manyoftheseimagesaresimilartoopticalillusions,wherewhichimagedominates
dependsinpartonwhichtheviewerchoosestosee.Otherportableartworkfromthis
timeincludesdecoratedmirrors,boneandshelljewelry,andunfiredclayfemaleeffigies.
[25] Publicarchitecture,includingworksestimatedtorequirethemovementofmorethan

100,000tonsofstone,aretobefoundatsiteslikeKotosh,ElParaso,andLaGalgada.
Kotosh,asiteintheAndeanhighlands,isespeciallynotedasthesiteoftheTempleof
theCrossedHands,inwhichtherearetworeliefsofcrossedforearms,onepairmale,
onepairfemale.[26] AlsoofnoteisoneofSouthAmerica'slargestceremonialsites,
SechnAlto.Thissite'scrowningworkisatwelvestoryplatform,withstonesincisedwith
militarythemes.[27] Thearchitectureandartofthehighlands,inparticular,laiddownthe
groundworkfortheriseoftheChavnculture.[28]

TheChavnculturedominatedthecentralAndesduringtheFirstHorizon,beginning
around900BCE,andisgenerallydividedintotwostages.Thefirst,runninguntilabout
500BCE,representedasignificantculturalunificationofthehighlandandcoastalcultures
ofthetime.Imageryinallmannerofart(textiles,ceramics,jewelry,andarchitectural)
includedsometimesfantasticimagerysuchasjaguars,snakes,andhumananimal
composites,muchofitseeminglyinspiredbythejunglestotheeast.[29]

ThelaterstageoftheChavncultureisprimarilyrepresentedbyasignificant
architecturalexpansionoftheChavndeHuantarsitearound500BCE,accompaniedby
asetofstylisticchanges.Thisexpansionincluded,amongotherchanges,overforty
largestoneheads,whosereconstructedpositionsrepresentatransformationfrom
humantosupernaturalanimalvisages.Muchoftheotherartatthecomplexfromthis
timecontainssuchsupernaturalimagery.[30] Theportableartassociatedwiththistime

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includedsophisticatedmetalworking,includingalloyingofmetalsandsoldering.[31]
TextilesfoundatsiteslikeKarwaclearlydepictChavnculturalinfluences,[32] andthe
CupisniquestyleofpotterydisseminatedbytheChavnwouldsetstandardsallacross
theregionforlatercultures.[33] (Thevesselpicturedatthetopofthisarticle,whilefrom
thelaterMocheculture,isrepresentativeofthestirrupspoutedvesselsoftheChavn.)

AParacasMantledatingfrom200CE

EarlyIntermediatePeriod

Furtherinformation:Paracasculture,Nazcaculture,andMoche

TheEarlyIntermediatePeriodlastedfromabout200BCEto600CE.LateintheFirst
Horizon,theChavnculturebegantodecline,andothercultures,predominantlyinthe
coastalareas,begantodevelop.TheearliestofthesewastheParacasculture,centered
ontheParacaspeninsulaofcentralPeru.Activefrom600BCEto175BCE,theirearly
workclearlyshowsChavninfluence,butalocallydistinctivestyleandtechnique
developed.Itwascharacterizedbytechnicalandtimeconsumingdetailwork,visually
colorful,andaprofusionvisualelements.Distinctivetechnicaldifferencesincludepainting
onclayafterfiring,andembroideryontextiles.[34] Onenotablefindisamantlethatwas
clearlyusedfortrainingpurposesitshowsobviousindicationsofexpertsdoingsomeof
theweaving,interspersedwithlesstechnicallyproficienttraineework.[35]

TheNazcalinefigureknownasThe
Dog

TheNazcacultureofsouthernPeru,whichiswidelyknownfortheenormousfigures
tracedonthegroundbytheNazcalinesinsouthernPeru,sharedsomesimilaritieswith
theParacasculture,buttechniques(andscale)differed.TheNazcapaintedtheir
ceramicswithslip,andalsopaintedtheirtextiles.[36] Nazcaceramicsfeaturedawide
varietyofsubjects,fromthemundanetothefantastic,includingutilitarianvesselsand
effigyfigures.TheNazcaalsoexcelledatgoldsmithing,andmadepanpipesfromclayin
astylenotunlikethepipesheardinmusicoftheAndestoday.[37]

ThefamousNazcalinesareaccompaniedbytemplelikeconstructions(showingnosign
ofpermanenthabitation)andopenplazasthatpresumablyhadritualpurposesrelatedto
thelines.Thelinesthemselvesarelaidoutonasortofnaturalblackboard,whereathin

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layerofdarkstonecoverslighterstonethelineswerethuscreatedbysimplyremoving
thetoplayerwheredesired,afterusingsurveyingtechniquestolayoutthedesign.[38]

GoldMocheheaddressrepresenting
acondor

InthenorthofPeru,theMocheculturedominatedduringthistime.Alsoknownas
MochicaorEarlyChim,thiswarlikeculturedominatedtheareauntilabout500CE,
apparentlyusingconquesttogainaccesstocriticalresourcesalongthedesertcoast:
arablelandandwater.Mocheartisagainnotablydistinctive,expressiveanddynamicin
awaythatmanyotherAndeancultureswerenot.Knowledgeoftheperiodhasbeen
notablyexpandedbyfindslikethepristineroyaltombsatSipn.[39]

TheMocheveryobviouslyabsorbedsomeelementsoftheChavnculture,butalso
absorbedideasfromsmallernearbyculturesthattheyassimilated,suchastheRecuay
andtheVics.[40] Theymadefullysculptedceramicanimalfigures,workedgold,and
wovetextiles.Theartoftenfeaturedeverydayimages,butseeminglyalwayswitharitual
intent.[41]

Initslateryears,theMochecameundertheinfluenceoftheexpandingWariempire.The
CerroBlancositeofHuacadelSolappearstohavebeentheMochecapital.Largely
destroyedbynaturaleventsaround600CE,itwasfurtherdamagedbySpanish
conquistadorssearchingforgold,andcontinueswithmodernlooters.[42]

MiddleHorizon

Poncemonolithinthesunken
courtyardoftheTiwanaku's
Kalasasayatemple

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TheMiddleHorizonlastedfrom600CEto1000CE,andwasdominatedbytwocultures:
theWariandtheTiwanaku.TheTiwanaku(alsospelledTiahuanaco)culturearosenear
LakeTiticaca(onthemodernborderbetweenPeruandBolivia),whiletheWariculture
aroseinthesouthernhighlandsofPeru.Bothculturesappeartohavebeeninfluencedby
thePukaracultureculture,whichwasactiveduringtheEarlyIntermediateinbetweenthe
primarycentersoftheWariandTiwanaku.[43] Theseculturesbothhadwideranging
influence,andsharedsomecommonfeaturesintheirportableart,buttheirmonumental
artsweresomewhatdistinctive.[44]

ThemonumentalartoftheTiwanakudemonstratedtechnicalprowessinstonework,
includingfinedetailedreliefs,andmonolithssuchasthePoncemonolith(phototothe
left),andtheSunGate,bothinthemainTiwanakusite.Theportableartfeatured"portrait
vessels",withfiguredheadsonceramicvessels,aswellasnaturalimagerylikejaguars
andraptors.[45] Afullrangeofmaterials,fromceramicstotextilestowood,bone,and
shell,wereusedincreativeendeavours.Textileswithaweaveof300threadsperinch
(80threadspercm)havebeenfoundatTiwanakusites.[46]

Theruinsof
Pikillacta,aWarisite

TheWari,dominatedanareafromcentralPerutoEcuador,withtheirmaincenternear
Ayacucho,Peru.TheirartisdistinguishedfromtheTiwanakustylebytheuseofbolder
colorsandpatterns.[47] NotableamongWarifindsaretapestrygarments,presumedto
bemadeforpriestsorrulerstowear,oftenbearingabstractgeometricdesignsof
significantcomplexity,butalsobearingimagesofanimalsandfigures.[48] Wariceramics,
alsoofhightechnicalquality,aresimilarinmanywaystothoseoftheprecedingcultures,
wherelocalinfluencesfromfallencultures,liketheMoche,arestillsomewhatevident.
Metalwork,whilerarelyfoundduetoitsdesirabilitybylooters,showselegantsimplicity
and,oncemore,ahighlevelofworkmanship.[49]

Lambayeque(Sicn)metalworks
fromtheLarcoMuseuminLima,
Peru.

LateIntermediatePeriod

FollowingthedeclineoftheWariandTiwanaku,thenorthernandcentralcoastalareas
weresomewhatdominatedbytheChimculture,whichincludednotablesubcultureslike
theLambayeque(orSicn)andChancaycultures.Tothesouth,coastalcultures
dominatedintheIcaregion,andtherewasasignificantculturalcrossroadsat
Pachacamac,nearLima.[50] Thesecultureswoulddominatefromabout1000CEuntilthe

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1460sand1470s,astheIncaEmpirebegantotakeshapeandeventuallyabsorbedthe
geographicallysmallernearbycultures.

ChimandSicnCultures

TheChimcultureinparticularwasresponsibleforanextremelylargenumberof
artworks.Itscapitalcity,ChanChan,appearstohavecontainedbuildingthatappeared
tofunctionasmuseumstheyseemtohavebeenusedfordisplayingandpreserving
artwork.MuchoftheartworkfromChanChaninparticularhasbeenlooted,somebythe
SpanishaftertheSpanishconquest.[50] Theartfromthistimeattimesdisplaysamazing
complexity,with"multimedia"worksthatrequireartistsworkingtogetherinadiversityof
media,includingmaterialsbelievedtohavecomefromasfarawayasCentralAmerica.
Itemsofincreasingsplendororvaluewereproduced,apparentlyasthesocietybecame
increasingstratified.[51] Atthesame,thequalityofsomeoftheworkdeclined,as
demandforpiecespushedproductionratesupandvaluesdown.[52]

Sicnfunerarymask,Metropolitan
Museum

TheSicncultureflourishedfrom700toabout1400CE,althoughitcameunderpolitical
dominationoftheChimaround1100CE,atwhichtimemanyofitsartistsmayhave
movedtoChanChan.TherewassignificantcopperworkingbytheSicn,includingwhat
seemstobeasortofcurrencybasedoncopperobjectsthatlooklikeaxes.[53] Artwork
includesburialmasks,beakersandmetalvesselsthatpreviousculturestraditionally
madeofclay.ThemetalworkoftheSicnwasparticularlysophisticated,withinnovations
includingrepoussandshellinlay.Sheetmetalwasalsooftenusedtocoverother
works.[54]

ProminentinSicniconographyistheSicndeity,whichappearsonallmannerofwork,
fromtheportabletothemonumental.Otherimageryincludesgeometricandwave
patterns,aswellasscenesoffishingandshelldiving.[55]

ChancaycultureChancayculture,beforeitwassubsumedbytheChim,didnot
featurenotablemonumentalart.Ceramicsandtextilesweremade,butthequalityand
skilllevelwasuneven.Ceramicsaregenerallyblackonwhite,andoftensufferfrom
flawslikepoorfiring,anddripsoftheslipusedforcolorhowever,fineexamplesexist.
Textilesareoverallofahigherquality,includingtheuseofpaintedweavesandtapestry
techniques,andwereproducedinlargequantities.[56] ThecolorpaletteoftheChancay
wasnotoverlybold:golds,browns,white,andscarletpredominate.[57]

PachacamacPachacamacisatemplesitesouthofLima,Peruthatwasanimportant
pilgrimagecenterintoSpanishcolonialtimes.Thesiteboaststempleconstructionsfrom
severalperiods,culminatinginIncaconstructionsthatarestillinrelativelygoodcondition.
Thetempleswerepaintedwithmuralsdepictingplantsandanimals.Themaintemple
containedacarvedwoodensculptureakintoatotempole.[57]

IcacultureTheIcaregion,whichhadbeendominatedbytheNazca,wasfragmented
intoseveralsmallerpoliticalandculturegroups.Thepotteryproducedinthisregionswas
ofthehighestqualityatthetime,anditsaestheticswouldbeadoptedbytheIncawhen
theyconqueredthearea.[58]

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Thetwelveangle
stone,intheHatum
Rumiyocstreetof
Cusco,isan
exampleofInca
masonry.

LateHorizonandIncaculture

An1860mapofCusco.The
pumashapeisdiscernible,with
theheadattheupperleftand
thetailatthelowerright.

ThistimeperiodrepresentstheerainwhichthecultureofthecentralAndesisalmost
completelydominatedbytheIncaEmpire,whichbeganitsexpansionin1438.Itlasted
untiltheSpanishconquestoftheIncaEmpirein1533.TheIncaabsorbedmuchtechnical
skillfromtheculturestheyconquered,anddisseminatedit,alongwithstandardshapes
andpatterns,throughouttheirareaofinfluence,whichextendedfromQuito,Ecuadorto
Santiago,Chile.Incastoneworkisnotablyproficientgiantstonesaresetsotightly
withoutmortarthataknifebladewillnotfitinthegap.[59] ManyoftheInca'smonumental
structuresdeliberatelyechoedthenaturalenvironmentaroundthemthisisparticularly
evidentinsomeofthestructuresatMachuPicchu.[60] TheIncalaidthecityofCuscoin
theshapeofapuma,withtheheadofthepumaatSacsayhuaman,[61] ashapethatis
stilldiscernibleinaerialphotographsofthecitytoday.

TheiconographyofIncaart,whileclearlydrawingfromitsmanypredecessors,isstill
recognizablyInca.BronzeworkowesacleardebttotheChim,asdoanumberof
culturaltraditions:thefinestgoodswerereservedtotherulers,whoworethefinest
textiles,andateanddrankfromgoldandsilvervessels.[62] Asaresult,Incametalwork
wasrelativelyrare,andanobvioussourceofplunderfortheconqueringSpanish.
Textileswerewidelyprizedwithintheempire,inpartastheyweresomewhatmore
portableinthefarflungempire.[63]

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AnIncaperiodtunic

Ceramicsweremadeinlargequantities,and,aswithothermedia,instandardized
shapesandpatterns.Onecommonshapeistheurpu,adistinctiveurnshapethatcome
inawidevarietyofstandardcapacities,muchasmodernstoragecontainersdo.[64] In
spiteofthisstandardization,manylocalareasretainedsomedistinctiveaspectsoftheir
cultureintheworkstheyproducedceramicsproducedinareasundersignificantChim
controlpriortotheIncarulestillretaincharacteristicsindicativeofthatstyle.[65]

FollowingtheSpanishconquest,theartofthecentralAndeswassignificantlyaffectedby
theconflictanddiseasesbroughtbytheSpanish.Earlycolonialperiodart,beganto
showinfluencesofbothChristianityandIncareligiousandartisticideas,andeventually
alsobegantoencompassnewtechniquesbroughtbytheconquerors,includingoil
paintingoncanvas.[66]

EarlyceramicsinnorthernSouthAmerica
TheearliestevidenceofdecoratedpotteryinSouthAmericaistobefoundintwoplaces.
AvarietyofsitesintheSantarmregionofBrazilcontainceramicsherdsdatingtoa
periodbetween5000and3000BCE.[67] SitesinColombia,atMonsandSanJacinto
containedpotteryfindsindifferentstyles,anddateasfarbackas3500BCE.[68] Thisis
anareaofactiveresearchandsubjecttochange.[69] Theceramicsweredecoratedwith
curvilinearincisions.AnotherancientsiteatPuertoHormigaintheBolvarDepartmentof
Colombiadatingto3100BCEcontainedpotteryfragmentsthatincludedfiguredanimalsin
astylerelatedtolaterBarrancoidculturalfindsColombiaandVenezuela.[68] Valdivia,
Ecuadoralsohasasitedatedtoroughly3100BCEcontainingdecoratedfragments,as
wellasfigurines,manyrepresentnudefemales.TheValdivianstylestretchedasfar
southasnorthernPeru,[70] andmay,accordingtoLavalle,yetyieldolderartifacts.[67]

By2000BCE,potterywasevidentineasternVenezuela.TheLaGrutastyle,often
paintedinredorwhite,includedincisedanimalfiguresintheceramic,aswellasceramic
vesselsshapedasanimaleffigies.TheRanchoPeludostyleofwesternVenezuela
featuredrelativelsimpletextiletypedecorationsandincisions.[70] Findsinthecentral
Andesdatingto1800BCEandlaterappeartobederivedfromtheValdiviantraditionof
Ecuador.[71]

EarlyartineasternSouthAmerica
RelativelylittleisknownabouttheearlysettlementofmuchofSouthAmericaeastofthe
Andes.Thisisduetothelackofstone(generallyrequiredforleavingdurableartifacts),
andajungleenvironmentthatrapidlyrecyclesorganicmaterials.BeyondtheAndean
regions,wheretheinhabitantsweremoreclearlyrelatedtotheearlyculturesofPeru,
earlyfindsaregenerallylimitedtocoastalareasandthoseareaswheretherearestone
outcrops.WhilethereisevidenceofhumanhabitationinnorthernBrazilasearlyas

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8000BCE,[72] androckartofunknown(oratbestuncertain)age,ceramicsappeartobe
theearliestartisticartifacts.TheMinacivilizationofBrazil(30001600BCE)hadsimple
roundvesselswitharedwash,thatwerestylisticpredecessorstolaterBahiaand
Guyanancultures.[70]

Argentina,Chile,andPatagonia
ThesouthernreachesofSouthAmericashowevidenceofhumanhabitationasfarback
as10,000BCE.AsiteatArroiodoFosseisonthepampainsouthernBrazilhasshown
reliableevidencetothattime,[73] andtheTierradelFuegoatthesoutherntipofthe
continenthasbeenoccupiedsince7000BCE.[74] Artisticfindsarescarceinsomeparts
ofPatagoniaceramicswerenevermade,onlybeingintroducedbycontactwith
Europeans.[75]

NativeartsofOceania

AboriginalrockpaintingatNamadgiNationalPark

Australia
SeealsoAustralianAboriginalart,Bradshaws

Fromearliesttimes,thenativesofAustralia,oftenknownasAborigines,havebeen
creatingdistinctivepatternsofart.MuchofAboriginalartistransitory,drawninsandor
onthehumanbodytoillustrateaplace,ananimaltotem,oratribalstory.Earlysurviving
artworksoftheAboriginesaremostlyrockpaintings.ManyarecalledXraypaintings
becausetheyshowthebonesandorgansoftheanimalstheydepict.SomeAboriginalart
seemsabstracttomodernviewersAboriginalartoftenemploysgeometricalfiguresand
linestorepresentlandscape,whichisoftenshownfromabirdseyeview.Forinstance,
inAboriginalsymbolism,aswirlstandsforawateringhole.

Polynesia
ThenativesofPolynesiahaveadistinctartisticheritage.Whilemanyoftheirartifacts
weremadewithorganicmaterialsandthuslosttohistory,someoftheirmoststriking
achievementssurviveinclayandstone.Amongthesearenumerouspotteryfragments
fromwesternOceania,fromthelate2ndmillenniumBCE.Also,thenativesofPolynesia
leftscatteredaroundtheirislandsPetroglyphs,stoneplatformsorMarae,andsculptures
ofancestorfigures,themostfamousofwhicharetheMoaiofEasterIsland.

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