Lab Manual of Transportation Engineering

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING SESSIONAL
CE-344
1.5 Credit, 3 hours/ Week

Tests on Sub-grade, Sub-base, Base and wearing Materials
Tests on Bituminous materials and Aggregate
Prepared by:
Md. Rafiqul Islam
Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering
European University of Bangladesh
Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

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Test for Bituminous Materials
1 Bitumen Penetration Test
1.1. General Requirements
1.2. Scope:
This is a basic test for determining the grades of bitumen. In effect, the test is an indirect
determination of high temperature viscosity and low temperature stiffness. The scope of this
is to provide a method for determining the consistency of semi-solid and solid bituminous
materials in which the sole or major constituent is either bitumen or tar pitch.
1.3 Definition
The penetration of bituminous material is its consistency expressed as the distance in tenths
of a millimeter that a standard needle penetrates vertically into a specimen of the material
under specified conditions of temperature, load and duration of loading.
Grades of straight-run bitumen are designated by two penetration values, for example, 40/50,
60/80, 80/100 etc.; the penetration of an actual sample of the bitumen in any grade should fall
between the lower and upper value given.
1.4 Apparatus
a) The test apparatus consists of a right frame which holds the needle spindle in a
vertical position and allows it to slide freely without friction. A dial gauge calibrated
in millimeters measures the penetration. The total weight of the needle and spindle
must be 50 0.05 grams and facilities for adding additional weights of 50 0.05
grams and 100 0.05 grams must be provided. The surface on which the sample
container rests must be flat and at right angles to the needle.
b) A penetration needle made of fully hardened and tempered stainless steel of 1.00mm
in diameter and 50mm in length, with one end ground to a truncated cone as shown in
Figure 10.1.1. The needle is held by brass or stainless steel ferrule. The test is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 1.1.
c) The sample is placed in a metal or glass flat bottom container of the following
dimensions:-
For penetrations below 200 mm:

Diameter 55 mm
Internal depth 35 mm
For penetrations between 200 and 350 mm:

Diameter 70 mm
Internal depth 45 mm
The sample and dish are brought to the required temperature in a water bath which is
maintained at a temperature within 0.1/oC of the test temperature. The sample
container must be placed on a perforated shelf which is between 50 and 100 mm
below the surface of the water.

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Figure 1-1 Penetration Needle.
d) To maintain the sample at the correct temperature during the test, a glass transfer dish
is used. This dish of at least 350 ml capacity is fitted with a suitable support to hold
the sample container firm and level during testing.
e) A stopwatch is required to measure the time of penetration.

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1.5 Sample preparation
a) A sample of bitumen is first heated carefully in an oven or on a hotplate until it has

become sufficiently fluid to pour. When using a hotplate, the bitumen should be
stirred as soon as possible to prevent local overheating. In no case should the
temperature be raised more than 90oC above the softening point, and samples must
not be heated for more than 30 minutes.
b) When sufficiently fluid a portion of the sample is poured into the sample container to
a depth of at least 10mm greater than the depth to which the needle is expected to
penetrate.
c) The sample is then covered loosely to protect against dust, and allowed to cool in the
atmosphere between 15 and 300C for 1 to 1 hours for the small container and 1 to
2 hours for the large container.
d) After cooling in air, the sample containers together with the transfer dishes should be
placed in the water bath at the required temperature, for a period of 1 to 1 hours for
the small container and 1 to 2 hours for the large container.
1.6 Conditions of test
The test is normally carried out at a temperature of 250C with the total weight of the needle,
spindle and added weights being 100 grams; the needle is released for a period of 5 seconds.
If it is not possible to obtain these conditions or if there are special circumstances, one of the
following alternative conditions may be used:-
Temperature Total sliding Time in

o
C (oF) weights, grams seconds
0 (32) 200 60
4 (39.2) 200 60
46.1 (115) 50 5
It will be noted that, to obtain the standard temperature of 250C in Bangladesh, cooling of the
water bath is normally required, it may, therefore, be more convenient in many cases to use a
temperature of 46.10C.
1.7 Test procedure
a) The needle should be examined for damage or surface roughness; it should be dry and
clean. To ensure the needle is perfectly cleaned, it should be wiped with a cloth
soaked in toluene or another suitable bitumen solvent and then dried with a clean
cloth.
b) The clean needle should be inserted into the penetrometer apparatus and the total
sliding weight made up to the required value, if necessary by adding additional
weights. For example, if 100 grams is required, and the needle and spindle weigh 50
grams, an additional weight of 50 grams must be added.
c) The sample container is then placed in the transfer dish complete with water at the
required temperature from the constant temperature bath, the sample being completely
covered with water at all times. The transfer dish is then placed on the stand of the
apparatus.

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d) The penetrometer needle is then slowly lowered until it just touches the surface of the
sample. This point is best judged by using a strong source of light and determining the
point where the tip of the needle just meets its image reflected by the surface of the
sample. The initial dial gauge reading is taken.
e) The needle is then released for the specified time and re-locked immediately at the
end of the period. Care should be taken not to disturb or jolt the apparatus when
releasing the needle, if this occurs or the sample moves, the test must be repeated. The
final dial gauge reading is taken.
f) The transfer dish should then be returned to the water bath and a clean needle fitted to
the machine. The test is then repeated on the same sample. This procedure is repeated
so that at least 3 determinations are made on each sample, taking care that each point
is at least 10mm from the side of the sample container and at least 10mm from the
other determinations. If the penetration exceeds 200mm, the needles should be left in
the sample until all three determinations have been completed.
1.8 Calculation
The penetration is given by:
Penetration = (Initial dial gauge reading (mm) - Final dial gauge reading (mm)) x 10
A typical worksheet is shown as Form 1.1.
The three penetration values obtained on the sample must agree to within the following
limits:-
Penetration 0 to 49 50 to 149 150 to 249 250
Maximum difference between highest 2 4 6 8

and lowest determination
If the differences exceed the above values, the results are ignored and the test must be
repeated on the second sample. If the differences are again exceeded by the second sample,
the results must be ignored and the test completely repeated.
If the determinations are within the above tolerances, the penetration is quoted as the average
of the individual results.
1.9 Test report
The report shall contain at least the following information:
a) Identification of the material tested

b) A reference to the test method used.
c) A statement of any deviation from the method stated for 25C/100g/5 seconds.
d) The test result
e) Date of test.

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Table 1-1 A typical worksheet form
WORKSHEET
Penetration Test
Contact Name
Testing Agency
Materials Identification
Material delivered by
Materials collected by
Manufacturer
Date of sampled
Date of Test
Name and Designation of Tester
Signature
Penetration in mm
Deviation
1 2 3 4 5 6
None
64 65 63 64

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2 Softening Point test bitumen
2.1 General Requirements
2.2 Scope
An alternative to the penetration test for checking the consistency of bitumen is the ring and
ball softening point test. The scope of this test is to provide a method for determining the
consistency of semi-solid and bituminous materials in which the sole or major constituent is
either bitumen or tar pitch.
2.3 Definition
The softening point of a bituminous material is the temperature at which the material attains a
certain degree of softness under specified conditions of test.
2.4 Equipment
The equipment required to carry the penetration test in the laboratory are listed below:
a) A steel ball having a diameter of 9.3 mm and weighing 3.5g 0.05g.

b) Tapped ring, made of brass (see Figure 10.2.1) shall be used for referee purposes. For
other purposes either a straight ring (Figure 10.2.2) or a shouldered ring (Figure
10.2.3) may be used.
c) A convenient form of ball contouring guide (Figure 10.2.4)
d) Ring holder made of brass or other metal (see Figure 10.2.5)
e) Bottom plate made of brass or other metal (see Figure 10.2.6)
f) A thermometer (capacity 1000C and accuracy 0.1 0C)
g) A water bath of heat-resistant glass and conforming to the dimensions given in Figure
10.2.7, the rings being supported in a horizontal position. The bottom of the bulb of
the thermometer shall be level with the bottom of the rings and within10mm of them
but not touching them. A 600 ml beaker is suitable.
h) Distilled water for materials of softening points of 800C and glycerol for materials of
higher softening point.
i) Stirrer.
The sample obtained in accordance with section 2.7 is heated carefully in an oven or on a
hotplate until it has become sufficiently fluid to pour. When using a hotplate, the bitumen
should be stirred as soon as possible, to prevent local over-heating. In no case should the
temperature be raised more than 900C above the expected softening point and samples must
not be heated for more than 30 minutes. The brass rings to be used for the test are placed on a
flat smooth brass plate, which has been coated immediately prior to use, with a thin covering
of a mixture of glycerin and china clay. The coating is to prevent the bitumen sticking to the
plate.
When the bitumen is sufficiently fluid to pour, the rings should be filled with bitumen. A
tight excess of bitumen should be used. The bitumen is allowed to cool for a minimum of 30
minutes. If the bitumen is soft at room temperature, it must be cooled artificially for a further

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30 minutes. After cooling the excess material on the top of the specimen must be cut off
cleanly using a moral palette knife.
If further specimens are to be prepared or the test repeated, it is essential to use clean
containers and to use bitumen which has not been previously heated.
Figure 2-1 Tapered Ring Material Brass Figure 2-2 Straight Ring
Figure 2-3 Shoulder Ring

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Figure 2-4 Recommended Form of Ball Centring Guide
Figure 2-5 Ring Holder
Figure 2-6 Base

All Dimensions in mm

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Figure 2-7 Assembly of ring-and-ball apparatus for two rings (stirrer not shown)
2.6 Test procedure
The apparatus is assembled with the rings, ball centering guides and thermometer in position
and the beaker is filled with water to a depth of not less than 102mm and not more than
108mm. The water used for the test must be distilled and allowed to cool in a stoppered flask,
this is to prevent air bubbles forming on the specimen during the test. The initial water
temperature must be 5 10C and this temperature must be maintained for 15 minutes,
placing the beaker in a bath of iced water if necessary.
On completion of the 15-minute period, the steel balls are positioned using forceps, and heat
is applied to the beaker, preferably with a gas burner, at such a rate that the water temperature
rises at 50C per minute. The rate of temperature rise is critical and if after the first 3 minutes
the rise varies from the 50C in any minute period, by more than 0.50C, the test must be
abandoned.
As the temperature rises, the balls will begin to cause the bitumen in the rings to sag
downwards, the water temperature at the instant the bitumen touches the bottom plate is taken
for each ball. If the two temperatures differ by more than 10C, the test must be repeated using
fresh samples.
2.7 Calculation
The ring and ball softening point is simply the average of the two temperatures at which the
bitumen just touches the bottom plate. A typical data sheet is shown as Form 10.2.1.

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2.8 Test report
The report shall contain at least the following information:
a) Identification of the material tested.

b) A reference to the test method used.
c) A statement offends deviation from the method.
d) The test result [softening point is reported to the nearest 0.20C]
e) Date of test.

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3 Specific Gravity Test of Bitumen
3.1 Introduction
It is often required to know the specific gravity of straight run and cut-back bitumen for
purposes of calculating rates of spread, asphaltic concrete mix properties etc. The standard
specific gravity test is carried out at a temperature of 250C. However, if cooling facilities are
not available, a temperature of 350C may be used, although this must be clearly stated in the
result. For some purposes the specific gravity at elevated temperatures is required, as it is not
possible to measure this directly an approximate value may be obtained by calculation using
the value determined at a lower temperature.
3.2 Apparatus
a) The apparatus for the test consists of a standard pycnometer as shown in Figure
10.3.1.
b) A constant temperature water bath is also required.
c) A 600 ml glass beaker.
Figure 3-1 Suitable Pycnometers

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The sample obtained in accordance with Chapter 2 is heated carefully in an oven or on a

hotplate until it has become sufficiently fluid to pour. When using a hotplate, the bitumen
should be stirred as soon as possible to prevent local overheating. In no case should the
temperature be raised more than 900C the softening point and sample must not be heated for
more than 30 minutes.
3.4 10.3.4 Test procedure
a) The clean, dry pycnometer, complete with stopper, should be weighed to the nearest
0.001 gram. Weight A.
b) A 600 ml glass beaker should be partly filled with freshly boiled distilled water which
has been allowed to cool in a stoppered flask. The beaker should then be immersed to
a depth of at least 100mm. in a water bath which is maintained at the required
temperature 0.10C for a period of at least 30 minutes. The top of the beaker should
be above the level of the water in the bath.
c) The weighed pycnometer should then be filled with the boiled distilled water and the
stopper placed loosely in position, taking care to expel all air from the pycnometer.
The pycnometer should then be submerged in the beaker of water to a depth above the
stopper of at least 40mm and the stopper firmly pushed into position. The beaker and
pycnometer must remain in the water bath for at least 30 minutes after which the
pycnometer is removed. The top of the pycnometer should first be dried with one
stroke of a dry clean cloth and the remainder of the pycnometer is then dried as
quickly as possible prior to weighing, weight B. Note that if a droplet of water forms
on the stopper after drying, the stopper should not be re-dried, the volume of water in
the pycnometer on immediately, leaving the water is the required value, any
subsequent changes should not affect the result. On completion of weighing the
pycnometer should be thoroughly dried.
d) The pycnometer is then filled about three quarters full with the sample of bitumen.
The bitumen should be carefully poured into the pycnometer ensuring that no air
becomes trapped below the bitumen and there are no air bubbles in the sample. The
sample should be poured into the center of the pycnometer so that the sides or neck of
the pycnometer above the level of the bitumen are not contaminated. The pycnometer
and bitumen should then be allowed to cool in air for a period of at least 40 minutes,
after which the weight is determined, weight C.
e) The pycnometer is then topped up with the boiled distilled water and the stopper
loosely placed in position, taking care to expel all air from the pycnometer. The
pycnometer should then be submerged in the beaker of water to a depth above the
stopper of at least 40mm and the stopper firmly pushed into position. The beaker and
pycnometer must remain in the water bath for at least 30 minutes after which the top
and sides of the pycnometer are dried as before, prior to weighing, weight D.
f) At least two separate determinations should be made.

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3.5 Calculation
The specific gravity of the bitumen is given by:
Where
A = Mass of Pycnometer (Plus stopper).
B = Mass of Pycnometer filled with water.
C = Mass of Pycnometer with partially filled Asphalt.
D = Mass of Pycnometer + Asphalt + Water.
The average value of two or more results should be quoted. The result should be express with
3 decimal point + Temperature.
The specific gravity is valid only at the temperature of the test. If, however, the specific
gravity is required at other temperature, the following approximate relationship should be
used:-
S.G at temperature, T = (S.G at test temperature, t) - (0.0006 x (T-t))
3.6 Reporting of results
The specific gravity of the bitumen should be reported to three decimal places, together with
the temperature of the test.
If the specific gravity is calculated for any other temperature, the fact that this is an
approximate calculated value should be stated.

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4 Flash Point and Fire Point Tests of Bitumen
4.1 Introduction
Flash point of bitumen is the temperature at which, its vapour will ignite temporarily during
heating, when a small flame is brought into contact with the vapour. The knowledge of this
point is of interest mainly to the user, since the bitumen must not be heated to this point. The
flash point tells the critical temperature at and above which suitable precautions are required
to be taken to eliminate the danger of fire during heating. This temperature, however, is well
below that at which the bitumen will burn. The latter temperature is called the fire point.
4.2 Definitions
Flash point: It is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of a bituminous material
momentarily takes fire in the form of a flash, under specified conditions of test.
Fire point: It is the lowest temperature at which bituminous materials ignite and burn under
specific conditions of test.
4.3 Scope
This method covers the determination of the flash and fire points, by Cleveland Open Cup
Tester, of petroleum products and other liquids, except fuel oils and those materials having an
open cup flash point below (79 C) as determined by the Cleveland Open Cup Tester.
4.4 Apparatus
a) Cleveland Open Cup Apparatus - This apparatus consists of the test cup, heating plate, test
flame applicator and heater, thermometer support, and heating plate support, all conforming
to the following requirement:
Test Cup- of brass conforming to the dimensional requirements shown in Figure

10.5.3. The cup may be equipped with a handle.
Heating Plate - A brass, cast iron, wrought iron, or steel plate with a center hole surrounded
by an area of plane depression, and a sheet of hard asbestos board which covers the metal
plate except over the area of plane depression in which the test cup is supported. The
essential dimensions of the heating plate are shown in Fig. 10.5.2., however, it may the
square instead of round, and the metal plate may have suitable extensions for mounting the
test flame applicator device and the thermometer support. The metal bead, may be mounted
on the plate so that it extends through and slightly above a suitable small hole in the asbestos
board.
Note. The sheet of hard asbestos board which covers the heating plate may be
extended beyond the edge of the heating plate to reduce drafts around the cup. The F
dimension given is intended for gas apparatus. For electrically heated apparatus the
plate shall be of sufficient size to cover the top of the heater.

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Test Flame Applicator - The device for applying the test flame may be of any suitable
design, but the tip shall be 1.6 to 5.0 mm or 0.06 to 0.20 in. in diameter at the end and the
orifice shall have an approximate diameter of 0.8 mm or 0.031 in. The device for applying
the test flame shall be so mounted to permit automatic duplication of the sweep of the test
flame, the radius of swing being not less than Chapter 10 Standard Test Procedures Tests For
Bitumen & Bituminous Materials 150 mm or 6 in. and the center of the orifice moving in a
plane not that 2.5 mm or 0.10 in. above the cup. A bead having a diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm
or 0.15 to 0.21 in. may be mounted in a convenient position on the apparatus so the size of
the test flame can be compared to it.
Heater - Heat may be supplied form any convenient source. The use of a gas burner of
alcohol lamp is permitted, but under no circumstances are products of combustion or free
flame to be allowed to come up around the cup. An electric heater controlled by a variable
voltage transformer is preferred. The source of heat shall be centered under the opening of the
heating plate with no local superheating. Flame-type heaters may be protected from drafts or
excessive radiation by any suitable type of shield that does not project above the level of the
upper surface of the asbestos board.
Thermometer Support - Any convenient device may be used which will hold the
thermometer in the specified position during a test and which will permit easy removal of the
thermometer form the test cup upon completion of a test.
Heating Plate Support - Any convenient support will hold the heating plate level and steady
may be employed. One form of the assembled apparatus, the heating plate, and the cup are
illustrated in Figures 10.5.1, 10.5.2 and 10.5.3 respectively.
Filling Level Gauge - A device to aid in the proper adjustment of the sample level in the cup.
It may be made of suitable metal with at least one projection, but preferably two for adjusting
the sample level in the test cup to 9 to 10 mm (0.35 to 0.39 in.) below the top edge of the cup.
A hole 0.8 mm (1 / 32 in.) in diameter, the center of which is located not more than 2.5 mm
or 0.10 in. above the bottom edge of the gage, shall be provided for use in checking the center
position of the orifice of the test flame applicator with respect to the rim of the cup. (Figure
10.5.4 shows a suitable version.)
b) Shield - A shield 460 mm (18 in.) square and 610 mm (24 in.) high and having an open
front is recommended.
c) Thermometer.
4.5 Preparation of apparatus

a) The apparatus is supported on a level steady table in a draft-free room or
compartment. The top of the apparatus is shielded from strong light by any suitable
means to permit ready detection of the flash point. Tests in a laboratory heed (Note 1.)
or any location where drafts occur are not to be relied upon.
Note1. With some samples whose vapours or products of pyrolysis are

objectionable, it is permissible to place the apparatus with a shield in a hood,
the draft of which is adjustable so that vapours may be withdrawn without
causing air currents over the test cup during the final 56 C (100 F) rise in
temperature prior to the flash point.

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Figure 4-1 Cleveland open cup apparatus

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Figure 4-2 Heating Plate

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Figure 4-3 Cleveland Open Cup

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Figure 4-4 Filling Level Gauge
b) The test cup is washed with an appropriate solvent to remove any oil or traces of gum or
residue remaining from a previous test. If any deposits of carbon are present, they should
be removed with steel wool. The cup is flashed cold water and dry for a few minutes over
an open flame, on a hot plate, or in an oven to remove the last traces of solvent and
water. The cup is cooled to at least 56 C (100 F) below the expected flash point before
using.
c) The thermometer is supported in a vertical position with the bottom of the bulb 6.4 mm
(1/4 in.) from the bottom of the cup and located at a point halfway between the center and
side of the cup on the diameter perpendicular to the arc (or line) of the sweep of the test
flame and on the side opposite to the test frame burner arm.

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4.6 Procedure
a) The cup, is filled at any convenient temperature (Note 2) not exceeding 100 C or 180
F above the softening point, so that the top of the meniscus is at the filling line. To aid
in this operation, a Filling Level Gauge (A7) may be used. If too much sample has
been added to the cup, remove the excess, using a pipette or other suitable device;
however, if there is sample on the outside of the apparatus, empty, clean and refill it.
Any air bubbles on the surface of the sample (Note 3) are destroyed.
Note 2. Viscous samples should be heated until they are reasonably fluid
before being poured into the cup. For asphalt cement, the temperature during
heating must not exceed 100 C or 180 F above the expected softening point.
Extra caution must be exercised with liquid asphalts which should be heated
only to the lowest temperature at which they can be poured.
Note 3. The sample cup may be filled away from the apparatus provide the
thermometer is preset with the cup in place and the sample level is correct at
the beginning of the test. A shim 6.4 mm (1/4 in) thick is useful in obtaining the
correction distance from the bottom of the bulb to the bottom of the cup.
b) The test flame is lighted and adjusted to a diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm (0.15 to 0.21 in.).
c) Heat is applied initially so that the rate of temperature rise of the sample is 14 to 17 C
(25 to 30 F) per minute. When the sample temperature is approximately 56 C (100 F)
below the anticipated flash point, decrease the heat so that the rates of temperature
rise for the 28 C (50 F) before the flash point is 5 to 6 C (9 to 11 F) per minute.
d) Starting at least 28 C (50 F) below the assumed flash point, the test flame is applied
when the temperature read on the thermometer reaches each successive 2 C (5 F)
mark. The test flame is passed across the center of the cup, at right angles to the
diameter which passes through the thermometer. With a smooth, continuous motion
apply the flame either in a straight line or along the circumference of a circle having a
radius of at least 150 mm or 6 in. The center of the test flame must move in a plane
not more than 2.5 mm or 0.10 in. above the plane of the upper edge of the cup passing
in one direction first, then in the opposite direction the next time. The time consumed
in passing the test flame across the cup shall be about 1 s. During the last 17 C (30 F )
rise in temperature prior to the flash point, care must be taken to avoid disturbing the
vapours in the test cup by careless movements or breathing near the cup.
Note 4. If a skin should form before the flash or fire point is reached, move it
carefully aside with a small spatula or stirring rod and continue the
determination.
e) The observed flash point is recorded as the temperatures read on the thermometer
when a flash appears at any point on the surface of the oil, but do not confuse the true
flash with the bluish halo that sometimes surrounds the test flame.
f) To determine the fire point, continue heating so that the sample temperature increases
at a rate of 5 to 6 C (9 to 11 F). The application of the test flame is continued at 2 C (5
F) intervals until the oil ignites and continues to burn for at least 5 s. Record the
temperature at this point as the fire point of the oil.

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4.7 Correction for barometric pressure
If the actual barometric pressure at the time of the tests is less than 715 mm of mercury, it is
recorded and the appropriate correction is added from the following table to the flash and fire
points, as determined.
Barometric Pressure
Correction
mm of Mercury
Deg C Deg F
715 to 665 2 -
715 to 635 - 5
664 to 610 4 -
635 to 550 - 10
609 to 550 6
4.8 Calculation and report

1. The observed flash point or fire point, or both is corrected in accordance with 10.5.7.
2. The corrected flash point of fire point, or both is reported as the Cleveland Open Cup
Flash Point or Fire Point, or both.
4.9 Precision
The following data should be used for judging the acceptability of results (95 percent
confidence.)
Duplicate results by the same operator should be considered suspect if they differ by more
than the following amounts:
Repeatability
Flash point ...........................................................................................80C (150F)
Fire point .........................................................................................80C (150F)

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5 Standard Test Method for Loss on Heating of Oil and Asphaltic Compounds
5.1 Scope
a) This test method covers the determination of the loss in mass (exclusive of water) of
oil and asphaltic compounds when heated as hereinafter prescribed.
b) The values in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values in parentheses are for
information only.
c) This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated
with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate
safety and health practices and determine the applicability and regulatory limitations
prior to use.
5.2 Referenced Documents
ASTM Standards:
D 5 Test Method for Penetration of Bituminous Materials
E 1 Specification for ASTM Thermometers
E 145 Specification for Gravity-Convection and Forced-
Ventilation Ovens
5.3 Summary of Test Method

Fifty grams of material, spread out in a dish 55 mm in diameter, is heated in moving air for 5
h at 163C (325F) and the percent loss of mass determined along with a comparison, before
and after, of any other desired characteristics. This test method provides only a relative
measurement of the volatility of a material under test conditions.
5.4 Significance and Use

This test method is useful in characterizing certain petroleum products by the determination
of their loss of mass upon heating under standardized conditions.
5.5 Apparatus
a) OvenThe oven shall be electrically heated and shall conform to the performance
requirements of Specification E 145 Type I, Grade B, for operating temperatures up to
180C (365F). During the tests for compliance to Specification E 145 requirements,
the oven shelf, properly placed shall be in place and rotating. In addition, it shall also
comply with the following requirements:
b) Construction (Note 1)The oven shall be rectangular with minimum interior

dimensions of 330 mm (13 in.) in each direction. The oven shall have in front a tightly
fitting hinged door, which shall provide a clear opening substantially the same as the
interior height and width of the oven. The door may contain a window with
dimensions of at least 100 by 100 mm (4 by 4 in.), and with two sheets of glass
separated by an air space, through which a vertical thermometer located as specified
in Section 8, may be read without opening the door; or the oven may be provided with
an inner glass door, through which the thermometer may be observed on opening the
outer door momentarily. The oven shall be adequately ventilated by convection
currents of air and for this purpose shall be provided with openings for the entrance of

24
air and for the exit of heated air and vapors. Openings may be of any size and
arrangement provided the requirements of Specification E 145, Type I, Grade B, are
met.
c) Rotating ShelfThe oven shall be provided with a circular metal shelf having a
minimum diameter of 250 mm (9.8 in.). (A recommended form of aluminum shelf is
shown in Fig. 1.) The shelf shall be suspended by a vertical shaft and centered with
respect to the horizontal interior dimensions. The shelf shall be provided with a
mechanical means of rotating it at the rate of 5 to 6 rpm. The shelf shall be vertically
located as close to the center of the oven as permitted by compliance with the
requirements of 7.2 regarding thermometer placement.
NOTE 1Continued use of existing smaller ovens complying with the

requirements of this test shall be permitted for an indefinite period to provide
for normal amortization of present equipment. However, all new ovens
purchased should comply with the minimum dimensions and requirements of
this test method.
d) ThermometerAn ASTM Loss on Heat Thermometer graduated in Celsius degrees,

having a range from 155 to 170C and conforming to the requirements for
Thermometer 13C as prescribed in the Specification E 1 for ASTM Thermometer.
e) ContainerThe container in which the sample is to be tested shall be of metal or

glass, cylindrical in shape, and shall have a flat bottom. Its inside dimensions shall be
substantially as follows: diameter, 55 mm (2.17 in.), depth, 35 mm (1.38 in.).
NOTE 2Containers known in the drug trade as seamless ointment boxes

may be obtained in dimensions conforming to the above requirements.
5.6 Technical Hazards

Under ordinary circumstances a number of samples having about the same degree of
volatility may be tested at the same time. Samples varying greatly in volatility should be
tested separately. When extreme accuracy is required not more than one material should be
tested at one time and duplicate samples of it should be placed simultaneously in the oven.
Such duplicates shall check within the limits of accuracy given in Section 9. Results obtained
on samples showing evidences of foaming during the test shall be rejected.
5.7 Preparation of Sample

Thoroughly stir and agitate the sample as received, warming, if necessary, to obtain a
complete mixture before the portion for analysis is removed.
First test the material under examination for water and, if water is present, remove it by
suitable methods of dehydration before subjecting the material to the loss on heating test; or,
obtain another sample that is free of water.

25
5.8 Procedure
1) At first the test material under examination for water and if water is present, removed
it by suitable methods of dehydration before subjecting the material to the loss on
heating test or obtain another sample that is free from water.
2) Place 50 0.5 g of the sample of the water-free material to be tested in a tared

container conforming to the requirements of 5 (e), and weigh to the nearest 0.01 g. If
the material has been heated to facilitate transfer, cool the sample to room temperature
before making this initial weighing. Bring the oven to a temperature of 163C
(325F), and place the container with the weighed sample on and near the
circumference of the circular shelf, in one of the recesses if the recommended shelf is
used. Close the oven and rotate the shelf during the entire test at a rate of 5 to 6 rpm.
Maintain the temperature at 163 6 1C (325 6 1.8F) for 5 h after the sample has been
introduced and the oven has again reached that temperature. The 5-h period shall start
when the temperature reaches 162C (324F), and in no case shall the total time that a
sample is in the oven be more than 5 h and 15 min. At the conclusion of the heating
period, remove the sample from the oven, cool to room temperature, weigh to the
nearest 0.01 g, and calculate the loss due to heating.
3) Determine temperatures by means of the specified thermometer, which shall be

supported from the shaft of the circular shelf in a vertical position approximately 19
mm (0.75 in.) inside the periphery of the shelf, and with the bottom of the
thermometer bulb 6 mm (0.25 in.) above the shelf.
NOTE 3If additional periods of heating are desired, it is recommended that

they be made in successive increments of 5 h each.
NOTE 4When it is required that the penetration or other characteristics of

the sample after heating be determined, the residue should be melted in the
container at the lowest possible temperature and thoroughly mixed by stirring,
taking care to avoid incorporating air bubbles in the material. For the
penetration test, the well-mixed residue shall be brought
5.9 Calculation
Calculate the percentage of loss to the nearest second decimal as follows:
% Loss = [(A-B)/A]* 100

Where
A = Initial weight of the container plus sample.

B = Final weight of the container plus sample after heating.

26
5.10 Precautions
Under the ordinary circumstances a number of sample having about the same degree of
volatility may be tested at the same time. Samples varying greatly in volatility should be
tested separately. When the extreme accuracy is required not more than one material should
be tested at one time and duplicate samples of it should be placed simultaneously in the oven
to check the accuracy of result. Samples showing evidences of foaming during the test should
be rejected.
5.11 Reproducibility of Results

Up to 5 % loss in mass, the results obtained may be considered as correct within 0.5. Above 5
% loss in mass, the numerical limit of error increases 0.01 for every 0.5 % increase in loss by
volatilization as follows:

27
6 Standard Test Method for Solubility of Asphalt Materials in Trichloroethylene
6.1 Scope
This test method covers the determination of the degree of solubility in trichloroethylene of
asphalt materials having little or no mineral matter.
6.2 Summary of Method
The sample is dissolved in trichloroethylene and filtered through a glass fiber pad. The
insoluble material is washed, dried, and weighed.
This test method is a measure of the solubility of asphalt in trichloroethylene. The portion
that is soluble in trichloroethylene represents the active cementing constituents.
6.4 Apparatus and Materials
The assembly of the filtering apparatus is illustrated in Fig. 1. Details of the component parts
are as follows:
1. Gooch Crucible, glazed inside and outside with the exception of outside bottom
surface. The approximate dimensions shall be a diameter of 44 mm at the top,
tapering to 36 mm at the bottom, and a depth of 24-28 mm.
2. Glass Fiber Pad, 3.2-cm.7
3. Filter Flask, heavy-wall, with side tube, 250- or 500-mL capacity.
4. Filter Tube, 40- to 42-mm inside diameter.
5. Rubber Tubing or Adapter, for holding the Gooch crucible on the filter tube.
NOTE 2Other suitable assemblies permitting vacuum filtration with a

Gooch crucible may be used.
6. Erlenmeyer Flask, 125 ml.
7. Oven, capable of maintaining a temperature of 110 5C.
6.5 Reagent
Trichloroethylene, technical grade.

28
6.6 Safety Precautions
Trichloroethylene is toxic, and good ventilation should be provided. It is more flammable

than carbon tetrachloride.
6.7 Preparation of Gooch Crucible
Assemble the filtering apparatus. Place filter pad into the gooch crucible, Moisten the pad
with solvent and seat firmly in the bottom of the crucible with light suction. Place the Gooch
crucible plus one thickness of the glass fiber pad in an oven at 110 5C for 15 min, allow to
cool in a desiccator and then determine the mass to the nearest 0.1 mg. Designate this mass as
A. Store in the desiccator until ready for use.
6.8 Sample Preparation
If the sample is not fluid, heat to any convenient temperature, but in any case not more than
111C above the softening point. Normally the temperature at which this test is run is not
critical, and it may be performed at the laboratory air temperature. For referee tests, however,
the flask and sample in solution shall be placed in a water bath maintained at 37.8 0.3C for
1 h before filtering.
6.9 Procedure
Note safety precautions in Section 6.6. Transfer approximately 2.0 g of the sample into a
tared 125-ml Erlenmeyer flask or other suitable container. Allow the sample to cool to
ambient temperature and then determine the mass to the nearest 1 mg. Designate this mass as
B. Add 100 ml of the trichloroethylene to the container in small portions with continuous
agitation until all lumps disappear and no undissolved sample adheres to the container.
Stopper the flask or otherwise cover the container and set aside for at least 15 min (see
Section 6.6).
Place the previously prepared and weighed Gooch crucible in the filtering tube. Wet the glass
fiber pad with a small portion of trichloroethylene and decant the solution through the glass
fiber pad of the crucible with or without light suction as may be necessary. When the
insoluble matter is appreciable, retain as much of it as possible in the container until the
solution has drained through the mat. Wash the container with a small amount of solvent and,
using a stream of solvent from a wash bottle, transfer all insoluble matter to the crucible. Use
a policeman if necessary to remove any insoluble matter adhering to the container. Rinse
the policeman and container thoroughly. Wash the insoluble matter in the crucible with
solvent until the filtrate is substantially colorless, then apply strong suction to remove the
remaining solvent.
Remove the crucible from the tube, wash the bottom free of any dissolved matter, and place
the crucible on top of an oven or on a steam bath until all odor of the trichloroethylene is
removed (see safety precautions in Section 6.6). Place the crucible in an oven at 110 5C
for at least 20 min. Cool the crucible in a desiccator for 30 5 min and determine its mass to
the nearest 0.1 mg. Repeat the drying and weighing until constant mass ( 0.3 mg) is
obtained. Designate this mass as C.

29
NOTE 3To obtain precise results, the cooling time in the desiccator must be
approximately the same (within 5 min) after all heatings. For example, if the mass of
the empty crucible is determined after a 30-min cooling period in the dessicator, the
mass of the crucible containing the insoluble matter should be determined after a 30
5-min cooling period in the desiccator. Either empty crucibles or crucibles containing
insoluble matter that have remained in a desiccator overnight should be reheated in
an oven for at least 30 min, then allowed to cool for the prescribed period before the
mass is determined.
6.10 Calculation and Report
Calculate either the total percentage of insoluble matter or the percentage of the sample
soluble in the solvent used as follows:
where:
A = mass of crucible and filter,
B = mass of sample, and
C = mass of crucible, filter and insoluble material.
For percentages of insoluble less than 1.0, report to the nearest 0.01 %. For percentages of
insoluble 1.0 or more, report to the nearest 0.1 %.
Note : Standard value of Impurities is 2.0% to 3.0%.

6.11 Precision
The following precision statement was formulated when it was permissible to use carbon
disulfide, carbon tetrachloride, and benzene, as well as trichloroethylene and before the
substitution of the glass fiber pad for asbestos. It is included in the test method as a guide
only.
Estimates of standard deviations (sr8) for this procedure and the criteria for judging the
acceptability of results (95 % confidence level) are as follows:

30
A. For definitions of terms and recommended use of precision indexes, see Practice E
177.
B. The standard deviations shown (sr8) represent the estimated standard deviation of
the measurement process for the stated conditions. They are calculated by multiplying
the standard deviations of the applicable data by the factor 1 + [14 (N 1)] where N
is the number of tests in the set of data.
C. Two results obtained by an operator of the same sample should be considered suspect
if they differ by more than the stated amount. As defined in Practice E 177, this is the
difference two-sigma limits for single-laboratory-operator-machinemultiday
precision.
D. Two results obtained by operators in different laboratories should be considered
suspect if they differ by more than the stated amount. As defined in Practice E 177,
this is the difference two-sigma limits for multilaboratory-operatormachine- day
precision.

31
7 Standard Test Method for Ductility of Bituminous Materials
7.1 Scope
1. The ductility of a bituminous material is measured by the distance to which it will

elongate before breaking when two ends of a briquet specimen of the material, of the
form described in Section 4, are pulled apart at a specified speed and at a specified
temperature. Unless otherwise specified, the test shall be made at a temperature of 25
0.5C and with a speed of 5 cm/min 5.0 %. At other temperatures the speed
should be specified.
2. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated
with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate
safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations
prior to use.
This test method provides one measure of tensile properties of bituminous materials and may
be used to measure ductility for specification requirements.
7.3 Apparatus
1) MoldThe mold shall be similar in design to that shown in Fig. 1. The mold shall be
made of brass, the ends b and b being known as clips, and the parts a and a as sides
of the mold. The dimensions of the assembled mold shall be as shown in Fig. 1 with
the permissible variations indicated.
2) Water BathThe water bath shall be maintained at the specified test temperature,
varying not more than 0.18F (0.1C) from this temperature. The volume of water
shall be not less than 10 L, and the specimen shall be immersed to a depth of not less
than 10 cm and shall be supported on a perforated shelf not less than 5 cm from the
bottom of the bath.
3) Testing MachineFor pulling the briquet of bituminous material apart, any apparatus
may be used which is so constructed that the specimen will be continuously immersed
in water as specified in 7.3.3, while the two clips are pulled apart at a uniform speed,
as specified, without undue vibration.
4) ThermometerA thermometer having a range as shown below and conforming to the
requirements.
NOTE 1In those cases where the ductility specimens are aged in the
standard penetration bath at 25C, the thermometer as prescribed for Test
Method D 5 may be substituted in place of the above.
7.4 Procedure
A. Assemble the mold on a brass plate. Thoroughly coat the surface of the plate and
interior surfaces of the sides a and a, Fig. 7.1, of the mold with a thin layer of a
mixture of glycerin and dextrin, talc, or kaolin (china clay) to prevent the material

32
under test from sticking. The plate upon which the mold is placed shall be perfectly
flat and level so that the bottom surface of the mold will be in contact throughout.
Carefully heat the sample to prevent local overheating until it has become sufficiently
fluid to pour. Strain the melted sample through a 300-m sieve conforming to
Specification E 11. After a thorough stirring, pour it into the mold. In filling the mold,
take care not to disarrange the parts and thus distort the briquet. In filling, pour the
material in a thin stream back and forth from end to end of the mold until the mold is
more than level full. Let the mold containing the material cool to room temperature
Figure 7-1 Mold for Ductility Test Specimen
for a period of from 30 to 40 min and then place it in the water bath maintained at the
specified temperature of test for 30 min; then cut off the excess bitumen with a hot
straight edged putty knife or spatula to make the mold just level full.
B. Keeping Specimen at Standard TemperaturePlace the brass plate and mold, with
briquet specimen, in the water bath and keep at the specified temperature for a period
of from 85 to 95 min. Then remove the briquet from the plate, detach the side pieces,
and immediately test the briquet.

33
C. TestingAttach the rings at each end of the clips to the pins or hooks in the testing
machine and pull the two clips apart at a uniform speed as specified until the briquet
ruptures. A variation of 5 % from the speed specified will be permissible. Measure
the distance in centimetres through which the clips have been pulled to produce
rupture. While the test is being made, the water in the tank of the testing machine
shall cover the specimen both above and below it by at least 2.5 cm and shall be kept
continuously at the temperature specified within 0.5C.
7.5 Report
1. A normal test is one in which the material between the two clips pulls out to a point or
thread until rupture occurs at the point where the thread has practically no cross-
sectional area. Report the average of three normal tests as the ductility of the sample.
2. If the bituminous material comes in contact with the surface of the water or the
bottom of the bath, the test shall not be considered normal. Adjust the specific gravity
of the bath by the addition of either methyl alcohol or sodium chloride so that the
bituminous material neither comes to the surface of the water, nor touches the bottom
of the bath at any time during the test.
3. If a normal test is not obtainable on three tests, report the ductility as being
unobtainable under the conditions of the test.
7.6 Precision
Criteria for judging the acceptability of ductility test results at 25C obtained by this test
method are shown in Fig. 7.2.
NOTE 2The precision statement for ductility, as presented in Fig. 2, is

based on tests performed on asphalt cements. The precision of tests on
residues, such as those obtained by Test Methods D 1754 and D 2872, have
not been established.
NOTE 3The numbers plotted in Fig. 2 represent the (1S) and (D2S) limits
for single operator precision and multilaboratory precision as described in
Practice C 670.
NOTE 4Insufficient data are available to properly define precision at
15.6C. However, analysis of data resulting from tests by 13 laboratories on
one asphalt for which the average ductility test result was 45 cm shows a
multi-laboratory precision (D2S) of 23 cm.

34
Figure 7-2 Precision Data

35
Standard Tests of Aggregate
8 Aggregate Impact Value
8.1 Scope
The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of the aggregate to
sudden shock or impact. The particular purpose which an aggregate is meant to serve requires
the aggregate to have a particular strength which is usually stated in the specification. This
test provides a method for measuring this strength.
8.2 Method outline
A test specimen, of chosen fractions, is compacted in a standardized manner, into an open

steel cup. The specimen is then subjected to a number of standard impacts from a dropping
weight. The impacts break the aggregate to a degree which is dependent on the aggregates
impact resistance. This degree is assessed by a sieving test on the impacted specimen and is
taken as the aggregate impact value.
8.3 Sampling.
The sample used for this test shall be taken in accordance with Chapter 2.
8.4 Equipment
1) Impact testing machine The machine shall be of the general form shown in Figure
7.6.1, have a total mass of between 45 kg and 60 kg and shall have the following
parts:
a) A circular metal base, with a mass of between 22 kg and 30 kg, with a plane lower
surface of not less than 300 mm diameter and shall be supported on a level and plane
concrete or stone block floor at least 450 mm thick. The machine shall be prevented
from rocking during operation of the machine.
b) A cylindrical steel cup, having an internal diameter of 102 mm plus or minus 0.5 mm
and an internal depth of 50 mm plus or minus 0.25 mm. The walls shall be not less
than 6 mm thick and the inner surfaces shall be case hardened. The cup shall be
rigidly fastened at the centre of the base and be easily removed for emptying.
c) A metal hammer, with a mass of between 13.5 kg and 14.0 kg, the lower end of which
shall be cylindrical in shape, 100.0 mm plus or minus 0.5 mm diameter and 50 mm
plus or minus 0.15 mm long, with a 1.5 mm chamfer at the lower edge, and case
hardened. The hammer shall slide freely between vertical guides so arranged that the
lower part of the hammer is above and concentric with the cup.
d) Means for raising the hammer and allowing it to fall freely between the vertical
guides from a height of 380 mm plus or minus 5 mm on to the test sample in the cup,
and means for adjusting the height of fall within 5 mm.

36
e) Means for supporting the hammer whilst fastening or removing the cup.
2) Square-hole perforated plate test sieves, of sizes 14.0 mm and 10.0 mm and a woven
wire 2.36mm test sieve.
3) A cylindrical metal measure, of sufficient rigidity to retain its form under rough usage
and with an internal diameter of 75 mm plus or minus 1 mm and an internal depth of
50 mm plus or minus 1 mm.
4) A tamping rod, made out of straight iron or steel bar of circular cross section, 16 mm
plus or minus 1 mm diameter and 600 mm plus or minus 5 mm long, with both ends
hemispherical.
5) A balance, of capacity not less than 500 g and accurate to 0.1 g.
6) A ventilated oven thermostatically controlled at a temperature of 1050C plus or minus

50C.
7) A rubber mallet, a metal tray of known mass and large enough to contain 1 kg of
aggregate and a brush with stiff bristles.
8) Additional equipment for testing aggregate in a soaked condition.
9) Drying cloths or absorbent paper, for the surface drying of the aggregate.
10) One or more wire-mesh baskets, with apertures greater than 6.5 mm.
11) A stout watertight container in which the basket may be immersed.
8.5 Preparation of test portions and specimens
Test portions. Reduce laboratory samples to test portions of sufficient mass to produce 3
specimens of 14 mm to 10 mm size fraction.
Table Guide to minimum mass of test portions required to obtain a suitable mass of
material to determine the aggregate impact value

37
8.6 Test specimen in a dry condition
a) Sieve the entire dried test portion on the 14 mm and the 10 mm test sieve to remove
the oversize and undersize fraction. Divide the resulting 14 mm to 10 mm size
fractions to produce 3 test specimens each of sufficient mass to fill the measure when
it is filled by the procedure in 7.6.5.2(c).
b) Dry the test specimens by heating at a temperature of 1050C plus or minus 50C for a
period of not more than 4 h. cool to room temperature before testing.
c) Fill the measure to overflowing with the aggregate using a scoop. Tamp the aggregate
with 25 blows of the rounded end of the tamping rod, each blow being given by
allowing the tamping rod to fall freely from a height of about 50 mm above the
surface of the aggregate and the blows being distributed evenly over the surface.
Remove the surplus aggregate by rolling the tamping rod across, and in contact with, the top
of the container. Remove by hand any aggregate that impedes its progress and fill any

38
obvious depressions with added aggregate. Record the net mass of aggregate in the measure
and use the same mass for the second test specimen.
8.7 Test specimens in a soaked condition
a) Prepare the test portion as in 7.6.5.1 except that the test portion is tested in the as
received condition and not oven-dried. Place test specimen in a wire basket and
immerse it in the water in the container with a cover at least 50 mm of water above
the top of the basket. Remove entrapped air by lifting the basket 25 mm above the
base of the container and allowing it to drop 25 times at a rate of approximately once
per second. Keep the aggregate completely immersed in water at all times and for the
next 24 h plus or minus 2 h and maintain the water temperature at 200C plus or minus
50C.
b) After soaking, remove from the water and blot the free water from the surface using
the absorbent cloths. Prepare for testing as described in 7.6.5.2 immediately after this
operation.
8.8 Aggregate impact value
8.8.1 Procedure
a) Test specimens in a dry condition
i. Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of the impact machine and place the
whole of the specimen in it and then compact by 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
Adjust the height of the hammer so that its lower face is 380 mm plus or minus 5
mm above the aggregate in the cup and then allow it to fall freely on to the
aggregate. Subject the test specimen to 15 such blows each blow being delivered
at an interval not less than 1 s.
ii. Remove the crushed aggregate by holding the cup over a clean tray and
hammering on the outside with the rubber mallet until the crushed aggregate falls
freely on to the tray.
iii. Transfer fine particle adhering to the inside of the cup and to the surface of the
hammer to the tray by means of the stiff bristle brush. Weigh the tray and the
aggregate and record the mass of the aggregate to the nearest 0.1 g (M1).
iv. Sieve the whole of the specimen on the 2.36 mm test sieve until no further
significant amount passes during a further period of 1 min. Weigh and record the
mass of the fractions passing and retained on the sieve to the nearest 0.1 g (M2
and M3) respectively and if the total mass (M2 + M3) differs from the initial mass
(M1) by more than 1 g, discard the result and test a further specimen.
v. Repeat the procedure from (i) to (iii) above inclusive using a second specimen of
the same mass as the first specimen.
b) Test specimens in a soaked condition

i. Follow the test procedure described in 8.8.1(a) except that the number of blows of
the hammer, to which the aggregate is subjected, is the number of blows which
will yield between 5% and 20% of fines when this value is calculated using
procedure in 8.9.
ii. Remove the crushed specimen from the cup and dry it in the oven at a temperature
of 1050C plus or minus 50C either to constant mass or for a minimum period of 12
h. Allow to cool and weigh to the nearest 1 g and record this mass M1. Complete

39
the procedure described in (ii) of 8.8.1.(a) starting at the stage where the specimen
is sieved on the 2.36mm test sieve.
8.9 Calculation and expression of result
a) Calculate the aggregate impact value (AIV) expressed as a percentage to the first
decimal place for each test specimen from the following expression.
(AIV) = 100 x M2 / M1
Where,
M1 is the mass of the test specimen in grams.
M2 is the mass of the material passing the 2.36mm test sieve in grams.
b) Aggregate in the soaked condition.

i. Calculate the mass of fines, m, expressed as a percentage of the total mass for
each test specimen from the following expression.
M = 100 x M2 / M1
Where,
M1 is the mass of the oven-dried test specimen in grams.
M2 is the mass of the oven-dried material passing the 2.36mm test sieve
in grams.
ii. Calculate the AIV expressed as a percentage to the first decimal place for each test
specimen from the following expression.
(AIV) = 15 m/ n
Where, n is the number of hammer blows to which the specimen is subjected.
8.10 Results
Calculate the mean of the two values determined in (a) or (b) of 8.9. to the nearest whole
number. Report the mean as the aggregate impact value, unless the individual results differ by
more than 0.15 times the mean value. In this case repeat the test on two further specimens,
calculate the median of the four results to the nearest whole number and report the median as
the aggregate impact value.

40
9 Aggregate Crushing Value and 10% Fines Value
9.1 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
9.1.1 Introduction
One of the requirements, for the suitability of aggregates for construction, is the ability of the
aggregate to resist crushing. The Aggregate Crushing Value gives a relative measure of the
resistance of the aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load.
9.1.2 Scope
The particular purpose which an aggregate is meant to serve requires the aggregate to have a
particular strength. This strength is usually stated in the specification. This test provides a
method for measuring this strength. This method is not suitable for testing aggregates with a
crushing value higher than 30, and in this case the ten percent fines value is recommended.
9.1.3 Method outline

A test specimen, of chosen fractions, is compacted in a standardized manner, into a steel
cylinder fitted with a freely moving plunger. The specimen is then subjected to a standard
loading regime applied through the plunger. This action crushes the aggregate to a degree
which is dependent on the aggregates crushing resistance. This degree is assessed by a
sieving test on the crushed specimen and is taken as the Aggregate Crushing Value.
9.1.4 Sampling
9.1.5 Equipment
a) Steel cylinder, open-ended, of nominal 150mm internal diameter with plunger and
base-plate of the general form and dimensions shown in Figure 7.7.1 and given in
Table 9-1. The surface in contact with the aggregate shall be machined and case
hardened, and shall be maintained in a smooth condition.
Table 9-1 Principal dimensions of cylinder and plunger apparatus

41
b) A cylindrical metal measure, of sufficient rigidity to retain its form under rough usage
and with an internal diameter of 115 mm plus or minus 1 mm and an internal depth of
180 mm plus or minus 1 mm.
c) A tamping rod, made out of straight iron or steel bar of circular cross section. 16 mm
plus or minus 1 mm diameter and 600 mm plus or minus 5 mm long, with both ends
hemispherical.
d) A balance, of capacity not less than 3 kg and accurate to 1 g.
Figure 9-1 Outline form of cylinder and plunger apparatus for the aggregate crushing
e) A ventilated oven thermostatically controlled at a temperature of 1050C plus or minus
50C.
f) A rubber mallet, a metal tray of known mass and large enough to contain 3 kg of
aggregate and a brush with stiff bristles.
g) Square-hole perforated plate test sieves, of sizes 14.0 mm and 10.0 mm and an
ovenware 2.36 mm test sieve.
h) A compression testing machine, capable of applying any force up to 400 kN at a
uniform rate of loading so that the force is reached in 10 min.

42
9.1.6 Preparation of test portions and specimens
a) Test portions. Reduce laboratory samples to test portions of sufficient mass to

produce 3 specimens of 14 mm to 10mm size fractions.
b) Sieve the entire dried test portion on the 14mm and the 10mm test sieve to remove the
oversize and undersize fraction. Divide the resulting 14mm to 10 mm size fractions to
produce 3 test specimens each of sufficient mass that the depth of the material in the
cylinder is approximately 100 mm after tamping.
c) Dry the test specimens by heating at a temperature of 1050C plus or minus 50C for a
period of not more than 4 h. Cool to room temperature and record the mass of the
material comprising the test specimen.
Table 9-2. Guide to minimum mass of test portions required to obtain a

suitable mass of material to determine the Aggregate Crushing.
9.1.7 Procedure
a. Place the cylinder of the test apparatus in position on the base-plate and add the test
specimen in three layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being compacted to 25
strokes from the tamping rod distributed evenly over the surface of the layer and dropping
from a height approximately 50 mm above the surface of the aggregate. Carefully level
the surface of the aggregate and insert the plunger so that it rests horizontally on this
surface. Ensure that the plunger is free to move.
b. Place the apparatus, with the test specimen prepared as described in 9.1.6(c) and plunger
in position, between the platens of the testing machine and load it as uniform a rate as
possible so that the required force of 400 kN is reached in 10 min plus or minus 30 s.
c. Release the load and remove the crushed aggregate by holding the cylinder over a clean
tray of known mass and hammering on the outside with the rubber mallet until the
crushed aggregate falls freely on to the tray. Transfer fine particle adhering to the inside
of the cylinder and to the surface of the hammer to the tray by means of the stiff bristle
brush. Weight the tray and the aggregate and record the mass of the aggregate to the
nearest 1g (M1).
d. Sieve the whole of the specimen on the 2.36mm test sieve until no further significant
amount passes during a further period of 1 min. Weight and record the mass of the

43
fractions passing and retained on the sieve to the nearest 1g (M2 and M3) respectively
and if the total mass (M2 + M3) differs from the initial mass (M1) by more than 10g,
discard the result and test a further specimen.
e. Repeat the procedure from (a) to (b) above inclusive using a second specimen of the same
mass as the first specimen.
9.1.8 Calculation and expression of result

Calculate the Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) expressed as a percentage to the first decimal
place, of the mass of fines formed to the total mass of the test specimen from the following
expression.
(ACV) = 100 x M2 / M1
Where,
M1 is the mass of the test specimen in grams.
M2 is the mass of the material passing the 2.36mm test sieve in grams
9.1.9 Results
Calculate the mean of the two values determined to the nearest whole number. Report the
mean as the Aggregate Crushing Value, unless the individual results differ by more than 0.07
times the mean value. In this case repeat the test on two further specimens, calculate the
median of the four results to the nearest whole number and report the median as the
Aggregate Crushing Value.
9.2 10% Fines Value Test
9.2.1 Scope
The particular purpose which an aggregate is meant to serve requires the aggregate to have a
particular strength. This strength is usually stated in the specification. This test provides a
method for measuring this strength. This method is suitable for testing both strong and weak
aggregate passing a 14.0 mm test sieve and retained on a 10.0 mm test sieve.
9.2.2 Method outline

A test specimen, of chosen fractions, is compacted in a standardized manner, into a steel
cylinder fitted with a freely moving plunger. The specimen is then subjected to a standard
loading regime applied through the plunger. The action crushes the aggregate to a degree
which is dependent on the aggregates crushing resistance. This degree is assessed by a
sieving test on the crushed specimen. The procedure is repeated with various loads to
determine the maximum force which generates a given sieve analysis. This force is taken as
the ten percent fines value (TFV).
9.2.3 Sampling

44
9.2.4 Equipment
The equipment required for this test is identical to the equipment required for the ACV test as
described in 9.1.5.
a) Additional equipment for testing aggregate in a soaked condition.

b) Drying cloths or absorbent paper, for the surface drying of the aggregate.
c) One or more wire-mesh baskets, with apertures greater than 6.5 mm.
d) A stout watertight container in which the basket may be immersed.
9.2.5 Preparation of test portions and specimens
a) Test portions
Reduce laboratory samples to test portions of sufficient mass to produce 3 specimens of 14
mm to 10mm size fraction.
Use Table 7.7.1 for a guide to the minimum mass of test portion required to obtain a mass of
material to determine the aggregate 10% fines value.
b) Test specimen in a dry condition
i. Sieve the entire dried test portion on the 14 mm and the 10 mm test sieve to remove
the oversize and undersize fraction. Divide the resulting 14 mm to 10 mm size
fractions to produce 3 test specimens each of sufficient mass such that the depth of the
material in the cylinder is approximately 100 mm after tamping.
ii. Dry the test specimens by heating at a temperature of 1050C plus or minus 50C for a
period of not more than 4 h. Cool to room temperature before testing. Record the
mass of the material comprising the test specimen.
c) Test specimens in a soaked condition
i. Prepare the test portion as in 9.1.6(b) except that the test portion is tested in the as-
received condition and not oven-dried. Place test specimen in a wire basket and
immerse it in the water in the container with a cover at least 50 mm of water above
the top of the basket. Remove entrapped air by lifting the basket 25 mm above the
base of the container and allowing it to drop 25 times at a rate of approximately once
per second. Keep the aggregate completely immersed in water at all times and for the
next 24 h plus or minus 2 h and maintain the water temperature at 200C plus or minus
50C.
ii. After soaking, remove from the water and blot the free water from the surface using
the absorbent cloths. Carry out the test procedure immediately after this operation.
9.2.6 Procedure: Aggregates in dry condition

a. Place the cylinder of the test apparatus in position on the base-plate and add the
test specimen in three layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being
compacted to 25 strokes from the tamping rod distributed evenly over the surface
of the layer and dropping from a height approximately 50 mm above the surface
of the aggregate. Carefully level the surface of the aggregate and insert the

45
plunger so that it rests horizontally on this surface. Ensure that the plunger is free
to move.
b. Place the apparatus, with the test specimen and plunger in position, between the
platens of the testing machine and load it as uniform a rate as possible so as to
cause a total penetration of the plunger in 10 min plus or minus 30 s of
approximately:
i. 15 mm for rounded or partially rounded aggregates (uncrushed
gravels).
ii. 20 mm for normal crushed aggregate.
iii. 24 mm for vesicular (honeycombed) aggregates.
c) Record the force (f) applied to produce the required penetration. Release the load
and remove the crushed aggregate by holding the cylinder over a clean tray of
known mass and hammering on the outside with the rubber mallet until the
crushed aggregate falls freely on to the tray. Transfer fine particle adhering to the
inside of the cylinder and to the surface of the hammer to the tray by means of the
stiff bristle brush. Weigh the tray and the aggregate and record the mass of the
aggregate used to the nearest 1 g (M1).
d) Sieve the whole of the specimen on the 2.36 mm test sieve until no further
significant amount passes during a further period of 1 min. Weigh and record the
mass of the fractions passing and retained on the sieve to the nearest 1 g (M2 and
M3) respectively and if the total mass (M2 + M3) differs from the initial mass
(M1) by more than 10 g, discard the result and test a further specimen. If the
percentage of the material (m) passing the sieve, calculated from the expression:
M = 100 x M2 / M1 does not fall within the range 7.5% and 12.5%, test a further
specimen, using an adjusted maximum test loading to bring the percentage of
fines within the range and record the value of (m) obtained.
e) Repeat the complete test procedure with the same mass of aggregate at the same
force that gives percentage fines value within the range 7.5% and 12.5%.
9.2.7 Procedure; aggregates in a soaked condition

a) Follow the procedure described 9.2.6(a) except that after the crushed specimen has
been removed from the cylinder, dry it in the oven at a temperature of 1050C plus or
minus 50C either to constant weight or for a minimum of 12 h.
Allow the dried material to cool and weigh to the nearest 1 g (M1). Complete the
procedure 9.2.6(d) and 9.2.6(e).
9.2.8 Calculation and expression of result
a) Calculate the force F (in kN), to the nearest whole number, required to produce 10% fines
for each test specimen, with the percentage of material passing in the range of 7.5% to
12.5%, from the following expression:

46
F = 14 f / (m + 4)
Where,
f is the maximum force in kN.
m is the percentage of material passing the 2.36 mm test sieve at the maximum force.
b) Calculate the mean of the two results to the nearest 10 kN or more or to the nearest 5 kN
for forces of less than 100 kN. Report the mean as the aggregate 10% fines value, unless
the individual results differ by more than 10 kN or by more than 0.1 times the mean
value. In this case repeat the test on two further specimens, calculate the median of the
four results to the nearest whole number and report the median as the aggregate 10% fines
value.

47
10 Determination of Flakiness index of coarse aggregate
10.1 Introduction
Flaky or elongated materials, when used in the construction of a pavement, may cause the
pavement to fail due to the preferred orientation that the aggregates take under repeated
loading and vibration. It is important that the flakiness and elongation of the aggregate are
contained to within permissible levels.
10.2 Scope
The scope of this test is to provide test methods for determining the flakiness index of coarse
aggregate. An aggregate is classified as being flaky if it has a thickness (smallest dimension)
of less than 0.6 of its mean sieve size. The flakiness index of an aggregate sample is found by
separating the flaky particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the mass of the
sample tested. The test is not applicable to materials passing the 6.30 mm test sieve or
retained on the 63.00 mm test sieve.
10.3 Equipment
a) A sample divider, of size appropriate to the maximum particle size to be handled or

alternatively a flat shovel and a clean, flat metal tray for the quartering.
b) A ventilated oven thermostatically controlled to maintain a temperature of 1050C plus
or minus 50C.
c) A balance of suitable capacity and accurate to 0.1% of the mass of the test portion.
Balances of 0.5 kg, 5.0 kg, or 50 kg capacity may be required depending on the size
of aggregate and size of sample.
d) Test sieves.
e) A mechanical sieve shaker (optional).
f) Trays of adequate size, which can be heated in the oven without damage or change in
mass.
g) A metal thickness gauge, of the pattern shown in Figure 7.3.1, or similar, or special
sieves having elongated apertures. The width and length of the apertures in the
thickness gauge and in the sieves shall be within the tolerances given in Table 10-1.
The gauge shall be made from 1.5 mm thickness sheet steel.
10.4 Preparation of test portion
Produce a test portion that complies with Table 10-1. Dry the test portion by heating at a
temperature of 1050C plus or minus 50C to achieve a dry mass which is constant to within
0.1%. Allow to cool and weigh.
10.5 Procedure
A. Carry out a sieve analysis using the test sieves in Table 10-1. Discard all aggregates
retained on the 63.0 mm test sieve and all aggregate passing the 6.30 mm test sieve.
B. Weigh each of the individual size-fraction retained on the sieves, other than the 63.0
mm and store them in separate trays with their size mark on the tray.

48
C. From the sums of the masses of the fractions in the trays (M1), calculate the individual
percentage retained on each of the various sieves. Discard any fraction whose mass is
5% or less of M1. Record the mass remaining M2.
Table 10-1 Dimensions of Thickness and Length gauge

Aggregate Size fraction Thickness Length gauge Minimum mass
gauge width of Gap between for subdivision
100% Passing 100% slot pins
Retained
mm mm mm mm kg
63.0 50.0 33.9 0.30 - 50
50.0 37.5 26.3 0.30 78.0 0.3 35
37.5 28.0 19.7 0.30 59.0 0.3 15
28.0 20.0 14.4 0.15 43.2 0.3 5
20.0 14.0 10.2 0.15 30.6 0.3 2
14.0 10.0 7.2 0.10 21.6 0.2 1
10.0 6.30 4.9 0.10 14.7 0.2 0.5
D. Gauge each fraction by using either of the procedures given in (i) or (ii) below.
i. Using the special sieves, select the special sieve appropriate to the size
fraction under test. Place the whole of the size-fraction into the sieve and
shake the sieve until the majority of the particles have passed through the
slots. Then gauge the particles retained by hand.
ii. Using the gauge, select the thickness gauge appropriate to the size-fraction
under test and gauge each particle of that size-fraction separately by hand.
E. Combine and weigh all the particles passing each of the gauges M3.
10.6 Calculation and expression of results
The value of the flakiness index is calculated from the expression:
Flakiness Index = 100 x M3 / M2
Express the Flakiness Index to the nearest whole number.
Where, M2 is the total mass of test portion

M3 is the mass of the flaky portion

49
DATA SHEET
FLAKINESS INDEX
Size of Aggregate
Passing Weight of aggregate inn each
Retained on Weight of
through the fraction passing Thickness
BS Test Fraction, gm
BS test sieve gauge, gm
sieve (mm)
(mm)
63 50
50 37.5
37.5 28
28 20
20 14
14 10
10 6.3
Total M2 = M3 =
10.7 Test Report
The test report shall affirm that the flakiness index test was performed according to the stated
method and whether a sampling certificate was issued. If available the sampling certificate
should be provided. The test report shall include the following additional information:
a) Sample identification
b) Flakiness index
c) Sieve analysis obtained from this test.

50
11 Determination of Elongation index
11.1 Scope
The scope of this test is to provide test methods for determining the elongation index of
coarse aggregate. An aggregate is classified as being elongated if it has a length (greatest
dimension) of more than 1.8 of its mean sieve size. The elongation index of an aggregate
sample is found by separating the elongated particles and expressing their mass as a
percentage of the mass of the sample tested. The test is not applicable to materials passing the
6.30 mm test sieve or retained on the 50.00 mm test sieve.
11.2 Equipments
1. A metal Length gauge of pattern shown in figure.
2. BS test sieve as shown in table.
3. A balance accurate to 0.5% of the mass of test sample.
11.3 Preparation of test portion
Produce a test portion that complies with Table 10-1. Dry the test portion by heating at a
temperature of 1050C plus or minus 50C to achieve a dry mass which is constant to within
0.1%. Allow to cool and weigh.
11.4 Procedure
a) Carry out a sieve analysis using the test sieves in Table 10-1. Discard all aggregates
retained on the 63.0 mm test sieve and all aggregate passing the 6.30 mm test sieve.
b) Weigh each of the individual size-fraction retained on the sieves, other than the 50.0
mm and store them in separate trays with their size mark on the tray.
c) From the sums of the masses of the fractions in the trays (M1), calculate the individual
percentage retained on each of the various sieves. Discard any fraction whose mass is
5% or less of M1. Record the mass remaining M2.
d) Gauge each fraction as follows: select the length gauge appropriate to the size fraction
under test and gauge each particle separately by hand. Elongated particles are those
whose greatest dimension prevents them from passing through the gauge, and these
are placed to one side.
e) Combine and weigh all the particles passing each of the gauges M3.
11.5 Calculation and expression of results
The value of the elongation index is calculated from the expression:
Elongation Index = 100 x M3 / M2
Express the Elongation Index to the nearest whole number.
Where, M3 is the mass of test portion being elongated

M2 is the total mass of test portion

51
11.6 Test Report
The test report shall affirm that the elongation index test was performed according to the
stated method and whether a sampling certificate was issued. If available the sampling
certificate should be provided. The test report shall include the following additional
information:
a) Sample identification
b) Elongation index
c) Sieve analysis obtained from this test.
DATA SHEET
ELONGATION INDEX
Size of Aggregate
Passing Weight of aggregate inn each
Retained on Weight of
through the fraction retained on length
BS Test Fraction, gm
BS test sieve gauge, gm
sieve (mm)
(mm)
50 37.5
37.5 28
28 20
20 14
14 10
10 6.3
Total M2 = M3 =

52
12 Marshall Stability and Flow
12.1 Introduction
The Marshall Test method is widely used for the design and control of asphaltic concrete and
hot rolled asphalt materials; it cannot be applied to open textured materials such as bitumen
macadam. Materials containing aggregate sizes larger than 20 mm, are liable to give erratic
results.
The full Marshall method is a method of bituminous mix design in addition to being a quality
control test. The details given below related mainly to its use as a quality control test. The
suitability of materials for the design of Marshall Asphalt requires that a numbers of tests are
performed on the materials. Tests normally performed are:
The Marshall Stability and flow test provides the performance prediction measure for the
Marshall Mix design method. The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load
supported by the test specimen at a loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute. Load is applied to the
specimen till failure, and the maximum load is designated as stability. During the loading, an
attached dial gauge measures the specimen's plastic flow (deformation) as a result of the
loading. The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments at the same time when
the maximum load is recorded. The important steps involved in marshal mix design are
summarized next.
12.1.1 Asphalt
(a) Penetration (b) Viscosity (c) Solubility (d) Specific gravity (e) Fire & flash point
(f) Softening point.
12.1.2 Aggregates
(a) Percent wear (b) Unit weight (c) Sieve analysis (d) Specific gravity (e) Absorption.
The preliminary mix designs, the scheme for analyzing aggregate will be governed, to some
extent, by method of producing the gradation during construction.
12.2 Scope
The basic Marshall test consists essentially of crushing a cylinder of bituminous material
between two semi-circular test heads and recording the maximum load achieved (i.e. the
stability) and the deflection at which the maximum load occurs (i.e. the flow).
In common with many other tests, the bulk of the work is involved in preparing the samples
for testing.
12.3 Apparatus
The samples are prepared in 100 mm diameter moulds which are fitted with a base and collar
(Figure 12-1) the sample is compacted using a hammer consisting of a sliding weight which

53
falls onto a circular foot (Figure 12-2) during compaction the mould is held on a hardwood
block which is rigidly fixed to a concrete base (Figure 12-3).
The sample is removed from the mould using an extraction plate and press (Figure 12-1) and
heated to the test temperature of 60 C in a water bath.
The cylindrical specimens are tested on their sides between test heads similar to those shown
in Fig. 12-4. The flow is measured with a dial gauge and the stability is measured with a
proving ring. A motorized load frame is required for the test.
Figure 12-1 Marshall Test Compaction and Extraction Equipment

54
Figure 12-2 Marshall Compaction Hammer

55
Figure 12-3 Marshall Compaction Pedestal

56
Figure 12-4 Marshall Testing Heads

57
Figure 12-5 Marshall Mould

58
12.4 Sampling
Due to the various uses which may be made of Marshall tests, the materials for test may be
obtained in one of the following forms:
a. 100 mm diameter bituminous cores cut from an existing pavement using a core
cutting machine.
b. Ready-mixed bituminous material obtained from a mixing plant or at the point of
laying, and sampled in accordance with Chapter 2.
c. A sample of mixed aggregate obtained from the mixing plant together with a separate
sample of bitumen obtained from the storage tank at the mixing plant in accordance
with Chapter 2.
Note. A sample of mixed aggregate may be obtained from a mixing plant by

batching the specified aggregate weights into the mixer but not allowing any
bitumen to be batched. The aggregate sample is then discharged into a clean
lorry where it may be sampled in accordance with Chapter 2.
d. Samples of the various sized aggregates in use at the mixing plant sampled in
accordance with Chapter 2 together with a separate sample of bitumen sampled in
accordance with Chapter 2.
In the case of a sample of type (a), the core may be tested without further preparation.
It must, however, be of the correct diameter and height. It is doubtful if samples
obtained in this manner give results which are closely comparable to laboratory
compacted specimens; however, the taking of cores is a valuable way to check the
compacted density of the as laid material and the small amount of additional work in
determining the stability and flow is justified. If the densities obtained form cores (or
sand replacement tests) are significantly below those of laboratory compacted
specimens, attention should be paid to the methods of laying and compacting.
For many quality control purposes samples of type (b) are the most useful as they may
be compacted, after re-heating in an oven to the required temperature. The delay
between initial mixing and compacting should be as short as possible. With this type
of sample separate test on the mixed aggregate will be required to determine the void
content.
It is essential to make frequent checks on the combined aggregate from an asphalt

plant. The most important factors to be checked are the aggregate temperature at the
time of mixing and the grading of the mixed aggregate. It may, therefore, be
convenient to obtain separate samples of aggregate and bitumen (type (c) sample) and
mix them in the required proportions in the laboratory. As the aggregate will be
discharged from the mixer in a dry state, there is considerable risk of segregation and
the greatest care should be taken in obtaining a representative sample. If there are
reasons to suspect that the bitumen at the mixing plant has been overheated, it may be
worthwhile to check the penetration as excessive heating hardens the bitumen. One
particular use of this method of sampling is that if some adjustment is required to the
bitumen content, a number of samples may be made at various bitumen contents to
determine which is the most satisfactory.

59
To maintain the quality of a bituminous material, it is necessary to check, at regular
intervals, the various sizes of aggregate for grading, cleanliness, shape, strength etc. If
it is required to study the effects of varying the aggregate, or bitumen proportions, it
will be necessary to obtain separate samples of each aggregate size to be used in
addition to a sample of the bitumen (a) type (d) sample.
12.5 Sample Preparation
Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of 175oC to 190oC.

Bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121- 125oC with the first trial percentage of bitumen
(say 3.5 or 4% by weight of the material aggregates) to the heated aggregates and thoroughly
mixed at temperature of 154oC to 160oC. The mix is placed in a preheated mould and
compacted by a rammer with 50 blows on either side at temperature of 138oC to 149oC. The
weight of mixed aggregates taken for the preparation of the specimen may be suitably altered
to obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5 3 mm. Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by
+0.5% and repeat the above procedure. Numbers of trials are predetermined. The prepared
mould is loaded in the Marshall Test setup as shown in the figure above.
12.6 Determine the properties of the mix
The properties that are of interest include the theoretical specific gravity Gt, the bulk specific
gravity of the mix Gm, percent air voids Vv, percent volume of bitumen Vb, percent void in
mixed aggregate VMA and percent voids filled with bitumen VFB. These calculations are
discussed next. To understand these calculations a phase diagram is given in Figure?
12.6.1 Theoretical specific gravity of the mix Gt
Theoretical specific gravity Gt is the specific gravity without considering air voids, and is
given by:
where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of fine
aggregate in the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of
bitumen in the total mix, G1 is the apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate, G2 is the
apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate, G3 is the apparent specific gravity of filler and Gb
is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen.
12.6.2 Bulk specific gravity of mix Gm
The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the mix Gm is the specific gravity
considering air voids and is found out by:
Where, Wm is the weight of mix in air, Ww is the weight of mix in water.

60
12.6.3 Air voids percent Vv
Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by:
Where Gt is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix, given by equation 1. And Gm is the
bulk or actual specific gravity of the mix given by equation 2.
12.6.4 Percent volume of bitumen Vb
The volume of bitumen Vb is the percent of volume of bitumen to the total volume and given
by:
where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of fine
aggregate in the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of
bitumen in the total mix, Gb is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen, and Gm is the bulk
specific gravity of mix given by equation 2.
12.6.5 Voids in mineral aggregate VMA
Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates, and is the sum of
air voids and volume of bitumen, and is calculated from
VMA = Vv + Vb
Where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix, given by equation 3. and Vb is percent bitumen
content in the mix, given by equation 4.
12.6.6 Voids filled with bitumen VFB
Voids filled with bitumen VFB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled with
the bitumen, and is calculated as:
Where, Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix, given by equation 4. and VMA is the
percent voids in the mineral aggregate, given by equation 5.
12.7 Determine Marshall Stability and flow
Marshall Stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce failure when
the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a special test head and the

61
load is applied at a constant strain (5 cm per minute). While the stability test is in progress
dial gauge is used to measure the vertical deformation of the specimen. The deformation at
the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall Flow value of the
specimen.
12.8 Apply stability correction
It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly vary from the standard
specification of 63.5 mm. Therefore, measured stability values need to be corrected to those
which would have been obtained if the specimens had been exactly 63.5 mm. This is done by
multiplying each measured stability value by an appropriated correlation factors as given in
Table below.
12.9 Prepare graphical plots

The average value of the above properties is determined for each mix with different bitumen
content and the following graphical plots are prepared:
1) Binder content versus corrected Marshall Stability
2) Binder content versus Marshall flow
3) Binder content versus percentage of void (Vv) in the total mix
4) Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFB)
5) Binder content versus unit weight or bulk specific gravity (Gm)
12.10 Determine optimum bitumen content

Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value of the
following three bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained in the previous step.
a) Binder content corresponding to maximum stability

b) Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm)

62
c) Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids
(Vv) in the total mix (i.e. 4%)
The stability value, flow value, and V FB are checked with Marshall mix design specification
chart given in Table below. Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not
desirable as the pavements constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to
heavy moving loads.
Figure 12-6 Marshall Test Results

63
13 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
13.1 Introduction
13.2 General
The test is an empirical test which gives an indication of the shear strength of a soil. The
great value of this test is that it is comparatively easy to perform and because of its wide use
throughout the world, there is a vast amount of data to assist with the interpretation of results.
The CBR test is essentially a laboratory test but in some instances the test is carried out on
the soil in-situ.
13.3 Scope
The laboratory CBR test consists essentially of preparing a sample of soil in a cylindrical
steel mould and then forcing a cylindrical steel plunger, of nominal diameter 50 mm, into the
sample at a controlled rate, whilst measuring the force required to penetrate the sample.
A pictorial view of the general test arrangement is shown in Figure 5.1.1. CBR values may
vary from less than 1% on soft clays to over 150% on dense crushed rock samples.
Preparation of remoulded samples for the CBR test can be made in several ways. However,
commonly used methods are described here:
1) Static compression
2) Dynamic compaction by
a. Using 2.5 or 4.5 kg rammer and
b. Using vibrating hammer.
13.4 Material
The CBR test is carried out on material passing a 20mm test sieve. If soil contains particles
larger than this the fraction retained on 20mm shall be removed and weighed before
preparing the test sample. If this fraction is greater than 25% of the original sample the test is
not applicable. The moisture content of the specimen or specimens can be adjusted as
necessary following the procedure given in Chapter 4. The moisture content used is normally
to the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC), but obviously this can be varied to suit particular
requirements.
13.5 Mass of soil for test
When the density or air voids content of a compacted sample is specified the exact amount of
soil required for the test can be calculated as described in a) or b) below. When a compactive
effort is specified the mass of soil can only be estimated, as described in c) below.
a) Dry density specification. The mass of soil m1 (in g), required to just fill the CBR mould
of volume Vm (in cm3) is given by the equation

64
65
Where, w is the moisture content of the soil (in %); and pd is the specified dry density (in
Mg/m3).
b) Air voids specification. The dry density, rd, (in Mg/m3), corresponding to an air voids
content of Va (in %) is given by the equation
Where,
Va is the air voids expressed as a percentage of the total volumes of soil;
is the particle density (in Mg/m3);
w is the soil moisture content (in %);
w is the density of water (in Mg/m3), assumed equal to 1.
The corresponding mass of soil to just fill the CBR mould is calculated from the equation
in (a) above.
c) Compactive effort specification. About 6kg of soil shall be prepared for each sample to be
tested. The initial mass shall be measured to the nearest 5g so that the mass used for the
test sample can be determined after compaction by difference, as a check.
Note. Preliminary trials may be necessary to determine the required mass

more closely.
13.6 Undisturbed samples
This method is very useful for testing of fine-grained cohesive soils, but cannot be applied to
non-cohesive materials or materials containing gravel or stones. Only the CBR moulds as
described in 5.1.2.4(b) are suitable for undisturbed sampling.
13.7 Apparatus
The following apparatus is variously required to carry out the 2.5 kg, 4.5 kg and Vibrating
hammer methods in Figure 5.1.2.
a) Test sieves of aperture sizes 20 mm and 5 mm.

b) A cylindrical, corrosion-resistant, metal mould, i.e. the CBR mould, having a nominal
internal diameter of 1520.5 mm. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base-plate
and a removable extension. The mould is shown in Figure 4.3.3. The internal faces shall
be smooth, clean and dry before each use.
c) A compression device (load press) for static compaction, (for 2.5 kg hammer). Horizontal
platens shall be large enough to cover a 150mm diameter circle and capable of a vertical
separation of not less than 300 mm. The device shall be capable of applying a force of at
least 300 kN.
d) Metal plugs, 1520.5 mm in diameter and 501.0 mm thick, for static compaction of a
soil specimen (for 2.5 kg hammer). A handle which may be screwed into the plugs makes
removal easier after compaction. The essential dimensions are shown in Figure 5.1.3.
Three plugs are required for 2.5 kg hammer.

66
e) A metal rammer, (for 4.5 kg hammer). This shall be either the 2.5 kg rammer or the 4.5
kg rammer, both as specified in Chapter 4, depending on the degree of compaction
required. A mechanical compacting apparatus may be used provided that it also complies
with the requirements of that document.
f) An electric, vibrating hammer and tamper, as specified in Chapter 4 (for vibrating
hammer).
g) A steel rod, about 16mm in diameter and 600 mm long.
h) A steel straightedge, e.g. a steel strip about 300 mm long, 25 mm wide and 3mm thick,
with one beveled edge.
i) A spatula.
j) A balance, capable of weighing up to 25 kg readable to 5 g.
k) Apparatus for moisture content determination, as described in Chapter 3.
l) Filter papers, 150 mm in diameter, e.g. Whatman No. 1 or equivalent.

67

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING SESSIONAL

1.5 Credit, 3 hours/ Week

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

For penetrations below 200 mm:

For penetrations between 200 and 350 mm:

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

a) A sample of bitumen is first heated carefully in an oven or on a hotplate until it has

1.6 Conditions of test

Temperature Total sliding Time in

1.7 Test procedure

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

The penetration is given by:

A typical worksheet is shown as Form 1.1.

Penetration 0 to 49 50 to 149 150 to 249 250

Maximum difference between highest 2 4 6 8

1.9 Test report

The report shall contain at least the following information:

a) Identification of the material tested

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Name and Designation of Tester

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

2.1 General Requirements

a) A steel ball having a diameter of 9.3 mm and weighing 3.5g 0.05g.

2.5 Sample preparation

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Figure 2-3 Shoulder Ring

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Figure 2-5 Ring Holder

Figure 2-6 Base

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

2.6 Test procedure

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

The report shall contain at least the following information:

a) Identification of the material tested.

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Figure 3-1 Suitable Pycnometers

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

The sample obtained in accordance with Chapter 2 is heated carefully in an oven or on a

3.4 10.3.4 Test procedure

f) At least two separate determinations should be made.

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

The specific gravity of the bitumen is given by:

S.G at temperature, T = (S.G at test temperature, t) - (0.0006 x (T-t))

3.6 Reporting of results

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Test Cup- of brass conforming to the dimensional requirements shown in Figure

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

4.5 Preparation of apparatus

Note1. With some samples whose vapours or products of pyrolysis are

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

4.8 Calculation and report

Md. Rafiqul Islam, Lecturer (CE), European University of Bangladesh

5.2 Referenced Documents