Engineering For Ship Production
Engineering For Ship Production
Engineering For Ship Production
A TEXTBOOK
by
Thomas Lamb
Prepared for
The National Shipbuiiding Research Program
bY
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
Ship Production Committee
Education and Training Panel (SP-9)
January 1986
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2. REPORT TYPE
JUN 1986
N/A
3. DATES COVERED
6. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
REPORT NUMBER
b. ABSTRACT
c. THIS PAGE
unclassified
unclassified
unclassified
17. LIMITATION OF
ABSTRACT
18. NUMBER
OF PAGES
SAR
487
19a. NAME OF
RESPONSIBLE PERSON
ii
5. Report Date
January 1986
6. Performing Organisation code--
Thomas Lamb
9.Performing organisation Name and Address
Thomas Lamb (as a private consultant)
18303 84th Place West
Edmonds, Washington 98020
12 sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Department of Transportation
Maritime Administration
14. Sponsoring Agency code
Washington, D.C.
15. Supplementary Notes
A project of the SNAME Ship Production Committee Education Panel (SF-9)
16.
This is the first book to be written on what appears to be a
relatively new approach to the practice of engineering for the
construction of current and future ships. The application of the
recently introduced design-for-production technique is described and
illustrated through examples. However, it is suggested that this
technique is not really new and that it has come about only as an
individual technique because ship designers have become isolated from
the actual production of ships. The ship designers also appear to have
forgotten that all design should be developed to be the best for
production.
Once the best production-oriented designs are developed, it is
necessary to transmit the design information to the various departments
in the shipyard that use the information. The methods currently used
to do this are based on tradition and have not changed much over many
years. They are not the most suitable for the efficient production of
ships. Therefore, improvements to the existing shipyard engineering
methods are presented, and as such are the basis for engineering for
production.
The book developed from the author's 1978 SNAME paper, "Engineering
for Modern Shipyards," and U of W lectures on Ship Production Technology.
17. Key Words
10 Distribution Statement
Unclassified
Unclassified
...
111
22, Pnco
21 N0 OF PAGES
466
iv
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........
vii
xvii
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
X i x
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
16
33
89
119
179
199
211
221
225
231
233
251
253
256
281
292
293
308
334
374
376
388
412
415
418
419
431
435
452
CLOSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
461
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Ll
L2
L3
1.1
11
1.2
18
1.3
20
1.4
22
1.5
23
1.6
Productivity space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.7
36
1.8
40
1.9
42
1.10
43
1.11
44
1.12
46
1.13
47
1.14
48
1.15
50
1.16
5l
1.17
53
1.18
56
1.19
60
1.20
61
1.21
62
vii
1.22
64
1.23
65
1.24
66
1.25
67
1.26
69
1.27
70
1.28
(a) Bulbous bow fabricated from regular shapes; (,b) faired bulbous
bow versus shine (elimination of stem casting) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
1.29
74
1.30
76
80
82
1.33
86
1.34
90
1.35
94
1.36
Types of processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
1.37
98
1.38
100
1.39
102
1.40
112
1.41
114
1.42
115
121
1.44
122
1.45
123
1.46
124
1.47
125
1.48
125
1.49
126
1.50
129
1.51
131
1.52
132
1.53
133
1.54
"Layer""construction method
134
1.55
135
1.56
137
1.57
138
1.58
139
1.59
cut-out types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
141
1.60
142
1.61
143
1.62
143
1.63
144
1.64
Typical brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
1.65
146
1.66
147
1.67
149
1.68
150
1.69
151
1.70
153
1.71
154
............................
ix
1.72
155
1.73
157
1.74
158
1.75
159
160
162
1.78
163
1.79
164 -
1.80
165
1.81
167
1.82
168
1.83 (a) Standard lifebuoy stowage; (b) details for standard lifebuoy
stowage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
169
171
1.85 (a) Standard jack and ensign staffs; 01) details of fittings for
standard jack and ensign staffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
172
1.86
174
1.87
175
176
1.89
177
1.90
182
1.91
187
1.92
188
1.84
189
1.94
190
1.95
193
1.96
194
1.97
195
1.98
196
1.99
197
1.100
198
200
201
203
1.104
204
1.105
205
207
208
209
1.110
212
1.111
214
1.112
215
1.113
216
1,114
217
1.115
218
1.116
219
1.117
222
224
1.119
Typical hangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
226
1.120
Cable-retaining methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
226
1.121
Wireway racks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
226
1.123
227
1.123
228
229
1.102
xi
210
230
232
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
243
244
246
249
2.1
254
2.2
257
2.3
258
2.4
262
2.5
263
2.6
265
2.7
266
2.8
267
2.9
283
294
313
317
320
xii
2.14
322
2.15
324
2.16
325
2.17
328
2.18
329
2.19
332
2.20
335
2.2 1
336
2.22
341
2.23
342
2.24
343
2.25
344
2.26
345
2.27
346
2.28
347
2.29
348
2.30
348
2.31
349
2.31
350
2.33
351
2.34
352
2.35
353
2.36
354
2.37
355
2.38
356
2.39
35i
...
xiii
2.40
358
2.41
360
2.42
361
2.43
362
2.44
363
2.45
364
2.46
365
2.47
366
2.48
(a) Single-tier deckhouse construction; (b) unit deckhouse
e
construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-.-
367
369
370
2.51
371
2.52
372
2.53
373
375
377
378
2.57
379
2.58
380
2.59
381
2.60
382
2.61
384
2.62
386
2.63
389
2.64
391
2.55
Xiv
2.65
IACG schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
393
2.66
395
2.67
395
2.68
AUTOKON 79 system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
396
2.69
398
2.70
399
2.71
400
2.72
402
2.73
404
2.74
407
2.75
409
3.1
416
3.2
Functional organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
420
3.3
Product organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
420
3.4
Process organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
422
3.5
Customer organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
422
3.6
Matrix organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
423
3.7
424
3.8
424
3.9
424
3.10
IHOP organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
425
3.11
425
3.12
427
3.13
428
3.14
429
3.15
430
3.16
434
xv
3.17
436
3.18
456
3.19
457
3.20
Performance report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
458
3.21
459
c-1
462
c-2
463
c-3
464
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
Page
I.1
1.1
19
27
31
78
95
180
181
202
259
261
Shipyard Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
268
274
Product Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
277
1.3
2.3
2.5
280
2.7
295
2.8
296
298
309
312
315
337
392
406
xvii
2.16
413
3.1
431
3.2
433
3.3
437
...
XV111
FOREWORD
Change is a common event of significant impact to everyone. Some people seek it
and others dread it. Yet without change there would be no progress. Without progress an
organization or industry will eventually die.
Some changes are pleasant for everyone, such as more money, a new house, etc.
Yet in many other aspects the norm is ''Dont rock the boat and Leave well enough
alone. The problem is the boat is old and sinking, and all is not well in the U.S.
shipbuilding industry. Thus change to improve the situation is justified.
- However, everyone proposing change is faced with the problem of resistance to
change, which was well described by Machiavelli over 450 years ago in his book The
Prince. His description is still appropriate today and therefore is worthy of quote.
It ought to be remembered that there is nothing more difficult to take in
hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take
the lead in the introduction of a new order of things. Because the innovator
has for enemies all those who have done well under the old conditions and
lukewarm defenders in those who may do well under the new.
Even with such a dire and unfortunately time-proven warning, this is a book about
change, But not just change for changes sake. I believe that the proposed changes are
necessary for U.S. shipbuilding to survive into the next decade. They may even assist in
making the industry competitive with other developed countries if applied with the right
attitude and in cooperation with the other necessary changes in shipbuilding management
practice, computer application, production processes, and material control.
xix
xx
PREFACE
Shipbuiiding in many traditional shipbuilding countries is at a cross-road, The rate
of progress has been rather slow compared to the high-technology industries such as
aerospace and electronics. In shipbuilding, progress is measured over decades instead of
years or months, Everyone in shipbuilding knows what the historical progress has been,
namely, wood to iron to steel, riveting to welding, sail to steam to diesel to nuclear to gas
turbine propulsion power; and paddles to propellers to water and air jets,
In the last two decades there has been significant progress on the production side of
shipbuilding in construction techniques and production control. The availability of
computers has definitely been one of the major reasons for this. Another is that as the
size of ships increased, so did the facilities to build them. Unfortunately, in some countries
ship designers and engineers did not maintain their leading position in the shipbuilding
process. Some engineering departments, by maintaining traditional engineering
approaches, even hampered and slowed the progress by causing the need for reworking the
engineering information into a form compatible with the actual shipbuilding approach,
To overcome this situation, practices such as production engineering and design for
production developed. While it is a basic requirement of all good design that it be the best
possible for production, it is obvious that this was not happening, Design for production
has been around for over a decade, but its incorporation into normal ship design and
engineering has been slow. Coupled with design for production and production engineering
is the need for production-oriented engineering information, and some shipyards have been
even slower in adapting to this necessary change. It is inconceivable to the author that
design agents and shipyard engineering departments still prepare traditional total system
working drawings for todays shipbuilders. It is not clear where the fault for this situation
lies. Is it engineerings lack of production knowledge or tradition-bound stance, or is it
some.production departments attitudes, such as Just give us the plans on schedule for
once, and we will build the ship in spite of its unproducibility, and We dont need
simplified engineering information, we can read blueprints? Whatever the reasons, they
must be changed if a shipyard or a shipbuilding industry is to improve its competitive edge
by full utilization of all the best tools and techniques available to it.
This book has been written to assist those engineers, designers, drafters, and
engineering planners who want to regain their leadership position, to understand and
apply some of the necessary techniques for successful engineering for ship production. The
book is organized into three parts, namely:
Part I: Design for Ship Production
Part 2: Engineering for Ship Production
Part 3: Engineering Organization for Ship Production
The last part is a necessary part of this book, as it is the framework which permits and
promotes the successful working of the other two parts. Shipbuilding management is like
that of any other industry. It consists of both general management principles and
techniques, and specialized applications to suit the particular needs of the industry. The
latter is covered in this book, and in particular, its requirements for Engineering for Ship
Production.
Thomas Lamb
Edmonds, Washington
July 27, 1985
xxi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author acknowledges with thanks the training, teaching, encouragement, and
support from many shipbuilders with whom he has interfaced throughout his career. In
particular he must acknowledge with great appreciation the Marinette Marine Corporation
management and production staff for their enthusiastic acceptance of new and better
ways. n This allowed theory to be turned into successful practice. He must also
acknowledge the support and encouragement of his previous employer, Lockheed
Shipbuilding company. Finally, the part played by Professor R Storch of the University of
Washington must also be acknowledged. By inviting the author to be a guest lecturer for
their Ship Production Technology Course, which has been offered on four occasions, he was
able to fine hone his ideas into an integrated presentation.
However, these acknowledgments are not an attempt to shift any of the
responsibility for the ideas, comments, or suggestions to any of them. The author accepts
complete responsibility for the contents and in addition acknowledges that the ideas
presented may not reflect the opinions of any person or company mentioned above. In
fact, in almost all his career positions, he has worked with competent professional
shipbuilders who have disagreed with some of them.
Where material was used that was not developed by the author, every attempt was
made to obtain permission for its use. Where possible, complete reference has been made
to the source of borrowed material. And, in the case of the following sources, approval
was received, provided full recognition was given. This is willingly and gratefully done:
Royal Institution of Naval Architects
North East Coast Institution of Engineers & Shipbuilders
University of Strathclyde
A&P Appledore
University of Newcastle
Society of Naval Architects & Marine Engineers
British Shipbuilders
British Shipbuilding Training Board
The project was funded by the National Shipbuilding Research program and
administered under a contract with The University of Michigan-Professor Howard Bunch,
project Director.
INTRODUCTION
The term design for productin is well known to present-day ship designers. It
refers to a specific approach to the design of fabrication details. It takes into account
production methods and techniques which reduce the production work content, simplify the
complexity of the work, and fit it to the facilities and tools available, yet meet the specified
requirements and quality. To some designers, this may appear to be the basis of any good
design! However, it is obvious from the development of the design-for-production approach
that this is not the general case today. Somewhere along the way designers have lost the
purpose of their work, together with an understanding of production methods, and how
their design decisions directly affect the construction cost.
Engineering for production determines the best techniques to transmit and
communicate the design and engineering information to the various users in a shipyard.
The traditional approach to design and engineering was normally performed without
any real input from the production department. Because of this, it is called the isolated
engineering approach, and is defined as follows:
Isolated engineering is the approach where although design details are shown,
they incorporate no production input or decisions such as block boundaries,
piping flange or weld breaks, preferred details to suit production methods, etc.
It usually took a long time to develop the engineering and then for the production planning
to reorganize the information into a production-compatible form.
The opposite extreme to isolated engineeringM is obviously integrated engineering,
which has a deliverable end product that is completely compatible and directly usable by
the production department. In integrated engineering certain drawings must still be
prepared for the benefit of the owner, chartering agents, etc., for the operation and
management of the ship after it is delivered, but these are small both in number and work
content compared to the required production drawings. Integrated engineering does not
permit the required engineering effort to be separated into non-production and
production. It provides information required by the production process, compatible with
the way the ship will be built, utilizing the facility to its best advantage. It thus prevents
unnecessary engineering work from being performed, and therefore saves engineering and
planning manhours through the elimination of duplication and wasted effort. Obviously,
this also enables the engineering had time to be shortened, both due to reduced manhours
and better sequencing of the engineering information issue.
Most U.S. shipyard engineering is somewhere between the two extremes, but nearer
to isolated than it should be, considering todays objectives of reduced cost and shortened
construction time. The most frequent situation in the U.S. is where an engineering
department, or its design agent, prepares the engineering information on a complete ship
single item (system) basis, but with considerable production decision information
incorporated into it. Then another group, usually within the production department, takes
engineerings information (drawings, sketches, material lists, etc.), and converts it into
production-compatible information. This often requires further drawing effort, such as
assembly sketches for structural blocks, piping detail sketches, lofting nested plate
sketches and layout tapes, etc., for incorporation into work packages.
INTRODUCTION
Production-oriented engineering is being practiced by some U.S. shipyards through
the efforts of various groups providing technology transfer from countries and individual
shipyards that have clearly developed the integrated engineering approach. This has
become quite an emotional issue to many engineering and production employees, and it is
difficult in such cases to objectively discuss the issues. Opponents frequently raise the
spectre of unacceptability by stating that:
l
l
l
l
Once the objectives of integrated engineering are understood, all the above prove to be
incorrect. Customers are enthusiastic about the integrated engineering approach when it is
correctly explained to them, and some of the cost benefits returned to them. Production
departments quickly appreciate the benefits when they receive the information they need
in shorter time, and in an easier to understand form. It also alleviates the problem of the
shortage of well trained and fully qualified craftsmen. The obvious reduction in production
department manhours for planning and production engineering are additional reasons for
their appreciation of the approach. The customer (shipowner) also finds that integrated
engineering product drawings are better than the single system isolated engineering
drawings for the maintenance and repair of the ship. Repair yards learn to prefer
integrated engineering product drawings, as they can see all the structure and systems in a
local area on one drawing rather than many, thus simplifying their planning, engineering,
and estimating the repair cost.
Table I.1 summarizes the major differences between isolated and integrated
engineering along with the benefits of the latter. Figure I.1 shows a typical design,
engineering, and production schedule for the isolated engineering approach, and Figure I.2
shows the same for the integrated engineering approach. By comparing the two approaches
it can be seen that the integrated engineering approach enables the production department
to commence construction earlier and to complete the ship in a shorter time than the
isolated engineering approach. This is because the engineering information for the first
block is completed earlier than would be the many item drawings that the isolated
engineering approach would need to complete before construction could commence. This in
turn enables the lofting, processing, assembly, and outfitting of the block to occur earlier,
resulting in the shortening of the construction time. Figure L3 shows that even though the
integrated engineering approach increases the engineering effort, the total result is
significant productivity improvement through manhour savings in planning, lofting, and
production.
Both the isolated and integrated engineering approaches could use the design for ship
production detail ideas presented herein, but unless it is with the involvement and
agreement of both the engineering and production departments, the isolated engineering
shipyard may not select the detail that would be the best for the shipyard. The
design-for-production approach described in Part 1 should therefore be of use to most
designers, However, this phase is only the tip of the iceberg, To achieve the complete goal
of having the competitive edge over the competition through increased productivity, it is
necessary to fully utilize the integrated engineering approach. To do this, it is necessary to
utilize engineering for ship production. Part 2 describes this approach and its techniques.
Part 3 discusses the engineering organization and management necessary to ensure the
successful application of the fist two parts.
TABLE I.1
COMPARISON OF ISOLATED AND INTEGRATED ENGINEERING
ISOLATED
Structural drawlng proporod on ltom
basis from bow
to stern, e.g.,
.
.
e
-
Shell drawlng
Dock drawing
Bulkhood drawlng
Tank top drawing
Framlng drawlng
INTEGRATED
Structural drawing propored on a
construction sequonce basls for
sub-assomblios, l assombllos and
blocks, e.g.,
- Hob framo sub-assembly
- Transverso bulkhood assembly
- Double button block
- Wing tank block
BENEFIT
1.
urc.
INTEGRATED
I ISOLATED
Engineering
,drawings'
data.
that
are
unsuitable for direct issue to Productlon,
must bo further processed by Production
Planning.
BENflT
1.
rr.
to facilitate
-- _.-._
detailed
3. Results In a m o r e l n t e g r a t e d s h i p .
is preparaed from and
structural drawing is
therefore after
completed.
Loftlng Is an lntegrated 1 a r t o r
structural development.
Usual
detalied drawings ellimnated.
1.
2.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
MANHOURS AS
A PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL
MANHOURS
0
ISOLATED
INTEGRATED
ENGINEERING APPROACH
FIGURE L3 Overall productivity benefit of integrated engineering.
INTRODUCTION
PART 1
DESIGN FOR SHIP PRODUCTION
1.1 General
Notwithstanding the fact that all engineering design should be prepared to be the
best possible for production, while meeting all the customers requirements for quality,
service, and maintainability, and thus be the most cost effective for the customer, it seems
that ship designers have not kept this in mind as the industry changed from a craft to a
process activity. Over thirty years ago, shipyards were craft organized, and the various
engineering groups as well as production groups tended to work in isolation from each
other. The amount of detail shown on the engineering drawings was quite small as the
craftsmen were expected to and were able to use their training and experience to develop
details on the job. As long as ships were assembled on the building berth in many small
individual parts, this system worked quite well. Productivity depended almost entirely on
the effort and ability of the production craftsmen. When welding replaced riveting, two
important changes took place. Fist, it required better accuracy in cutting and fitting
parts, which provided the impetus to develop better lofting and steel processing through
optical projection and then computer-aided lofting and computer-aided manufacture.
Second, it enabled structural prefabrication to take place in shops and platens away from
the building berth.
Another significant event in ship production occurred during World War II when the
U.S. was called upon to be the shipbuilder to the Allies. The techniques adopted at the
multiple-ship shipyards were geared toward mass production, and to overcome the use of
inexperienced labor. Extensive prefabrication was planned into the design to allow an
assembly line approach to be used. Simplified engineering drawings were provided to the
workers. Very detailed planning and scheduling of material receipt, processing, and
installation were used along with a highly developed production control of the construction
processes. This was possible due to the repetitive processes performed at each work
station. Erection panels of up to fifty tons were handled in some of the shipyards. At the
end of the war many shipbuilders closely examined the techniques developed in the U.S.
shipyards and adapted them to their own facilities, and in some cases improved on them,
as in the case of the National Bulk Carriers shipyard in Japan.
Ship production has continued to progress since then, going from simple
prefabricated and pre-outfitted panels to l,000-ton completely outfitted blocks. The
construction of a new shipyard by Burmeister and Wain in 1960, which included a gantry
crane of 600-ton lifting capacity, was the start of the development of high+utput ship
production facilities. The next significant development was the construction of the
Gotaverken extrusion shipyard at Arendal in Sweden After that a whole series of new
shipyards was constructed throughout the world, but mainly in Japan. Many innovations
were developed by the Japanese, and they became the leading shipbuilder in the world.
The challenge facing existing shipyards was how to take the new technology and adapt it
to their existing facilities with only the minimum investment necessary for them to stay
competitive in their own market. New shipyards were generally constructed to build one
or two types of ships, such as tankers and bulk carriers. As long as there was a sufficient
market for those ship types, the specialized shipyards were the most efficient. With the
downturn in demand for large bulk-type ships, and the general depressed market for all
General
PART 1
shipbuilding over the last decade, these specialized shipyards have lost their attractiveness
due to the need to produce diverse ship types. Fortunately, it was possible to obtain
plant and construction equipment by redefining the ship design approach and planning the
construction of the ship at the same time as the preparation of the drawings, thus being
able to influence the design to suit the intended building plan.
Out of this era of noticeable change followed by the depressed shipbuilding market of
the late 702, the need for consolidation of facilities and ship production techniques
developed. Along with this came the clear need for ship designers to become cost conscious
as they applied their talents to the design of future ships. These are the conditions that
have given birth to design for ship production, which is really design for minimum cost of
ship production. This is accomplished by using the most efficient method of construction
whiIe still satisfying the many compromises resulting from conflicting requirements
between the owners desires, regulatory and classification rules, and the need to have a
competitive edge over the other shipyards. The need is obvious and it should not have
been necessary to develop a new science to achieve it. However, it seems that ship
designers have not, in general, changed with the changes in ship production and responded
to the new needs. Many shipyard engineering departments continue to work in isolation,
without taking into account the producibility of their designs.
It has been suggested by a number of sources that this occurred in the U.S. due to
the fact that almost all the design and most of the detailed engineering has been and still is
prepared by design agents and not by in-house shipyard engineering departments. When
a design agent prepares a design for a shipowner, it is probable that no shipyard has been
selected to build it at that time. It is therefore difiicult for the design agent to include
production aspects into the design for a given shipyard. This is most unfortunate, as it is
at this stage in the total production process of a ship that the cost is being established and
where there is the greatest opportunity to favorably, and vice versa, affect. it. This is
clearly shown in Figure 1.1, which shows that as the process moves from actual
construction, the ability to influence cost, and therefore achieve cost savings, diminishes.
It would be normal to expect that design agents should be able to utilize all the cost
influence to good purpose during detailed engineering development for a specific shipyard,
but this is not known occurred havem There are many reasons for this, and in defense of
the design agent, it is acknowledged that they can only do as good a job as the shipyard
demands of them. They are in the service business and their goal is to please the
customer. Why should they stick their necks out and try to change the shipyards
thinking? It is very difficult for a design agent to accomplish the goal to become an
integrated extension of a shipyards own engineering department. Theoretically, it should
be possible, but only if the work is performed under a cost-plus contract. This is because a
design agents objective can only be to do as good a job as it can for the shipyard, and at
the same time make as high a profit as it can in the competitive market it serves.
Whereas, the shipyards requirement of the engineering activity is to provide the
production department with the information it needs, in the best form and quantity to
enable them to construct the ship in a way that the total cost to the company is less than
any of its competitors. This may require more than normal engineering to be provided,
and if a design agent were to offer such an approach, it may be priced out of the running if
competitors offer just the usual. Even when this is fully understood by all shipyard
management, it is a brave and unusual engineering manager that will give a design agent
a cost-plus contract to perform the engineering for a ship that his company was awarded
on a fixed-price basis.
10
PART 1
General
I:NFINITE
POTENTIAL
HIGH
MODERATE
COST
INFLUENCE
DESIGN
PRODUCT
ENGINEERING
PUNNING
Pproduct
DELIVERY
11
PART 1
General
Dr. Shinto, of IHI fame, in his lecture to The University of Michigan Shipbuilding
Short Course in 1980, stated:
The basic design activity of the shipbuilding company is the core of the
vitality of the company. It is the fundamental signifiance of the existence of
the basic design department to pursue the question of what performance the
vessel should have, and how, and at what cost the vessel should be built.
Thus the basic design department shouid be at the core of the activity of the
company. In this philosophy, and based on the experience of management in
the Japanese shipbuilding industry, the marine consultant system so familiar
in the U.S.A. is not very understandable. The existence of a shipbuilder with
no such core for the development of basic technical progress is entirely beyond
our comprehension. . . . Especially in cases when the issue of data is
mistimed with respect to the production schedule, the data can be entirely
without value. We have just had such bitter experiences when the design for
an American owner was done by a consultant. It is our opinion that even
when a consultant is employed, the consultants activity should be confined to
basic design which decides the performance and capability of the ship. All
production design should be done in the yard.
How wonderful it would be if the solution was that simple! The reason for the
marine consultant system in the U.S. goes back to the 1936 Merchant Marine Act, and the
requirements that shipowners submit preliminary and contract designs to the Subsidy
Board of the Maritime Administration before their application for construction differential
subsidy could be approved and sent out to shipyards for competitive bids. Today, the main
reason is the inability of the shipyards to maintain an in-house engineering staff large
enough to handle the complete design and engineering for a new ship due to the lack of a
long-term shipbuilding program to utilize them over a long period of time. The resulting
prospect of hire and fire is unacceptable to most shipyard managements. The alternative
to marine consultants that is available to shipyards is to follow the trend of the U.S.
aircraft industry and to hire temporary help, but this approach certainly does not lend
itself to better production-oriented designs for specific shipyards.
It is therefore essential that in the U.S., the design agent reverse the current lack of
production consideration in designs and drawings by taking the lead in introducing design
for ship produciion into all future contracts in which they are involved. At the start of any
design for a specific shipyard, and especially when preparing the detailed engineering, it is
imperative that the design agent spend the time with the shipyard planning and production
staff necessary to develop an understanding of the shipyards facilities, planning methods,
preferred approaches to constructing the ship, and the design for ship production standards
that the shipyard has decided is best for them. A big problem that the design agent must
resolve is the lack of shipyard and, more specifically, ship production experience of their
staff. Design agents will have to develop some innovative ways for their staff to obtain
this experience, such as long-term agreements with shipyards to take the design agents
engineers and designers and put them through specially developed shipyard training
courses.
As already stated, the use of design agents for both design and detailed engineering
is not the only reason for this lack of production-oriented design and engineering. It is
obvious that the shipyards have not demanded it. Unfortunately, it seems that the
interfacing team in the shipyards was not ambitious enough to take the necessary steps to
bring it about. This is probably the reason why in countries where design and engineering
is prepared by in-house engineering departments, it has still been necessary to push the
12
PART 1
General
design-for-production approach, and to teach it to both new and existing ship designers
and production managers and workers as a new science.
While the correct application of industrial engineering techniques to shipbuilding will
be of significant benefit, its application has in many cases only increased the isolation of
the engineering department from the production activity and resulted in increased cost due
to its being applied after the design is completed and the development of the detailed
engineering well underway. This is equally true of the situation when production
engineering groups are established within the production department. For this to be done,
the shipyard management must first believe that it is beneficial to split and specialize
engineering into two parts, namely, design and production. It is strongly suggested that
this is fundamentally wrong and is where most of the interfacing problems originated.
There is only one type of acceptable technical engineering, and that is when its
producibility is fully and adequately considered from its conception. Of course, this
approach requires that ship designers and engineers obtain knowledge of and experience in
production processes and techniques and also be willing to accept the increased
responsibility. They must stop being specialists and develop the ability to see the big
picture, even when considering a single detail They must be able to develop engineering
as a simulation of the actual construction of the ship. That is, it must be developed on a
complete space basis involving all structure, machinery, piping, ventilation, electric
equipment and cable, and outfit, rather than one item (system) at a time, such as the
complete main deck structure or the fire main system for the complete ship, but still be
fully aware of the need to integrate all systems on a complete ship basis.
The concepts of design for ship production are presented in the remainder of Part 1.
It is usual to refer to only design for production. However, the insertion of ship into the
title was deliberately done to make it clear that more than the techniques of design for
production are being offered. The actual application of the concepts to shipbuilding is being
presented, and the details proposed are directly usable in ship design.
13
PART 1
General
SUGGESTED READING
The Shipbuilding Business in the United States of America Professor F.G. Fassett, Jr.,
editor. SNAME 1948.
High productivity shipbuilding, Welding and Metal Fabrication. September 1957.
Symposium on the Reorganization of Some Tyneside Shipyards. NECIES, 18 November
1960.
Some aspects of the development of modern hull construction. By J.M. Barfoed.
NECIES, February 1963.
Arendal shipyard, Shipbuilding and Shipping Record. June 6,1963.
"Shipbuilding" throughout the world: New shipyards for superships. By D. Lesur.
SOFRESID no. 15, 1969.
The strategic development of ship production technology. By M.R Hargroves et al.
NECIES, 28 April 1975.
The constraints imposed on design and technical activities by shipbuiiding production
technology. By A.J. Marsh. International Conference on Structural Design and
Fabrication in Shipbuilding, RINA 1976.
Production methods Implications of production engineering. By I. McDougall.
WEGEMT Managing Ship Production, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, September
1980.
Mitsubishis major yards in the 19709, Shipbuilding International April 1971.
Shipbuilding in the United States. Webb Institute, July 10-12, 1972.
A discussion of ship technology in the 198Os, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. 5 September 1972.
An objective look at shipbuilding in the United States. By EM. Hood et al. SNAME
Diamond Jubilee International Meeting, 1968.
Recent developments in management and production methods in Japanese shipyards.
By H. Kihara et al SNAME Diamond Jubilee International Meeting, 1968.
Some production research activities on steelwork and outfitting. By R. Hurst. SNAME
Diamond Jubilee International Meeting, 1968.
Present trends in the shipbuilding industry. By J. Lenaghan. RINA Transactions
vol. 104, 1962.
British shipbuilding in todays world. By N.A. Sloan. RINA Transactions, vol. 115,
1973.
14
PART 1
General
15
PART 1
PART 1
follows the production specification, but details its application for a specific ship. It should
define module boundaries, assembly and module construction sequence, module erection
sequence, extent of advanced outfitting, and master construction schedule. From this the
engineering department would develop its drawing list and preparation schedule. The
building plan must be developed through input from both production and engineering
personnel with adequate overall, as well as detailed, knowledge of ship design, detailed
engineering, production processing, assembly, and erection
It is most important that quality be given prime importance throughout the
application of design for ship production This is because, just like cost, the greatest
potential to ensure product quality occurs during the initial design phase and diminishes
through detailed engineering and actual construction. If the quality of the design is good
and easy to fabricate and utilizes the facilities to their best advantage, then the easier it is
to obtain high product quality.
Before examining the concepts and application of design for ship production, it is
worthwhile to review, in general terms, the major factors of the operation of a shipyard
which influence its costs to construct ships. First, it is necessary to have some
understanding of the shipbuilding process, and this is conceptually shown in Figure 1.2. It
can be seen that it is divided into four phases, namely:
1. Production Definition
2. Component Process
3. Assembly Process
It can he seen that two control systems span all four phases, namely, quality control and
production and material control If engineering and planning output is considered as
material necessary to build the ship, the horizontal line shown below engineering and
planning would move above them.
Second, an overview of ship construction costs can be obtained by reviewing a
typical shipyard Ship Cost Estimate Summary Sheet. In the U.S., with its heavy
dependence on naval ship construction, the estimate form usually follows the Navy Ship
Work Breakdown groupings. Such an estimate summary sheet is shown in Table 1.1.
The direct costs consist of work tasks which must be performed to accomplish the
construction of the ship. However, the work task grouping is on the basis of ship systems
rather than the way the ship will be built. It is feasible that with the availability of
computers and simulation methods that a computer estimating system based on the
simulation of the actual construction process could be developed. This would enable a
superior cost-control method to be developed and give the ability to zero-in on the high cost
processes, and target them for detailed cost analysis and productivity improvement.
17
PART
18
PART 1
TABLE 1.1
Whatever method is used, each work task has a minimum work content in
manhours and duration which assumes that conditions are ideal, and that everything is
done in the best possible way. How this ideal work content relates to actual manhours has
been well described by Todd (2), and the following approach is based on his work. The
total time to perform a given work task under existing conditions is made up of both
effective/necessary time and ineffective/unnecessary time. The effective/necessary time
consists of the minimum or ideal time plus additional time because of both design and
production inefficiencies. The ineffective/unnecessary time consists of that due to
management inefficiencies and that within the control of the individual worker.
Figure 1.3 graphically shows this division of total work time. This approach can be
used, first, to examine just the engineering function, in which case all parts of it would be
considered. This will be examined further in Part 2: Engineering for Ship Production.
Second, with regard to design for ship production, the Work Content Added By Defects in
19
PART 1
20
PART 1
Design is the only item necessary for further consideration at this time. All the other
items are of importance, and must be solved to obtain improvements in total productivity,
but are outside the control of the ship designer, and for that reason alone will not be
examined any further. A good familizarization with them is, however, beneficial from the
overall process awareness, and a complete knowledge of the Work Content Added Due to
Production Inefficiencies is essential to the ship designer practicing design for ship
pmduction. For this reason, the Work Content Added for both design and production
inefficiencies is shown in Figure 1.4 in more detail. Figure 1.5 shows methods and
procedures that can eliminate the inefficiencies that add work content to the task. Design
for ship production covers the first and last of the items identified under Design Work
Content Added, The middle two items causing increased work content due to design
relate to transmittal of engineering information, and as such will be examined in detail in
Part 2: Engineering for Ship Production.
Todd [2] also proposed that productivity could be defined by three factors, namely,
performance, method, and utilization, and suggested that by applying them as the three
coordinates of productivity space, the benefits resulting from improvement in any one of
them would increase the productivity in direct proportion, but that improvement in all of
them at the same time would have a multiplying effect, resulting in greater productivity
improvement than if they were simply added. This approach is shown graphically in
Figure 1.6.
A&P Appledore have examined productivity factors in British, U.S., Scandinavian,
and Asian shipyards. The productivity gap between the best British and U.S., and the
Swedish and Japanese is significant. From analysis of the many inputs, they were able to
conclude that modern facilities, advanced technology, or lack of union and demarcation
problems were not solely responsible for high productivity. There are modem shipyards
suitable for advanced technology that still have poor productivity. There are also
shipyards with strong union influence which have high productivity. It is also well known
that the Japanese shipyards achieved their high productivity without advanced
computer-aided systems. Fortunately, they were able to recognize that all
high-productivity shipyards had one capability in common, and that was the ability to
organize work, such that facility utilization and labor utilization are optimized.
The productivity space concept can be used to explain this. Instead of method,
utilization, and performance, consider facilities, management, and labor utihzation. A low
value in any one can offset improvements in either or both of the other two. For example,
consider that the average value for the three factors for U.S. and British shipyards is 1.0.
Then a possible combination for a Japanese shipyard could be:
Facilities
Management
Performance
1.3
1.3
1.2
Productivity =
2.03
21
1.4
1.0
1.0
=
1.4
PART 1
PART 1
23
PART 1
UTILIZATION
A) CURRENT PRODUCTIVITY
(P)
INCREASE
IN
AU
FACTORS
(P)
24
PART 1
This is still far below the Japanese productivity. Use of productivity space also
shows how good management and worker performance can far out-perform a new
shipyard with low management or performance. For example:
Facilities
Management
Performance
0.8
1.3
1.3
Productivity =
1.35
PART 1
contents. These are compared with the actual results of the case studies, and error
analysis used to refine the coefficients.
From the above description, it should be obvious that what is proposed is not a
simple exercise. Significant effort and thus cost would be involved as well as interruption
of normal work in a shipyard. Nevertheless, it is necessary that the approach be
completely developed if full benefits are to be obtained from the use of design for ship
production.
This has been done by J. Wolfram [5] for welding manhours in a shipyard panel
shop. The resulting regression equation developed in this case was:
Welding Manhours = 2.79 NPS + 0.0215 JLFB
+0.097 . JLCB t CB + 0.017 JLF FCSA
l
t FB
where: NPB
= number of panel starts
J L F B = weld joint length of flat panel butts
= thickness of flat panels
= weld joint length of curved panel butts
= thickness of curved panels
= joint length for fillet welds
FCSA = cross-sectional area for fillet welds
The prediction accuracy of the equation is still not high, but it is better than the
shipyards experience with the simple joint length/manhours approach. With continued
use, it is expected that the accuracy will be improved.
The same approach could be used for all other shipbuilding processes with the final
system becoming an effective labor-estimating system for both new construction cost
estimating and tradeoff analysis.
Until the approach is fully developed for all processes, a less precise but similar
approach could be used by applying known data and estimates for each design alternative.
Table 1.2 is a suitable form to perform an appraisal manually for steel structure.
Obviously, it could be performed by writing a computer program to perform the
calculation, and it is even feasible to link the program with an interactive computer
graphics system which would provide the merit factor program with the design and
production factors required. Similar forms or programs could be developed for all other
systems and production processes.
Design for ship production can therefore be applied in a number of ways, varying
from a simpie ease of fabrication gut decision to very detailed analysis through cost
analysis using work measurement and method study techniques. The latter are considered
the domain of industrial engineering (IE), but a good understanding of them will improve
the ship designers ability to prepare the best production-oriented designs for a given
shipyard. In fact, it would be ideal if every ship designer could spend some time in the
Industrial Engineering Department participating in work measurement cases. The study
and review of actual work measurement shipyard case studies is the next best, and the
minimum level of involvement for ship designers practicing design for ship production.
Unfortunately, for both the shipbuilding industry and for the ship designer, such IE case
studies of shipbuilding are few in number and not readily available. Although some
26
TABLE 1.2
STRUCTURAL DETAIL COST CALCULATION
PART 1
shipyards have and still use work measurement techniques to assist them to define
efficient production development, processing, facility layout and material handling, many
consider it unsuitable for their operations, and look upon it as only useful when worker
incentive schemes are to be implemented. This is partly because of the bad publicity and
inaccurate reporting of some applications in the past, due to inexperienced users, and
partly because early work measurement techniques required a level of detail and control
that is not usually found in shipbuilding organizations. A number of simplified work
measurement systems have been developed since the birth of the technique, and these are
an effective tool for any shipyard desiring to improve its productivity. One of the best
known is the MOST system [6]. Its name is an acronym for Maynard Operation Sequence
Technique. The system uses an alphabetic code for certain human movements and
equipment activities. Over many years of experience and computer analysis of the
numerous case studies performed with the system, three sequences were identified that
generally cover all manual work. Next, the activity identified by the alphabetic code was
quantified by assigning a numerical suffix to the code letter which was based on extent and
difficulty of the activity.
Most ship designers will not have either the experience or the time to use work
measurement techniques, such as MOST, in their normal design decision process.
However, if an industrial engineering capability exists in their shipyard, they should take
every opportunity to use it, and to work with the industrial engineers to arrive at the best
design for their shipyard. If such a capability does not exist in the shipyard or it is too
busy with the many other areas they are involved in, and it is not reoriented by
management, design for ship production can be performed. The ship designer with a team
from planning and production can examine the different ways to design a detail, and rank
them on the basis of a merit factor considering various producibility and cost aspects.
When complete, the selected best design and the selection analysis can be sent to other
departments that are involved in the process, for their review and concurrence. It is
strongly recommended that a design for ship pmduction team be established to review and
maintain a shipyards existing standards, and at the early stage of all new ship design
development to ensure that the design will be the most producible and cost-effective design
for their shipyard. Table 1.3 is suggested as a minimum procedure for applying design for
ship production based on experience and intuition of such a team.
The lack of a suitable analysis method and the shortcomings of the intuitive or "gut
feeling approach should not be allowed to dissuade ship designers from applying design for
ship production in this way. With its constant application, questions will be asked which
will result in a better understanding by engineering of productions problems and vice
versa
30
PART 1
TABLE 1.3
e. Producibility aspects
l Self-aligning and supporting
l Need for jigs and fixtures
l Work position
l Number of physical turns/moves before completion
Aids in dimensional control
l Space access and staging
Standardization
l Number of compartments to be entered to complete work
2. Examine Alternative Design(s) in Same Manner
3. Select the Design that Meets the Objective of Design for Production, which is:
The reduction of production cost to the minimum possible through minimum work
content and ease of fabrication, whilst still meeting the design performance and
quality requirements.
PART 1
REFERENCES
1. E.N. Baldwin and RD. Niebel, Design for Production (Homewood, Ill.: Irwin Inc.,
1957).
2. F. Brian Todd, The role of industrial engineering in shipyard production services,
Managing Ship Production (Glasgow: University of Strathclyde, WEGEMT, 1980).
3. C. Kuo et al., Design for production of ships and offshore structures. SNAME
Spring Meeting, 1983.
4. C. Kuo et al., An effective approach to structural design for production. RINA
Spring Meeting, 1983.
5. J. Wolfram, Application of regression methods to the analysis of production work
measurements and the estimation of work content, Welding Research International:
9:1, 1979.
6. Work measurements in the 1980s (London: MOST Measurement Systems Ltd.,
Berkley Square House).
32
PART 1
Basic Design
Proposer
Construction Cost
Propulsion Power
Steel Weight
Deadweight Coefficient
Freight Rate
Capital Recovery Factor
Return on Investment
shipyard
Designer
shipyard
Designer
Owner
owner
owner
The proposers all had good arguments why their choice was correct, and perhaps it
was in a given unique situation. However, the economic performance of the ship in its
intended service is the only real merit factor. Some of the other items may be correct for
tradeoff analysis and sensitivity studies. It is well known that the lowest-cost ship to build
will not be the least-cost ship to operate. It is further known that the minimum steel
weight ship will not be the least-cost ship to build [20]. Therefore, when computer
optimizing programs are being used to design a ship for actual construction, it is essential
that producibility aspects be integrated into the program.
For example, a particular shipyard may have building berth or dock limitation for
length, breadth, and draft; depth due to crane lift height; and structural block size due to
berth loading, transfer space, and crane capacity. A shipyard could decide ship breadth on
the basis of multiples of maximum plate widths or ship lengths for transversely framed
ships. It may be better, from the shipyards point of view and still be operationally
acceptable by the shipowner, to design a relatively long, narrow hull with extensive
parallel body, than a shorter and beamier hull with no parallel body, because of the
framing standardization and reduced shaping of shell plates, thus reducing total work
content.
It may also be better to design with a larger-than-class standard frame spacing,
and pay a weight penalty in thicker piating, as the reduction in work content would Far
outweigh the increased material cost. Fortunately, most optimization studies show that
the proportions of an optimum design can be varied to suit building optimization with only
slight detriment in the operating optimization merit factor. This can be seen from the
33
PART 1
Basic Design
usual rather flat economic merit factor curves for a given ship size and speed. Therefore,
a design based only on an operating optimization study should only be used to select major
sensitive factors such as speed and size. Then the design details should be optimized for
each shipyard, taking into account producibility factors while maintaining a speed/power
performance close to the operating optimization relationship.
If for some reason the shipyard designers find the speed/power relationship is
wrong, then the operating optimization study should be rerun using the correct relationship
to see if the optimum size or speed changes. Once the design characteristics are selected,
it is necessary to marry every design decision with producibility decisions.
1.3.2 ARRANGEMENTS. When developing the arrangement of a ship, decisions
must be made regarding the location of cargo spaces, machinery space, tanks and their
contents, number of decks in the hull, number of flats in the engine room, number of tiers
and size of deckhouses, cargo handling gear type, capacity and location, accommodation
layout, etc. It is therefore obvious that the development of the arrangement of a ship has
a significant influence on its total construction work content. Yet it is usually performed
with minimum production input. The construction work content is greatly affected by
design decisions on:
Hold or tank lengths
Engine room location
Machinery arrangements
Cargo hatch sizes
Double-bottom height
Tween deck height
Use of corrugated and/or swedged stiffening
Location of tank boundaries
Deckhouse shape and extent of weather decks
Sheer and camber
In the current approach to ship production it is highly probable that the
arrangement designer specializes in arrangement design and has never had any feedback
from production departments on producibility aspects. The designation of the design
general arrangement drawing as a contract drawing has more adverse effect on the cost of a
ship due to unnecessary work content than any other contract drawing with the exception
of the contact lines drawing, which can be equally detrimental if prepared without any
regard to producibility.
(a) Hold or Tank Lengths. The frame spacing should be constant throughout
the ships length with the exception of the peaks, where the usual practice of incorporating
smaller spacing can be followed if it has no adverse impact on the producibility of the bow
and the stern. In the case of bulk carriers and general cargo ships, some designers
deliberately varied the lengths of the different holds and tween decks to equalize the
loading and unloading times [21]. This required that a vertical zone incorporating hold and
tween-deck reefer lockers should be shorter than another zone without reefer lockers. Also
the length of the holds towards the ends of the ship were longer to account for the shape
forward and both the shape and shallower depth over shaft tunnels aft. Whether this
approach is really worthwhile is uncertain.
There is no question that a basic cargo handling balance should be provided in a well
designed ship. However, as the general cargo is hardly ever completely homogeneous, it is
suggested that any imbalance resulting because of standardizing the lengths of the holds or
tanks will be unnoticed in the operation of the ship. Container ships as well as bulk
34
PART 1
Basic Design
carriers do handle homogeneous cargo as far as the ship designer is concerned. The hold
or tank length should be a multiple of the frame spacing and be duplicated for each hold or
tank as much as possible. This will allow the structural modules to be standardized.
For example, in a ship with five holds, of which three are in the parallel body and
each hold has eight modules that are duplicates, then only eight different structural
drawings must be prepared for three holds. Whereas, if the hold lengths are all different,
then twenty-four structural module drawings are required.
When the standardization concept is carried over into lofting, process planning, and
actual construction, the labor and time savings multiply. This approach is simply applying
group technology on a macro level during basic design, thus ensuring it can be utilized at
the micro level during product engineering, lofting, processing, and work station assembly.
If it is necessary to vary the length of some holds or tanks, the length should be one or two
web frame spaces more or less than the standard length, so that the standard drawings
can be extended to the non-standard hold.
(b) Engine Room Location. In small ships the engine room can be located
anywhere in the length that provides a workable loading/trim relationship for the intended
operations. For large-ships the engine room is usually located aft of amidships. A popular
location for the engine room in cargo liners is the two-thirds aft position [22]. In all other
cases, the obvious producibility factors to consider are:
Length of shafting.
l
A shaft tunnel or alley is needed except for the all aft location.
Before the recent skyrocketing increase in fuel cost, a number of interesting novel
machinery arrangements were developed, usually for novel ship types, but sometimes for
traditional vessels such as tankers and bulk carriers. They were proposed for both
reductions in material and operational costs as well as ease of production. Some of these
which impact production are shown schematically in Figure 1.7.
(c) Machinery Arrangements.
The development of the machinery
arrangement consists of arranging the machinery and equipment necessary to propel and
service a ship into an easily fabricated, installed, operated, and maintained plant. Often
the machinery arrangement is developed during contract design as a contract drawing,
which means it cannot be changed by the shipyard without the permission of the
shipowner. To make matters worse, some machinery arrangements are still developed
without any logical approach to the layout of the equipment or any consideration of piping
and other system routing. Add to this the fact that very few contract machinery
arrangement drawings prepared in the U.S. are developed with advanced outfitting or
basic producibility in mind. The resulting dilemma facing a shipyard desiring to improve
the producibility of the design is, what to do?
Once a contract drawing is prepared, the designer and even the shipowner resist
any changes. To prevent this from occurring in the future, the ship designer preparing the
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ENGINE
ROOM
Z PROPELLOR
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contract design must find out the shipyards approach to machinery space construction and
make sure the machinery arrangement is compatible with the approach. It is essential
that producibility be adequately considered during the development of the machinery
arrangement, not only in the equipment layout but for the surrounding structure.
This important point can best be illustrated by an example. Figure 1.8 shows a
typical large naval vessel machinery space arrangement consisting of two main machinery
rooms (MM#1 and 2) and a central control room. The ideal from a producibility point of
view, both MMRs should be identical arrangements, but that is obviously not possible in a
twin-screw ship. The next best arrangement is to make the MMRs mirror images about
the center line of the ship. This is possible if the shaft center lines are parallel to each
other, and are horizontal. Unfortunately, this is often not possible, and the different plan
angles and declevities of the shafts prevent exact mirror image spaces. However, even in
this case the machinery spaces can be mirror images except for the propulsion machinery
setting. The productivity benefits to be gained justify this approach. Obviously, only the
aft space has two shafts in it. The forward space should simply be a mirror image of the
aft space with the transiting shaft deleted. The mirror image requirements apply to the
surrounding structure as well as the machinery arrangement. It can be seen from
Figure 1.8(a) that duplicity of arrangements in the MMRs and surrounding structure was
not attempted. The following differences are noted:
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Figure 1.8(b) shows the same machinery arrangement developed to minimize necessary
design, lofting, and installation work content by incorporating duplicity as much as
possible. It should be noted that the control room is now in the same relative transverse
location for each MMR, but obviously it is not longitudinaliy.
The layout of the auxiliary machinery has a major cost impact and therefore it is
important to arrange it in the most cost-effective way. Today that means equipment
package units, piping/grating units, and advanced outfitting. This is because advanced
outfitting is driven by labor-saving goals such as straight lengths of pipe, right-angle pipe
bends, combined distributive system&rating support units, all of which are performed in
ideal shop conditions. However, the basic requirement in the design of engine rooms is the
ease of machinery plant operation and maintenance. That must be met and not impaired
regardless of the method of installation. Fortunately, the procedures used for developing
advanced outfitting design are compatible with the basic requirement. If it is attempted to
lay out auxiliary machinery during basic design, it must be determined if advanced
outfitting of the machinery room is intended, as certain approaches must be followed if it
is. Even if advanced outfitting utilizing equipment and piping units is not intended, it is
still good design to approach the arrangement of machinery rooms into associated
equipment groups and service passages or zones. It is suggested that only the unit
boundary need be shown, and the equipment within each unit boundary listed.
If the ship designer does not take such matters into consideration and prepare
production-oriented contract machinery arrangements, it is strongly suggested that the
document they prepare be designated as a guidance drawing, and only be used to show
required equipment.
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(d) Cargo Hatch Sixes. Standardization is the major producibility goal that
applies to cargo hatchways and hatch covers. All cargo hatches should be identical on a
given ship or size of ship for a given shipyard. This would allow hatch coamings and
covers to be designed and lofted only once, and to be built on a process flow basis. In
addition to size and detail, the location of the hatches relative to the hold transverse
bulkheads should also be identical. The module erection sequence must also be decided at
this stage as it will obviously affect the design, and in turn the work content for the hatch
module and its installation. This can be seen from Figure 1.9, which details two possible
design approaches that could be used.
Method A shows a hatch coaming that would be erected on top of the deck. It
usually requires stock or green material. to be left on the lower edge of the coaming for
scribing to the deck. Also the fillet welds of the coaming to the deck are not suitable for
machine welding due to the brackets on the outboard side, and no work surface for the
machine on the inside. In fact, it is also necessary to provide staging inside the hatch
coaming for the workers welding the inside fillet.
Method B incorporates part of the deck in the hatch module. Any stock material
would be left on the outboard deck and the hatch module as a bum-in guide. It should be
obvious that Method B allows machine welding of the deck seam and butt on top of the
deck. Staging would still be required for the fitting and welding below the deck, but it
would be simpler to erect and dismantle from the tween deck below.
(e) Double-Bottom Height. The height of the double bottom is usually derived
from the appropriate classification rule depth for the center vertical keel. A designer may
increase the depth over rule requirement but will seldom reduce it. Most double-bottom
spaces are very small with difficult access for both workers and their tools. A problem
often results from deciding the double-bottom height based on only the midship section.
The bottom hull shape rises both forward and aft of the midship section. This obviously
reduces the height in the double bottom outboard of the center line and below the minimum
acceptable height for construction. Therefore, it is necessary to consider double-bottom
height at the location where the hull shape reduces it to a minimum over the required
length of double bottom.
The height for access between the shell and inner bottom frames or longitudinals
should not be less than 15 inches, and if possible, 24 inches. It is possible to use a smaller
double-bottom height with transversely framed ships than with longitudinally framed
ships. This is because with longitudinal framing in the double bottom, the transverse plate
floors need to be deeper to allow for a reasonable distance between the longitudinal
cut-outs and access holes. This is shown in Figure 1.10 and 1. 11. Normally, the access
holes are rest&ted to 23-inch by 15-inch ovals due to the application of admeasurement
regulations. However, for large ships (over 400 feet) U.S. admeasurers will allow larger
holes if they are necessary for construction equipment access. If the shipowner desires the
ship to be measured under the 1969 Tonnage Convention, there is no restriction on hole
size, and therefore no need to keep the traditional access and lightening hole sixes. Sixes
should be maximum allowable from a structural point of view.
(f) Tween-Deck Height The tween-deck heights may be decided by an
operational requirement such as use of standard pallets, hanging refrigerated meat,
maximum number of boxes that can be stowed on top of each other, carriage of containers,
RO-RO cargo, etc. In such a case, the deck levels must be selected to allow cost-effective
design of deck structure.
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CARGO HATCH
COAMING
METHOD A
METHOD
FIGURE 1.9 Hatch installation alternatives.
42
B) LONGITUDINALLY FRAMED
FIGURE 1.11 Factors affecting double-bottom height.
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TRANSVERSELY FRAMED
SPACE LARGE ENOUGH FOR
VENT,PIPE AND WIREWAYS
LONGITUDINALLY FRAMED
FIGURE 1.12 Required space above ceiling for services.
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DECK OVER
HVAC DUCT
CEILING
DECK OVER
CEILING
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SECTION A-A
FIGURE 1.14 Select service zone for minimum deck heights.
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This is not possible when common tank boundaries cross or are located at an erection joint.
Usually only a portion of the tanks needs to be hydraulically tested. Then the erection
joints can be located in the tanks which do not need to be tested. In addition, if the tanks
me to be coated, it would be preferable to have no module connecting welding which would
damage the coating, thus requiring rework.
One way to achieve this ideal would be to provide cofferdams in way of erection
joints. This would reduce the amount of usable space in the hull for tanks, and would
increase the steel weight. The work content would also increase due to additional
manholes, sounding tubes, and air vents. However, it could still be a productivity net
improvement, depending on design, extent of required testing, and tank coatings.
Figure 1.15 shows this concept graphically. Obviously, there could still be some coating
damage where the bulkheads are welded to the tank top, but this can be avoided by
incorporating a strip of bulkhead onto the double-bottom module before it is coated. It
could also be solved by increasing the cofferdam size to two frame spaces, but this may be
unacceptable due to the cost.
(i) Deckhouse Shape and Extent of Weather Decks. Many ship designers
allow aesthetics rather than producibility to influence them when designing deckhouses.
Sloping house fronts, exterior decks along the sides and aft house bulkhead, and sweeping
side screens add significant work content to the task of constructing a suitable deckhouse
to accommodate the crew, and provide the necessary service spaces. While certain ships
such as passenger and cruise ships can justify the cost of such aesthetic treatment, in
general they are unnecessary additions for all other types of ships. They not only increase
the construction cost, but they also cost more to maintain during the ships operational life.
The ship designer should develop simple deckhouse designs utilizing vertical and flat sides,
and only provide exterior decks that are required for the safe access and working of the
ship. Figure 1.16 shows the two extremes, and the additional cost aspects of the aesthetic
streamlined design can be clearly seen.
(j) Sheer and Camber. About twenty-five years ago it was *unusual to see ships
without sheer. Certain specialized ships such as train and car ferries were the only types
for which it was acceptable to have flat decks. Next, tankers and bulk carriers dispensed
with sheer, and today it is unusual to provide sheer for commercial ships. Sometimes
so-called "straight line sheer is provided, which consists of a straight horizontal deck line
over the amidship portion of the ship, and straight line angled decks forward and
sometimes aft. The advent of RO-RO ships and car transporters completed the
disappearance of sheer. Even large warships are designed without sheer today. It is true
that sheer impacts the survivabiity of a ship due to the greater depth to the margin line
forward and aft, and this is why ships with no sheer pay a freeboard penalty. Sheer also
influences deck wetness, but ships with no sheer can counteract this advantage by
incorporating a forecastle and/or proper bow flare forward. Obviously the reason for
eliminating sheer is that a flat deck has less work content than a deck with sheer. This is
due to eliminating the need to shape the deck, angle the beams, and bend the longitudinal
girders. This applies to decks in the hull as well as the deckhouse and superstructure.
Camber has had a similar development history, but has not so completely
disappeared. It is quite common to provide straight line camber which is made up of
either two lines peaking at the center or three lines with the middle line horizontal, and the
outboard lines sloping down to the deck edge. If the deckhouse is designed with a
minimum of weather deck area, then there is no need for camber on the decks in the
deckhouse. Many designers are eliminating camber from their designs as a producibility
improvement, as it obviously reduces work content. They logically argue that it is
operationally acceptable because ships are seldom level when at sea, and even when in
port they usually have trim and list.
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(k) Access for Men and Equipment. The arrangement designer must consider
how the ship will actually be constructed, and provide adequate access and work levels,
including permanently built-in solutions, for men and equipment during the construction
and later maintenance of the ship. Obvious ideas in this regard are:
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method to be used for the ship, and if it is the new way to erase all traditional
design details from the ship arrangement, and utilize instead details that
improve producibility.
tonnage-affected
1.3.3 LINES. As already stated, a lines drawing developed without attention to the
impact on production of its various work content aspects can increase the work content
significantly, and prevent high productivity and lowest construction cost. Slipper bows,
cruiser stems, double and reverse-curture surfaces, keel, stem, and stern half sidings,
and inappropriately located knuckles all add work content. Therefore, when preparing a
lines drawing, the following items must be considered from a-producibility point of view:
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Stem Frame
Flat Keel
Maximum Section Shape
Single Screw Skeg
Bulbous Bow
Knuckles and Chines
These items are discussed further to illustrate the application of design for ship
production to early design when the cost is most significant.
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ALTERNATE
JOINT
ERECTION
ADDITIONAL C/D IF
NECESSARY
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(a) Stem. The bow of a ship is one of the areas where designers regularly
incorporate reverse curvature without any concern for its work content and cost impact.
One only needs to look at a few ships to realize this unfortunate truth. Curved stems may
look good but they are very costly. Even slight departures from a straight-line stem will
add to the difficulty in fabricating it. The simplest stem is one formed from a cone. This
will give ellipticai waterline endings, not circular, as most designers use. As shown in
Figure 1.18(b), the fore foot radius should be selected to assure fair shell plates at the fore
foot shell stem connection. This is shown in Figure 1.18(c). UsualIy the lines designer is
fairing on twenty-one stations and waterlines spaced 1,2, and 4 feet, and local unfairness
can be missed. To ensure that the fore foot shell plating will be fair, it is necessary to
treat this part of the hull in more detail with closer water lines and additional frames. By
proper attention to the production aspects of the stem shape, the need for a stem casting
can be eliminated, as shown in Figure 1.18(d). The only reason stem castings are used
today is because the complexity of the design necessitates it.
Most ships can be designed without the need for concave waterlines in the bow. For
ease of production, straight and convex waterlines are preferable. In section the frames in
the bow are usually concave to provide adequae deck area, but maintain vertical frames
in way of the load waterline. This results in reverse-curvature shell plates. Reverse and
double curvature are defined in Figure 1.19. Even though plate forming by line heating
enables complex shapes to be processed without rolling and packing or pressing, it
obviousiy is still additional work content compared to a single-curvature plate. The use of
vertical sections in way of the load waterline is desired because it has been shown to be
beneficial for resistance in smooth water. However, V sections are better for
seakeeping, and as a ship is usually more in sea conditions, a ship can depart from
minimum still water resistance lines in the bow, and still be an efficient seagoing ship. A
certain amount of flare is necessary to maintain dry decks or rather minimize deck
wetness. This can be effectively provided by straight sloped frames and knuckles as
shown by Newton [23] and illustrated in Figure 1.18(e). The Mairerform bow was a good
production design due to its parallel frames end eliminating of fore foot radius as shown in
Figure 1.18(f).
(b) Stern. The term stern covers two important, independent, but obviously
connected items, namely the propeller aperture and rudder arrangement, and the portion
which is mostly above the design waterline aft of the rudder stock center line.
The single-screw propeller aperture has evolved from early counter stem combined
rudder post types to the open or mariner style with spade or horn rudders as shown in
Figure 1.20. The design approach tended to favor closed apertures to reduce the size of
the rudder stock to the minimum. However, even though it results in the largest-diameter
rudder stock, spade rudders have the least work content if properly integrated in the
design of the stern structure, and modem bearings are utilized; This can be seen by
comparing all the parts and the various work sequences involved in both approaches, as is
done in Figure 1.21. It is most important to realize, however, that the design of the lower
stem lines, and shape and style of propeller aperture, must be integrated with the design
of the propeller to provide the best possible propeller/hull interaction.
The upper stem development proceeded from the counter stem to the cruiser and
then transom stem. The cruiser stern reduced the total resistance and therefore required
less propulsion power for a given ship and speed, and for this reason has been used for
such a long time. The transom stem was utilized first on high-speed warships where at
design speed the transom was clear of water and this resulted in an effective increase in
waterline length, which proved beneficial from the resistance point of view. Merchant ship
designers adopted the transom stem because of its obvious construction economy, but also
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CLOSED APERTURE WITH SEMI-BALANCED RUDDER OPEN STERN WITH SPADE RUDDER
FIGURE 1.20 Propeller aperture and rudder types.
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as it maintained deck width aft, which was important in deck cargo ships such as
container ships and ships with all aft deckhouses. However, ship designers still introduced
aspects which cause additional work content for transom sterns, by sloping it in profile and
providing curvature in plan view as well as large radius comer connection between shell
and transom. To be of minimum work content, the transom should be vertical and flat,
with sharp comer connection between shell and transom. Figure 1.22 shows this
approach.
(c) Stern Frame. At one time all stem frames were designed as castings. This
enabled complex shape to be incorporated in the design, and also provided an early erected
reference to build to when ships were constructed part by part on the building berth In
the early 1960s the widespread use of structural sub-assemblies (modules or blocks)
necessitated the integration of the stern structural design This resulted in the use of more
fabricated stem frames. Stern castings are still used today, but this is only because the
design of the hull around the stem aperture is too complex for the stem frame to be
fabricated. Therefore, the ship designer must realize this fact, and select stem lines and
propeller aperture shape to enable the stern frame to be easily fabricated as part of the
stem module. Figure 1.23 illustrates this concept.
(d) Flat Keel. The width of the fiat keel is a rule requirement for most
classification societies. The developer of the lines may use this as the flat of keel
dimension or simply use a standard. For designs with rise of floor, the selected width
becomes the knuckle in the bottom. The width of the flat keel should be at least enough to
extend over the keel blocks to allow welding of the erection seam for port and starboard
modules. Where the bottom erection modules span the blocks, this is not important,
although for ships where this occurs it is usually only for the midship modules, and it
changes to port and starboard modules towards the ends. It is suggested that two other
aspects must be considered to determine the width of the flat keel. The first is that the
shipyard maximum plate width should be used as the flat keel width. The second is that if
one of the flat keel seams is used as an erection module break, the flat keel width must
suit the module-joining method including the internal structure. These concepts are shown
in Figure 1.24.
(e) Maximum Section Shape. The design of the maximum section of the hull
considers bilge radius, rise of floor, and slope of sides. There is considerable guidance on
the maximum section coefficient based on resistance aspects. Obviously, the required
coefficient can be satisfied by a combination of rise of floor, bilge radius, and even sloping
sides. Rise of floor involves considerable additional work content compared to a flat
bottom. Its only benefit is that it aids in tank drainage when the ship is in drydock
completely upright, Any other time, the ship will be either trimmed or listed or both, and
the usual small amount of rise of floor is of no benefit. For small vessels rise of floor will
probably be necessary as the section shape without it would not be acceptable. Sloped
sides can present docking and tug-handling problems. They have naval architectural
design advantages of wider decks without resistance penalty for increased waterline beam
required with vertical sides. They also provide better heeled stability. Sloped sides may
appear strange, but they actually make more sense, from a design for ship production
point of view, than rise of floor, and should be considered as an alternative to rise of floor
as a means of achieving the required maximum section coefficient. Figure 1.25 gives some
concepts of this approach. The bilge radius should be determined so that the side module
erection joint is above the tangent of the bilge radius and the side, and above the
double-bottom height or inboard of the tangent with the bottom in single-bottom ships.
The use of conic sections for the hull bilge as it moves forward and aft from the maximum
section would result in the bilge shape being an ellipse and not a radius. This fact must be
appreciated by those designers that conveniently and assumingly cleverly try to maintain
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radii as the bilge shape in the forward and aft bodies of the hull This results in
considerable increased work content as the shell plate former must form ellipse sections
instead of circular.
(f) Single-Screw Skeg. The after-body lines of a single-screw ship are selected
to provide low resistance and good flow to the propeller. Normal single-screw aft bodies
are another part of the hull where reverse nature is found. This reverse curvature can
be eliminated by carefully locating the transfer from convex double-curv ature plates to
concave plates at plate seams and erection butts. Even though double-curvature plates
have less work content than reverse-curvature plates, it is still significant. One way to
reduce the work content of the after-body even further is to separate the normal
single-screw after-body into two parts, namely, the main hull and a skeg. This can be
done in two ways. The first way is to attempt to follow the normal single-screw hull form
as closely as possible by incorporating a chine or multi-chines joined in section by straight
lines or simple curves, as shown in Figure 1.26. The chine(s) should lie in flow lines to
prevent cross-flow turbulence. The second way is to design the after-body as a
twin-screw warship type, and to add a skeg which can incorporate the shaft and its
bearings, as shown in Figure 1.27. Both approaches can usually be used without any
adverse impact on propulsion power. However, the latter approach has the least work
content.
(g) Bulbous Bow. Bulbous bows are wave-resistance-reducing devices. They
incorporate displacement at the bow forefoot, which sets up a surface wave pattern, ideally
cancelling out the normal bow wave pattern, thus reducing the energy wasted in
generating waves.
There are many how arrangements which are classified as bulbous bows, but they
achieve their benefits in different ways. The original concept of the bulbous bow was to
ADD a wave generator that would be out of phase with the ships bow wave, thus
cancelling part or all of the bow wave. Early applications. involved transferring
displacement from the fore body in way of the load waterline entrance to the bow forefoot
in the form of a faired-in bulb. More recently, the applications have been truer to the
original concept by simply adding the bulb displacement. Another change is that the bulb
is not faired into the shell, but knuckled at the intersection of bulb and shell Obviously,
the knuckled connection has less work content than the faired bulb. From the producibility
point of view, the preferred shape of bulb in the transverse plane is a circle, but this can
have some operating disadvantages such as bottom slamming in a seaway. Next preferred
shape that does not have the slamming problem is an inverted teardrop, but it has a
higher work content that the circle. A good compromise between design and production
requirement is an inverted tear-drop constructed from parts of two cylinders, two spheres,
a cone, and two fiats, as shown in Figure 1.28. A similar approach to developing
producible details should be applied to other types of bulbous bows for large slow-speed
full-hull-form ships, such as tankers. Partial stem castings have been used for bulbous
bows where they are faired into the shell. The casting can be omitted if the bulb
connection to the shell is a knuckle.
(h) Knuckles and Chines. Many ship designers utilize chine hull form designs
on the assumption that they are easier to build than round bilge forms. Although this is
generally true for small ships, it is not always appreciated that chines can add work
content to a design. Before discussing this further, it is necessary to understand the
difference between chines and knuckles.
A formal definition of a chine is that it is the intersection of the bottom and side shell
below the load waterline. However, it is usually used for any shell intersection curve, and
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FAIRED BULB
FIGURE 1.28(b) Faired bulbous bow versus chine (elimination of stem casting).
PART 1
in the case of double-chine hull forms, reference is made to upper and lower chines. A
chine is always on the shell and nowhere else. A chine is usually a curve in at least one
plane.
A knuckle can be anywhere on the ship. However, a knuckle is a straight line in
two planes. Sometimes a chine located in the forebody above the load waterline is
incorrectly identified as a knuckle because in profile it is a straight line. However, in the
plan view it will be curved. Knuckles can be used anywhere in the ship, such as the shell
in the parallel body, decks, bulkheads, deckhouse sides, etc.
When a chine is introduced into a design and it is curved in two views, it can present
a problem if the ship is constructed in modules, as the chine is an obvious module break
line. In addition, a chine that crosses a deck line introduces increased work content due to
construction design details, including varying frame lengths and additional frame brackets.
Chines are often located to follow flow lines as an attempt to prevent cross-flow over the
chines, which will cause increased resistance. However, it is better, from a producibility
point of view, to locate the chine parallel to the baseline, as this enables the chines to be
logical module breaks used for alignment of modules, and permits standardization of design
details for floors, frames, brackets, etc. These concepts are shown in Figure 1.29, which
also shows the problems with current chine shapes.
The development of low resistance and efficient propulsion lines is a highly
specialized field and often is performed by naval architects and hydrodynamicists with
very little shipyard engineering and production experience. While it is not proposed that
consideration of the producibility aspects be allowed to overrule the lines designers
decision where it could adversely affect the efficient operation of the ship after it is built, it
is proposed that lines designers should obtain a better understanding of the impact their
design decisions have on the cost of constructing a ship. Then they should incorporate
producibility improvement aspects which have a high cost-reduction impact, and a small, if
any, adverse impact on operational efficiency. In this context it should be remembered
that a seagoing ship hardly ever operates in smooth water, and that the impact of any
change should be considered in its seagoing environment, and not in merely a
smooth-water towing tank test.
1.3.4 TAILORING DESIGN TO FACILITlES. While it is beneficial for a
shipyard to be able to build any ship design, it is a well known fact that such general
capability will increase the cost to build the shipowners custom design, compared to a
design that makes best use of a shipyards facilities. Obvious shipyard-imposed
requirements are:
Ship dimensions and Limits
M o d u l e maximum weight
M o d u l e maximum size
P a n e l maximum size
Panel
Obviously, a shipyard would be unwise to attempt to build a ship which was longer
or wider than its building berths and/or docks, or higher than its cranes could reach. Of
course this would not be so if part of its plan was to improve its facilities.
The module maximum weight can be dictated by berth crane capacity, shop crane
capacity, and/or transporter capacity. Also, if advanced outfitting is to be incorporated
into the module, the module steel weight must be reduced by the amount of advanced
outfitting plus any temporary bracing and lifting gear used for the lift,
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The module maximum size will depend on access throughout the shipyard for
modules from assembly to erection, shop door sizes, and the shipyards maximum plate
size.
The panel maximum size will depend on the same factors as the module size, but
may, in addition, be limited further by panel line size restrictions. It will also be decided
by the panel lines ability to turn over the panel for welding both sides, unless one-sided
welding is used, and to rotate the panel so that cross-seam stiffening can be used. A panel
line with no rotation capability can achieve the same results by vertical straking of shell or
bulkhead plating when the ship is transversely framed or the bulkheads vertically
stiffened.
Not so obvious and often ignored requirements are:
Maximum berth loading
s
spread of launchways
s
Maximum launch pressure on the ships hull
The maximum berth loading could affect the extent of outfitting before launch and
thus the productivity achieved in building the ship. Heavy concentrated weights such as
propulsion engines and independent LNG tanks may not be able to be installed until the
ship is afloat.
The spread of the launchways should be matched by basic ships structure, such as
longitudinal girders, in order to eliminate the need for any additional temporary
strengthening, which only adds to the work content.
Likewise, the structure of the ship in way of the area subjected to maximum way
end pressure and the fore poppet should be designed to withstand the launch loads without
the need for additional temporary structure.
Whatever the facility requirements on the design, it is obvious that they must be
fully industrial engineered, well documented, and communicated to the designers. The use
of computer simulation techniques on interactive terminals [24] can serve as both an
educational and informational tool to give ship designers a better understanding of the
capabilities of a shipyard. The already-stated concept of a shipyard specification of
parallel importance and applicability as the usual contract ship specification would also be
an effective way to accomplish the transmission of the information to the ship designers.
However, it would not in itself assure production-oriented designs. To assure this, it is
essential that the ship designers be educated and trained in the field of design for ship
production.
1.3.5 MOLDED AND REFERENCE LINES. The concept of the molded line is
well rooted in ship design and construction. Design for ship production requires no changes
to it. The thought process for design for ship production does enforce its consideration
during the development of all structural design details. The usual practice of a shipyard
having a standard molded line system is encouraged, and a very early document should be
the description of the molded line system for every ship to be designed. A typical
description is shown in Figure 1.30.
On the other hand, reference lines may or may not be used in different shipyards.
Or in the same shipyard different reference lines may be used by different crafts. For
example, the loftsmen may routinely locate water or buttock lines as reference lines on
structural parts which may be used by structural fitters. Then the machinists and pipe
75
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fitters may request that installation reference lines be provided in each space as they start
to install equipment and outfit. In addition the outfitters may lay down their own
reference lines from which they will locate joiner bulkheads. The final problem may be
that none of the reference lines are measured from the same basis. To make matters even
worse, the engineering department may not use any reference system in its drawings, and
simply show dimensions all over the drawing, measuring from structure, other equipment,
baseline, centerline, etc. Table 1.4 shows how disintegrated some engineering sources
currently are. It is not surprising that the interference-control efforts in many engineering
departments consume so large a part of the engineering budget and still are not effective,
as proven by the large amount of field-discovered interferences. Much of the
interference-control effort is spent in interpreting the different referencing and
dimensioning methods used. Within each craft the problem necessitates planners,
schemers, and layout preparers to duplicate the drafting effort to provide sketches the
worker can understand.
If design, engineering, and all crafts used the same reference system, both the
design and construction of the ship would be significantly less complicated. There are
many reference system concepts, and some have been developed to accomplish specific
goals. It is essential that the system meet the needs of each shipyard from design through
engineering, lofting, processing, assembly, erection, outfitting, and machinery installation
to completion. It is obvious that an integrated or universal system must be able to satisfy
all user requirements. The use of an integrated reference system also enables an effective
dimensional control system to be applied during the construction of the ship. It can also
form the basis for measurements taken for accuracy control (AC) and eliminate the need
for separate additional AC reference lines.
It is important to recognize and resolve the conflict between those who acknowledge
that the structure will probably not be exactly where it should be, thus prohibiting the use
of structure as a reference surface, and those who recognize the fact that at least two
conditions exist. The first condition is where structure must be located as precisely as
possible from another part of structure, such as the stern tube from the engine foundation.
The second condition is where the contents of a space should be located to the boundaries
of the space, even though the boundaries may not be located exactly on a total ship
reference system basis. It is suggested that a reference system based on
three-dimensional space for the total ship is not practical or advantageous to all crafts,
and may in fact add work content to the job without any improvement in accuracy or
quality. This suggestion is based on an examination of the needs of the various crafts to
fabricate, assemble, and install their products. There is no disagreement that an
integrated system should he used to erect structure, install advanced outfitting units and
on block packages, and install nonstructural steel compartment boundary bulkheads.
However, it appears overkill to use a three-plane reference system intersection in space in
a compartment to locate furniture, fittings, lights, and switches. It is much easier to locate
such equipment relative to the boundaries of the compartment. However, dimensions
should be measured from only one of the boundary surfaces in each plane.
A possible reference system that meets the above concepts is described for
illustrative purposes. It is made up of a three-level system, namely, the primary,
secondary, and tertiary levels.
The primary level consists of three planes measured from the forward
perpendicular, baseline, and centerline of the ship for each erection module. Two planes
shall be continuous across adjacent modules to assist in alignment of modules during
fit-up. Transverse planes shall be designated by an L and the distance in feet and
inches from the origin, such as L360-6. Horizontal planes shall be designated by an H
77
TABLE 1.4
TYPICAL DIMENSIONING METHODS USED BY ISOLATED ENGINEERING TO LOCATE ITEMS
Engineering
Section
Hull
Machinery
Electrical
Above
Base
Line
Off
Center
Line
Structure
Foundations
outfit
X
X
Arrangements
Piping
HVAC
System
Arrangements N o
Wireways
Frame
to
Frame
X
X
X
X
dimensions
given.
From
Near
Side of
Deck
From
Structure
Fore & Aft
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Only
X
a pictoral
X
layout.
X
From
Structure
Transversely
PART 1
and the distance above the baseline, such as H20-9, and similarly longitudinal planes by a
B with S or P sign to designate to starboard or port, respectively, and the distance off
the centerline, such as BS15-0. This level shall be used for structure, locating packaged
equipment and piping units, foundations, major machinery, floor plates and grating, and
will therefore be used on all drawings showing such items. This will standardize and
reduce the amount of reference currently used for these drawings. This reference level will
also be used by the loft. Figure 1.31 indicates the application of this level.
The secondary level would be used for all assembly work, excluding the ships
structure performed off the ship, such as advanced outfitting units, foundations, etc. The
reference lines would be clearly identified on all drawings, and all dimensions would be
measured from the secondary-level reference lines. The reference lines must be real; that
is, there must be material (support structure) on which the lines can be permanently
marked. The lines would be identified by their location within the primary level, such as
L427-3.5. With each drawing a locating sketch would be included, showing the secondary
reference level in relation to the primary level for the compartment in which the item was
to he installed. Figure 1.32 illustrates how this could be done.
The tertiary or third reference level would be used for compartment arrangement
and Foundation drawings for joiner work panels, door frames, ladders, on-board
advanced outfitted electrical equipment, joiner bulkhead mounted equipment, furniture, etc.
This level would use the intersection of the near side of the deck below or above (whichever
is mutually agreed between engineering and production in a shipyard), the near side of the
inboard longitudinal steel or joiner bulkhead, and the near side of the forward transverse
steel or joiner bulkhead as its origin, and the planes in which each surface lies as the
reference planes. Again the reference planes would be identified by their location within
the primary level, as shown in Figure 1.33.
It should be obvious that such a system applied consistently to the engineering for a
ship would simplify the interference-control problem, as all items would be measured to a
common reference system for the total ship or for a specific compartment.
79
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81
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82
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84
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FIGURE
85
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86
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REFERENCES
1. R. Munro-Smith, Merchant ship design (London: Hutchinson and Company, 1964).
2. R. Munro-smith, Elements of ship design (London: Marine Media Management Ltd.,
1975).
3. A. Kari, The design of merchant ships and cost estimating (London: Lockwood and
Sons, 1948).
4. Design of merchant ships, Volume 4: Ships and Marine Engine Series (Haarlem,
Holland: The Technical Publishing Company).
5. G.C. Manning, The theory and technique of ship design (New York Van Nostrand,
1956).
8. R.T. Miller, A ship design process, Marine Techology. SNAME, October 1965.
9. T. Lamb, A ship design procedure, Marine Technology. SNAME, October 1969.
10. G.M. Watson et aL, Some ship design methods, RlNA Transactions, vol . 119,
1977.
11. D. Andrews, Creative ship design, RINA Transactions, vol. 123, 198l.
12. D.C. Macmillan, Improvements in the ship design process. SNAME Los Angeles
section, october 1977.
13. R Judge et al., The RCNs application of method study to ship design, SNAME
Marine Technology July 1967.
14. A.W. Gilfillan, preliminary design by computer, IESS Transactions, vol. 110,
1966-1967.
15. K.W. Fisher, Economic optimization procedures in preliminary ship design, RINA
Transactions, vol. 114, 1972.
16. RD. Murphy et aL, Least cost ship characteristics by computer techniques,
SNAME Marine Technology, April 1965.
17. H. Benford, Measures of merit for ship design, SNAME Marine Technology,
october 1970.
18. H. Benford, The practical application of economics to merchant ship design,
SNAME Marine Technology, January 1967.
87
PART 1
Basic Design
19. H. Benford,
20. J.H. Evans, Optimized design of midship section structure, SNAME Tarnsaction,
vol. 71,1963.
21. A.G. Hopper, Cargo handling and its effect on dry cargo ship design, RINA
Transactions, vol. 106, 1964.
22. K.R Chapman, The optimum machinery position in dry cargo vessels, "NECIES
Transaction,, 1963.
23. RN. Newton, "Wetness related to freeboard and flare, RINA Transactions,
vol. 102, 1960.
24. D.W. Camsey et al, The application of computer simulation techniques to ship
production, NECIES Transaction, 1983.
88
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90
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Group Technology
CB - CONTOUR BURNING
fP-FLAMEPLtNNER
PG- PLATE GUILLOTINE
SB - SECTION BURNER
S - SAW
SG- SECTION GUILLOTINE
PB - PRESS BRAKE
R - ROLL5
RP - RING PRESS
LH - LINE HEATING
EC-ENOCUT
SB- SECTION ENOING
SA - SUB-ASSEMBLY
FPL- FLAT PANEL LINE
CAP- CURVED PANEL ASSEMBLY
PO - PANEL OUTFITTING
MA - ASSEMBLY
MP- MODULE PAINTING
MO- MODULE OUTFITTING
SJ - SHIP JOINING
PP -PANEL PAINTING
91
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Group Technology
Experience from users of group technology shows that its benefits can cover reduction in
construction time, reduction of inventories and work in progress, more effective and
economical inspection, and simplified planning, scheduling, and control systems. It clearly
supports the objectives, and is therefore an obvious part of design for skip production.
Its limited use to date in general industry is partiy due to the fact that the
foundation of group technology is classification and coding of like products and processes.
Classification is a means of separating product data through similarities into groups or
classes. Coding is the system which enables storing and retrieving the classified data so it
can be organized, analyzed, and used for specific purposes. It should be remembered that
group technology looks for the similarities and not differences. The similar products are
grouped in families, and the families manufactured in groups of associated work stations.
The necessary classification, coding, and analyzing involves significant effort. Because of
the magnitude of the task, manual systems tended to deter the application. Nevertheless
many systems have been developed by various specialists in this field. Some companies
have used classification and coding systems to resolve manufacturing problems, only to
forget them until another problem arose.
The development of group technology has, understandably, been closely tied to the
development of classification and coding systems. Classification systems were developed
for two basic group technology functions, namely, product variety reduction and grouping
of parts for production. Product variety reduction utilizes identification and retrieval of
similar designs, whereas grouping of parts for production requires the selection of parts
with similar processes. Many classification and coding systems have been developed, and
are described in the already-referenced textbooks on group technology. Most of the
systems are for machined parts, but a few include sheet metal and piping fabrication.
None of them are directly applicable to the shipbuilding industry, but some of them could
be used as part of a shipyard system, and also much can be learned from them when
developing a shipyard system.
1.4.2 APPLICATION OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY TO SHIPBUILDING. If
group technology is not new, why has it not been applied to the shipbuilding industry
before now? In addition to the above-mentioned general lack of use, a complete lack of
knowledge of it and its benefits are the most obvious reason. Even in the case of some
shipyard managers who have knowledge of group technology, the inability of shipbuilding
management to establish and enforce the detailed work breakdown and engineering
required for its application prevented its use. It required the Marad Technology Transfer
program to introduce it to U.S. shipbuilders in the lHI Product Work Breakdown System
Manual [7]. The manual describes how to classify sbipbuilding products, and thus it is a
partial application of group technology. Its usefulness is limited, as it did not present an
associated coding system. Group technology has been applied to shipbuilding in Japan [7],
Britain [8, 9, 10, 11, 12], and Russia [13]. These reports indicate that it has been applied
successfully in the following shipbuilding areas.
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l
l
l
l
Design rationalization
Development of effective production planning systems by analysis of
product sizes, shapes, variety, and processes
Structural material size variety reduction
Improved presentation of engineering information to the shop floor
through classification and coding of products
Improved shop floor organization and layout based on statistical
analysis of the product processes and flow
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The reason for the current increase in interest in group technology is that it has been
shown to be an effective way to assist industry to increase productivity. This must be the
goal of every shipyard if they are to survive in the very competitive business are are part
of. Group technology is an essential prerequisite to computer-aided process planning
(CUPP), which in turn is essential for automated factories.
The way that group technology achieves improvements in productivity can be better
understood if the various production organization types are briefly described, and their
application to shipbuilding considered. Production organizations are usually grouped into
five categories. These were well defined by Marsh [14], and his titles are used as follows:
1. craft Oragnization (Job Shop)
2. Semi-Process Organization
Organization utilizing well trained and experienced workers, but attempting
better planning and control by muting similar work processes to specific work
areas. Requires more planning effort but scheduling and some control is
attainable. Engineering has to be more detailed to enable planning to break
down the work into task packages.
3. Process Organization (Batch)
This is the complete use of specific work areas to perform specialized activities.
This enables workers to be trained only in the special activity they are selected
to perfom. Planning becomes more complex regarding scheduling and material
control Engineering is prepared for specialized process rather than total
product.
4. Product or Group Organization
This type of organization focuses on a type of product, such as flat panels, and
links all the processes together to complete the product. It then combines a
number of products to make a new larger product, such as an erection module
and ultimately the ships hull Planning is simpler as it follows a logical
sequence of events. Again the extent of worker training is limited to those
processes utilized in a given work station. Engineering is prepared to show the
product to be processed at a given work station. Control can be precise due to
the many available data points.
The differences and relative effort for each type of organization are summarized in
Figure 1.35, which is based on a similar figure in reference [4]. The various
organizations have also been categorized by Hargroves, Teasdale, and Vaughan [Xl, and
Table 1.5 is based on their presentation. It shows the productivity gap existing between
organizations currently producing one-off products and mass production organizations. It
93
TABLE 1.5
PRODUCTION ORGANIZATIONS
'One-Off'
PRODUCTION STRUCTURE
Production Type
Production Layout
Product
Production System
Pre-investment Planning
Craft
Organized
Low
Process
Organized
Medium
Product
Organized
High
Operational Planning
High
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
High
Infinite
Variety
POTENTIAL
Flow
IMPROVEMENT
Mass
Production
A Single
Product
Line
PART 1
Group Technology
also shows the potential productivity improvement through group technology. Figure 1.36,
also taken from their work, graphically illustrates the different processes. They state in
their paper:
It is more than likely that the concept of group technology will prove to be the
settling point of much of ship production activity in the future.
The traditional shipyard was craft organized, as are most shipyards today. In the
past this worked quite well for a number of reasons, including:
l
l
l
l
Workers had pride in being craftsmen and were prepared to take the
time to be trained. Five-year apprenticeships were common.
Employers were willing to invest time/money to train their employees.
The demand for ships was great enough that it was not necessary to
maximize productivity to survive.
The trade unions in the shipbuilding industry resisted the changes that
were necessary to improve through the application of modem
production techniques, as they usually involved demarcation issues.
Engineering departments were incapable of providing the type of
engineering information required for modem shipbuilding techniques.
96
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ASSEMBLING
MAN
MACHINE
PART 1
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98
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classification and coding systems that were in use by British shipyards for ship structure,
and was the basis for the final system adopted by BSRA. Reference [18] describes a
proprietary classification and coding system developed in Holland. It is a general format
system allowing users to input their own products and processes. The system is integrated
with a computer-aided process planning capability. A typical summary of a structural
component analysis is shown in Figure 1.38, token from reference [19]. Reference [20]
gives details of three applications of group technology to shipbuilding. These show how the
structural classification and coding system was used to develop a data base of design and
production information for various ship types. This enabled similarity of components for
different ships, structural process flow, work content, structural plate standardization, and
new and existing facility analysis to be determined. The analysis of the structural process
flow showed that no component required more than two welding processes, and 75% of all
components had only one welding process before delivery to the module assembly.
It is not known if the BSRA structural classification and coding system has been
expanded to cover all shipyard products and processes. However, it is essential that a
complete system be developed to allow the full benefit of group technology to be achieved.
With this in mind, the author developed a shipbuilding classification and coding system
(SCCS). Figure 1.39 gives details of the system. It uses up to 17 digits, all numbers. The
number of digits used varies depending on the product. However, the full 17-digit field is
always used, For example, a structural plate product uses all 17 digits, whereas a
subassembly uses only 11 of the digits for meaningful data. The first to the tenth digits
are used for design classification, and the eleventh to seventeenth digits are used for
processing classification. The use of the system can be seen from the examples given in
the figure. For structure the following applies.
FIRST DIGIT
SHIP GROUP
The subdivision of the ship into major systems. The U.S. Navy
Ship Work -Breakdown Structure first digit groups are used
because of the U.S. shipbuilding industrys familiarity with it.
SECOND DIGIT
BASE PRODUCT
The subdivision into products as received by the shipyard. For
example, plate, sections, etc.
THIRD DIGIT
TYPE
The subdivision of base products into the various types that
they can be. For example, sections could be flat bar, angle,
channel, tee, etc.
FOURTH DIGIT
MATERIAL
Defines the material in terms of specification and quality.
FIFTH DIGIT
The sixth through tenth digits are used for different classification depending on the first
two digits as follows:
SIXTH DIGIT
SEVENTH DIGIT
99
PART 1
Group Technology
FIGURE 1.4-5
STRUCTURAL COMPONENT
ANALYSIS SUMMARy
Group Technology
PART 1
EIGHTH DIGIT
NINTH DIGIT
TENTH DIGIT
The eleventh through seventeenth digits are used to classify the processes used to fabricate
and install the products to build a ship as follows:
ELEVENTH DIGIT
PRE-PROCESSING TREATMENT
Identifies the various preprocessing treatment for all products.
TWELFTH DIGIT
CUTTING
Identifies cutting processes
THIRTEENTH DIGIT
FORMING
Identifies forming processes
FOURTEENTH DIGIT
CONNECTION TYPE
Identifies the connection type used to attach the classified
product
FIFTTEENTH DIGIT
WORK POSITION
Identifies the work position for the connection of the product
SIXTEENTH DIGIT
WORK STATION
Identifies the work station at which the product is installed
101
FIRST DIGIT
BASED ON
SECOND DIGIT
1 ST DIGIT - I -STRUCTURE
2ND DlGIT-I-SECTION
1 ST DIGIT - I -STRUCTURE
2ND D I G I T - 2 - S U B - A S S E M B L Y
1 ST DlGIT - I -STRUCTURE
2ND D l G I T - 7 - H U L L M O D U L E - 8 - D E C K H O U S E M O D U L E
Group Technology
PART 1
PART 1
Group Technology
0
1
2
3
HULL
DECK
HOUSE
MACHINERY
SPACE
FIGURE 1.40 Optional zero digit for zone design and construction.
112
PART 1
Group Technology
data collection system is the data collection format. References [9,10,12] describe such
formats and Figure 1.41 shows a typical format. Once the data is collection, it can be
analyzed to provide the required information, such as number of weld connections per
component prior to assembly into a module or the throughput of steel in a particular shop.
The information provided by the analysis may be used to reduce component handling by
relocating work stations, including processing machines and equipment.
Germane to dssign for ship production, a group technology analysis could be used to
determine the number of similar component designs, allowing the selection of the best and
reduction in variety. Once this is accomplished, every component design requirement can
be checked at concept stage to see if an existing design will meet the requirement. This is
conceptually shown in Figure 1.42.
As another example, assume that it is desired to determine the most producible
design of double-bottom structure from the following options.
l
l
Transverse
Transverse
A typical hold length would be selected and the stictural components coded for
product design and processing. Then the following data could be extracted for each option
and compared:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Number of parts
Number of unique parts
Number of each unique part
Number of plate parts
Number of parts cut from sections
Number of plates formed
Number of sections formed
Number of process steps for each part
Process flow quantities
By adding a few additional data items to the data collection forms it would be possible to
extract
(a) Joint weld length
A further example is the determination of the number of different section sizes to be
used for a particular design. The various minimum scantling sizes as required to meet the
Classification Society rules could be determined, coded, collected, and sorted. Suitable size
ranges would then be obvious.
For a shipyard utilizing both contour and flame planing burning machines, the
designer could code all plates and determine the machine type demand and make changes
if they were not in balance. Use of cut plate with flanged or fabricated face plate instead
of formed shapes is another necessary comparison where group technology can be used to
advantage.
The concept of advanced outfitting can be analyzed by applying group technology
techniques, as can emotional items such as welded pipe joints versus flanged pipe joints.
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115
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Existing design practice can be analyzed for required processing and thus work content, as
can the impact of proposed improvements.
However, the ultimate benefit from the use of group technology in design for ship
production is that if all interim products are coded it will be possible to utilize
computer-aided process planing and thus eliminate the errors and inefficiency of manual
process planning.
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118
Structure
PART 1
1.5 Structure
1.5.1 GENERAL. The design of ship structure is the process of appIying rules and
experience to integrate individual structural components into efficient and easily
constructed assemblies, modules, and hull. The design of a ships structure has a major
influence on the construction cost of the ship through the work content and the quantity of
material Many ship structural designers use standard structural details which they
may have "borrowed from other designers in another shipyard. Or, for a naval ship, they
may simply copy the old BUSHIP standards, which are over 20 years old. Chances are
that the decision to use a particular detail will be made without any regard to producibility
requirements for the shipyard involved. Obviously, the smaller the number of standard
details considered, the easier it will be to use them. It should also be remembered that as
there are a great number of connections between the structural components of a ship, the
best design for one shipyard may not be the best for another. The best structural
design detail depends on:
l ModuIe definition and erection methods
l Manual versus computer-aided lofting
Manual versus N/C burning
Extent of automatic welding
Whether or not the shipyard has a panel line
l Facility and equipment
However, the basic goal of design for ship production is to reduce work content, and
the development of structural details should accomplish this goal When deciding between
alternative structural details, it is necessary to utilize the cost trade-off technique as
stated in Section 1.2. The minimum considerations must include:
l Number of parts
l Joint weld length, type, and position
l Completion of spaces/tanks within modules
A number of typical structural connections will be discussed, with alternatives
showing better design for ship production details. However, before getting into the details,
it is encessary to consider the selection of module boundaries.
1.5.2 MODULE DEFINITION. Although this aspect of planning and structural
design appears to be reasonably handled by most U.S. shipyards, it is still possible to see
module boundaries and structural details in way of the module breaks that are obviously
not well thought out. When deciding moduIe boundaries, a number of items must be
considered, some obvious and some not so obvious. These are:
Maximum- module size
l Maximum module weight
Module turning limitaions
l Shell shape boundaries
l Access for workers and machines for module joining
l Extent of use of auto and semi-auto machines
Whether or not self-aligning
l Internal connection detail
l Framing method
Plate straking direction
l In-line or staggered transverse breaks
l Maximum or standard plate/shapes size
119
PART 1
structure
Completion of adjacent spaces/tanks
Blocking/support requirements
Natural lifting points
Use of excess material for fitting
Large equipment arrangement and foundations to avoid overlapping
module breaks
Design to eliminate plate or pin jigs
The importance of these items will become clear from the following discussions.
Figure 1.43 shows the difference between in-line and staggered module transverse
breaks. It applies to internal surfaces such as tank tops, girders, longitudinal bulkheads
and decks as well as the obvious external shell. At one time it was a classification
requirement to stagger the breaks. However, this is no longer the case. The use of
staggered breaks is necessary if self-aligning modules are to be designed. Figure 1.44
shows various connection details in way of module transverse breaks, and Figure 1.45 the
same for longitudinal breaks. As mentioned in Section 1.3, Basic Design, it can be
beneficial to utilize cofferdams and duct keels as the location for the module breaks when
the tanks are to be coated, as this allows adjacent tanks to be completed and tested before
erection on the berth. This concept is shown in Figure 1.46.
Note that double cofferdams are only necessary for coated tanks. In fact, if it is
necessary to hydra test only staggered tanks, there is no need for cofferdams if the tanks
are uncoated. This is shown in Figure 1.47. However, it should be obvious that this
approach increases the number of different modules required, and that a duct keel is still
required. A combination of these approaches can be used even where the tanks are to be
coated, and then half the tanks would need to be completed after joining. In this case the
tank boundaries would be staggered one frame From the transverse bulkheads, and tank
lengths would vary as shown in Figure 1.48. Figure 1.49 shows some other module break
connection detail alternatives. The differences and benefits of some over others is obvious,
but notes are included where appropriate. In reviewing the alternatives, it is necessary to
look for the already-stated production-affecting factors of:
Joint weld length of erection connection
Weld attitude
Number of spaces to be entered to complete erection joining
Self-aligning
Number of parts involved in detail
The consideration of the framing method-that is, transverse or longitudinal-and
plate straking direction should be performed together. This is because, in general, straking
should be in the same direction as the framing. This is to eliminate the need for rat holes
over plate butt welds or for grinding down plate butt welds in way of frames crossing the
welds. Obviously, this cannot be adhered to in all cases, especially bulkheads where the
plating thickness varies with depth and vertical stiffening is generally preferred. The
age-old practice of keeping the molded side of the plating flush where plating strakes vary
in thickness is a problem for panel lines due to requiring the upper surface of the panel to
be flat for installation of stiffening. In such cases it may be better to locate the stiffeners
on the uneven surface running parallel to the plate strakes. This would require horizontal
stiffeners with varying scantlings, which is probably not a minimum work content
approach. From a producibility point of view it is probably better to use vertical plate
straking and vertical stiffeners, even though there will be an increase in weight due to the
constant bulkhead plating thickness. These concepts are shown in Figure 1.50.
2 0
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Structure
STAGGERED
IN LINE
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Structure
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The module boundaries should be located at natural plate butts and seams. Module
breaks should be located to minimum ship erection work content. For example, in a
longitudinaliy framed ship it would be better to have long modules, whereas for a
transversely framed ship, wide modules would be better. The reasons for this can be seen
from Figure 1.51.
All these concepts are put together for two typical cases, namely a cargo ship and a
tanker in Figure 1.52 and 1.53, respectively. The tanker case is based on the layer
construction method. This method was developed in Scandinavia and improved in various
stages by many shipbuilding countries. The principle involved is the maximizing of fillet
welding in place of butt and down hand and verticai attitudes. The structural layers also
become natural reference planes. This method is shown in Figure 1.54, and its application
to tankers in Figure 1.55.
1.5.3 STRUCTURAL DETAILS. The labor manhours to construct the structure
of a ship can be significantly reduced by proper attention to the design of structural details.
A number of structural details are examined in this context.
(a) Shell Straking. The obvious goal for shell staking is to standardize the
plates. A standard plate should not only be identical in size, but also in marking,
bevelling, etc. This can only be accomplished by locating the stiffeners and webs in the
same position on each plate as shown in Figure 1.56. To do this two options are possibie.
One is to consider stiffener and web spacing to suit the maximum width and length of
plates to be used. The other is to select plate width and length to suit desired stiffener and
web spacing. For example, if a shipyard desires to use a maximum plate size of 40 feet by
10 feet, the spacing of the stiffeners will be given by 10/ns and of the webs by 40/nw
where both ns and nw must be whole numbers. If, on the other hand, the shipyard wishes
to use a stiffener spacing of 3 feet, arid a web spacing of 12 feet, the 40 by 10 plate would
not allow standard marking. The correct standard plate size for the desired spacing would
be 36 or 48 feet in Iength, and 9 or 12 feet in width. This shows that when considering
structural design, all the factors that influence productivity and thus cost must be included.
It is pointless to spend time and money to standardize design and facilities, and to lose
much of the benefit by not understanding the impact of plate size. Correctiy applied, the
number of different shell plates in the parallel body of a tanker or bulkcarrier can be as
few as five. When this approach is applied to decks, bulkheads, and tank tops, its impact
can be a significant reduction of engineering, lofting, and production manhours. It also
makes the use of special tooling practical as the small number involved can be
cost-effective.
Another shell detail that involves extra work content is insert plates. This is
because of the additional welding and chamfering of the insert plate. Figure 1.57 shows
how this can be eliminated by making the insert plate the full strake width, thus
significantly reducing the amount of additional welding. The chamfering can be eliminated
by increasing the plating surrounding the insert plate to that necessary to gradually build
up to the required insert plate thickness in steps allowed by the classification rules without
chamfering.
Many shell assemblies and/or modules require plate jigs or pin jigs to be able to
construct them. This is an additional work content, and by design can be eliminated. To
do this, it is necessary to either have shell modules with decks, flats, and buikheads that
can be used as the reference planes on which to set the internal structure, and then attach
the shell, or else the internal web frames must be deliberately designed with their inner
surface in the same plane for each module, in the same way that the upper surface and
bevel angle of roll sets are used. These concepts are shown in Figure 1.58.
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LONGITUDINAL FRAMING
T R A N S V E R S EF R A M I N G
FIGURE 1.51 Producibility considerations for module breaks.
PART I
132
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134
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Structure-
135
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136
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Structure
137
Structure
PART 1
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Structure
PLATE JIG
PIN JIG
OR
139
PART 1
(II) Cut-Outs. The design of cut-outs for frames, longitudinals, and stiffeners
can also adversely influence work content, especially in naval work where most of them at
the shell must be chocked or collared. Figure 1.59 shows some of the common types in
use, and notes various comments on each type. It is possible to eliminate cut-outs by
slotting the floor, web, or bulkhead, cutting away the flange of the frame, longitudinal or
stiffener, and inserting a bracket to effectively maintain the sectional area as shown in
Figure 1.60. Comer cut-outs, snipes, drainage, and air holes must take into account the
construction methods, and equipment to be used. For example, if automatic or even
gravity-feed welding is to be used, a detail allowing continuous fiIlet welding will be best,
whereas for manual welding a complete edge cut detail may be better as shown in
Figure 1.61. Also water and oil stops can he combined with some holes when manual
welding details are used. Figure 1.62 illustrates this approach. The practice of making air
holes smaller than drain holes in floors, girders, etc., is unnecessary, and they should be
made the same size. An interesting detail developed for improved producibility associated
with cut-outs and floor and web stiffeners is shown in Figure 1.63. It was developed by
Burmeister and Wain in Denmark after considerable research into the stress distributions
around various cut-out/stiffener detail. Usually the stiffener is connected to the
longitudinal, requiring considerable work content to fit, align, and weld the connection.
The improved detail moves the stiffener out of line with the longitudinal, thus eliminating
the connection.
(c) Brackets. There are many approaches to the design of brackets for frames,
beams, longitudinals, and stiffeners. Again they are usually based on borrowed industry
standards, BUSHIPS standards, or a design agents standard, instead of being thoroughly
researched to determine the best design for a given shipyard. In the days of
piece-by-piece erection on the building berth, brackets were very simple, and where shape
was involved they were fitted at the ship frame by frame. Figure 1.64 shows the
evolution of beam and frame brackets. Type A is a pre-computer-aided lofting and
automatic burning bracket. It was often sheared or burned from plate scrap, and two
standard sizes generally covered the complete ship. Standard II was used for shaped
brackets, and the excess material was cut off when joining beam and frame. Type (B)
shows a bracket which is practical only through the use of computer-aided Iofting and
optical or N/C burning. As Type (B) can be accurately produced, it can be used with
advantage to correctly align frame to beam and shell to deck. Type C is a bracket which
utilizes the same concept as Type (B) but attempts to eliminate the complex cutting of the
ends of beams, frames, stiffeners, etc. Its advantage is that as the bracket is cut by
automatic machines, ail shaping can be easily accomplished, and the end cut on the frame,
etc., becomes a simple straight cut. Its disadvantage is that as it is still used for
alignment, it usually requires a larger bracket, thus encroaching on internal space.
Another way to reduce the work content of brackets is to use thicker material and
eliminate flanging or welding on a face plate. This is allowed by classification rules.
Figure 1.65 is a collection of brackets for "tee beams and frames, including BUSHIPS
standards which, it can be seen, are not production kindly. Alternative bracket details
are provided for comparison.
(d) Web Frames. Ships such as tankers and bulk carriers, and also some large
naval ships, incorporate many web frames in their structural design. The usual approach
utilizes ring web frames with their many face plates and web stiffeners. Figure 1.66
shows typical ring web frames, and an alternative approach utilizing non-tight bulkheads
in place of the ring web frames. The non-tight bulkhead web frame can be constructed for
less manhours than the usual ring web frame, as it eliminates many differing parts,
including the thick face plates which are normally rolled. It can also be constructed on a
panel line with automatic and semi-automatic assembly equipment. However, in the case
of coated tanks, the cost increase for the coating for the additional surface area must be
140
FOR LONGI-
TUDINAL WEB
AND BRACKET
PART 1
AIR/DRAINAGE HOLES
DIFFERENT SIZE
MANUAL WELD
BETTER DETAIL
AUTO/SEMI-AUTO
WELD DETAIL
143
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S&U.Ctwe
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PRODUCTION ORIENTED
PART 1
Structure
taken into account. Where ring web frames must be used, they should be simple in design,
without any curved inner contours or shaped face plates. All the inner contours and face
plates should be straight. Also the face plates should be located on one side of the web and
not centered or even offset as a tee. These concepts are shown in Figure 1.67.
(e) Access. The location of access holes through the structure is important from
the productivity point of view and must be considered for all positions of the assembly or
module during construction, and not only for the final ship attitude as illustrated in
Figure 1.68. It is a noticeable practice of many designers to center access holes in floor,
girders, webs, etc., making them difficult to use. It is also puzzling why designers persist
in using 23-inch by 15-inch-oval and 18-inch-diameter access holes. This is a carryover
of U.S. admeasurement requirements that are only applied today to small ships that are
pushing to get under the 200 or 300 gross registered tonnage. USCG admeasurement
staff are not so concerned with access openings in large ships, and with the new
international tonnage regulations now in force, there is no size limit for access holes.
During construction and for maintaining the ship in setice, staging is required in
deep tanks and under flats and decks. This can be effectively provided by integrating the
requirements into the design as permanent features. For example, for staging,
3-inch-diameter holes can be cut in floors, girders, web frames, deck transverses, etc.,
through which 2.5-inch-diameter staging pipe can be placed and staging planks laid across
the pipes. This concept is shown in Figure 1.69, which also shows the cutting of hand and
toe holes in the structure to assist access throughout the ship. These staging and access
holes can be efficiently cut by the automatic burning machine when cutting the plate.
Another approach to improve access is to design built-in construction and access
galleries as shown in Figure 1.70.
(f) Penetrations. One area of significant work content faced by shipbuilders of
naval and other sophisticated ships is the cutting of penetration holes for pipe, vent duct,
and electric cable. This must obviously be done for systems when passing through
bulkheads, decks, and external boundaries, but it is usual practice to see it also for deck
transverses, girders, and web frames. The need to penetrate the latter items should either
be eliminated or made easy to accomplish. It can be eliminated by the design of minimum
depth members to allow running all systems below or inboard of the member. Conversely,
if the tween-deck height is increased, the same goal can be achieved with normal depth
members. Obviously, a combination of both may prove to be the best. It can also be
accomplished by designing open structural members through which the systems can
easily pass. That is, the depth of the member can be deliberately increased, and the web
material cut away to allow access for system routing. Figure 1.71 illustrates this concept.
(g) Scantling Standardization/Number Reduction. In a recent contract
design for a small 224-foot naval service ship, the design agent utilized 12 different
thicknesses of plate and 51 different shapes. Although one of the worst examples ever
seen, it is quite common for designs to be prepared without any regard to keeping size
differences to a minimum. An example of what can be done in this area is the case of a
shipowners contract design which had 30 different shapes. The shipyard reduced these to
nine during detail design, with less than 1% increase in steel weight. However, the
manhour savings resulting from the easier receiving, storing, handling, processing, and
installing was 6% of the steel construction budget.
(h) Bilge Framing. In a longitudinally framed ship the longitudinals in way of
the bilge radius are of high work content due to their shaping, twisting, closing angles, and
cut-out chocking. The use of bilge brackets in place of the longitudinals is a
Obviously, with
productivity-improving alternative as shown in Figure 1.72.
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152
154
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TRADITIONAL DESIGN
COMPLETE LONGITUDINAL
FRAMING
155
Structure
PART 1
computer-aided lofting and N/C burning, the bilge brackets are easily produced, This
approach also provides simpler and better control of the shape of the bilge shell plates.
(i) Plate Straking. In conjunction with transverse framing it is cost effective in
some shipyards to adopt transverse straking of the bottom and side shell, tank tops, flats,
and decks. This item was already discussed in conjunction with module boundaries where
the advantage of the approach was stated to be its suitability for panel line fabrication. It
has been shown to also reduce the joint weld length for the plating. This concept is
illustrated in Figure 1.73.
(j) Corrugated, Swedged, and Custom-StisFened Panels. The meaning of the
various types of stiffening for structural panels can be seen in Figure 1.74. Corrugated
bulkheads were extensively used in tankers and bulk carriers in the early 60s. They lost
some of their attractiveness in tankers due to corrosion problems at the work hardened
bends. With todays available tank coatings and segregated ballast tankers, this
disadvantage has been eliminated, and the use of corrugated bulkheads in tankers is
becoming popular once more. The obvious advantage of corrugated stiffened panels is the
elimination of independent stiffeners and the accompanying welding. Where the length of
corrugation is such that butts are necessary, the layer or through plate construction
method as shown in Figure 1.75 is a way to reduce work content, especially if combined
with a stringer. Many shipyards do not utilize corrugated bulkheads because they do not
have the required forming capability. This can be overcome by subcontracting the forming
work or by utilizing buil-up corrugations as shown in Figure 1.76. Corrugated
bulkheads provide many side cost reduction and operation benefits such as natural
access trunks with built-in ladders and trunks for pipes, etc.
Swedges have been used to stiffen miscellaneous non-styructural steel bulkheads
for many years: Their initial use was for internal bulkheads around toilets, staterooms,
storerooms, etc. They were first approved by Lloyds, and used on the vessel Ocean
Transport for structural tween-deck bulkheads in 1959. A major benefit in the use of
swedges is the elimination of plate distortion due to the welding of stiffeners to the plate.
This is especially important for very light material. In addition to bulkheads, swedging
has been used to stiffen deckhouse fronts, sides, and ends. There is no reason why
swedged or small corrugated stiffened panels could not be used for decks. For long decks
the swedges would run longitudinally. For short decks, such as those in deckhouses, the
swedges could run transversely. The already-mentioned use of swedges for deckhouse
exterior boundaries is also a good productivity improvement, and should be considered.
The aesthetics of such a practice is quite acceptable to most shipowners.
The use of specially designed custom panels can also be a work content reduction
approach. It is particularly worthwhile for very thin panels and special materials. In such
a case the manufacturing tolerances must be tight, and the quality control consistently
applied
Obviously, before utilizing any of the structural details discussed above, a complete
producibility/cost benefit analysis should be performed by each shipyard to ensure that the
selected detail is the best for their particular facility, equipment, and methods.
1.5.4 STRUCTURAL FITTINGS. It is usual to group certain items which are
either integrated into the structure, such as stem and stem frames, or connected to it,
such as bitts, chocks, steel hatch covers, manholes, ladders and structural doors, into a
category which is commonly known as structural Fittings. Foundations are sometimes
included in this group. Many of the items in this group were castings in the past, and
have been replaced by `weldments such as bitts, stems, and stem frames.
156
157
CUSTOM
FIGURE 1.74 Alternative
Structure
PART 1
160
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PART 1
There is considerable opportunity to apply design-for-production techniques to
structural fittings. For example, when stern frames were first designed to replace
castings, they were still designed as an independent item from the rest of the stern
structure, and this is still being done as can be seen in Figure 1.77. With modular
construction there is no Iogic for this, and the stern frame should be integrated into the
stem lower module. This was already discussed in Section 1.3.3(c). The work content
would be significantly reduced, as the stem frame is effectively eliminated as a separate
work item. The replacement of the stem casting by a weldment was already discussed in
Section 1.3.3(g), but it obviously requires the cooperation of the developer of the lines to be
able to do so. Typical approaches to simplifying stem details were given in Figure 1.18.
The traditional design of rudders results in high work content which can be reduced
by simplifying the design through the following approaches:
l
l
l
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TRADITIONAI, RUDDER
ON IIORN
TRADITIONAL SPADE
R
U D D E R
PRODUCTION-ORIENTED
RUDDER DESIGN
PART 1
INDIVIDUAL FOUNDATIONS
164
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165
PART 1
Structure
166
PART 1
T R A D I T I O N A L
S T A N D A R D I Z E D
COVERS DIFFERENT
GASKETS DIFFERENT
COVERS SAME
GASKETS SAME
S T A N D A R D
M A N H O L E
167
C O V E R S
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PART 1
170
PART 1
171
172
PART 1
Structure
PIVOTING SHOE
FIGURE 1.85(b) Details of fittings for standard jack and ensign staffs.
173
PART 1
Structrue
174
PART 1
175
PART 1
L - LENGTH
FOR DOORS L = 36
FOR WINDOWS L = 27
FOR AIRPORTS L = 27
176
PART 1
PART1
P R O D U C T I O N
O R I E N T E D
178
PART 1
Hull Outfit
Use above deck slide or A frame anchor davit instead of hawse pipes
(see Figure 1.96).
179
PART 1
Hull Outfit
TABLE 1.6
MODULAR ACCOMMODATION SYSTEMS
MODULAR TOILETS
"MARINET" System manufactured by Ahlmann
P.O. Box 725, D-2370, Rendsburg, West Germany
Resine Armee s.a.
44590 Derval, France
Frenkin Corporation
406 Railroad Street, Yehn, Washington 98598 USA
COMPLETE MODULAR ACCOMMODATION
Wartsila Cabin Modules
Piikkio Works, SF-21500 Piikkio, Finland
Hw50 system
hW Metallbau, P.O. Box 1160, Syker Strabe 205-213,
Thedinghausea, West Germany
MODULUX, Cape Boards and Panels Ltd.
Glasgow, Scotiand
B+V Ml000 System
Blohm & Voss AG, P.O. Box 100720
D-200 Hamburg 1, West Germany
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PART 1
TABLE 1.7
TYPICAL HULL OUTFIT STANDARDS LIST
[A] STANDARD ITEMS
Rails and Stanchions
WatertightDoors
Manholes
Joiner Doors
Exterior Ladders
Interior Ladders
Interior Stairs
Wmdow Casing
Airport casing
Jack and Ensign Staff
Liferaft Stowage
Lifebuoy Stowage
Hull Markings
Bat Proofing
Furniture
Watertight Hatches
Oil Tight Hatches
Escape Hatches and Scuttles
Ullage Hatch
Cleaning Hatch
Docking Plug
Spare Part Boxes
Wood Grating
Metal Grating
Store Shelving
Tank Sounding Board
courseBoard
Notice Boards
Workshop Bench
Shower Enclosure
Toilet Enclosure
[B] STANDARD SYSTEMS
Joiner Lining, Bulkhead, and Ceiling Details
Deck Covering Details
Hull Insulation Details
Paint Details
Galley Dresser Details
Storeroom Details
Navigation Instrument Schedule
Cathodic Protection Details
Label Plate Details
Curtain Plate Details
Living Space Arrangements
181
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182
PART1
183
PART 1
Hzd Outfit
184
Hull Outfit
PART 1
185
186
188
PART I
190
PART 1
Hull Outfit
FIGURE
1.94
(Continued)
191
192
PART 1
PART 1
Hull Ouqit
PART1
Hull Outfit
PART 1
PART 1
Hull Ouffit
196
PART 1
197
Hull Outfit
198
PART 1
Machinery
PART 1
1.7 MACHINERY
1.7.1 GENERAL. Very few shipyards today design and manufacture the
propulsion and auxiliary machinery which will be installed in the ships they construct..
They will probably purchase the machinery from other companies specializing in the
different items. Therefore, the machinery group is usually responsible for designing an
integrated power plant from many "stock or standard items of equipment available
from many different suppliers. They may also be responsible for the design of machinery
space ventilation, gratings, and ladders. The machinery arrangement and the major
equipment should be decided during basic design, and if prepared as proposed in Section
1.3.2(c) it will be possible to continue the design-for-production approach in the
development of the product engineering. The design of the machinery installation can
significantly assist the ultimate goal of improved productivity by standardization. For
example, foundations for propulsion and auxiliary machinery could be standardized for the
equipment, and different ship structural arrangements designed to suit the standard
foundations. Some years ago, Norske Veritas attempted to standardize the arrangement
of machinery spaces. The idea was that all equipment associated with a given task or
system should be grouped together, and that they should be located in the same area for
similar ship types. The idea is still a good one as it allows machinery familiarization by
both shipbuilders and crew of similar machinery plants for similar ship types. By utilizing
such an approach, and assigning vertical and horizontal routing zones for different
systems, such as piping, ventilation, and electrical wireways, the task of other engineering
groups and production can be significantly reduced and simplified. Again, considerable
engineering and production manhours can be saved by standardizing system-routing zones.
Assembly and module breaks should be carefully developed between hull and
machinery design groups to ensure that no major equipment or their foundations extend
over the breaks, as this will prevent installation of the equipment into the modules before
erection and joining.
1.7.2 FLOOR PLATES. One area where many shipyards spend an inordinate
amount of manhours is the installation of machinery space floor plates. This is usually
because they are designed independently of other systems, which results in many
interferences, and the floor plates end up being custom fitted onboard the ship. The
application of the advanced outfitting "on-unit approach will eliminate much of this
problem, as can a proper design sequence when advanced outfitting is not used.
Notwithstanding the many bad experiences with floor plates, it is possible to design and
successfully use a standard floor plate system. Figure 1.101 shows such a system for floor
plates. The pedestal supports can be used to support pipes and electric cable. It is
beneficial to keep the area alongside the propulsion machinery clear of systems so as to
eliminate foundation bracket/system interferences. This also provides a maintenance work
area, and by incorporating hinged floor plates as shown in Figure 1.102, maintenance and
access to the machinery space bilge is improved. The practice of designing machinery
space railing stanchions out of pipe as well as rails should be stopped, and the simpler
huh-type rails used. This concept is also shown in Figure 1.101. Where permissible, by
regulatory and classification bodies, Fiberglas gratings should be considered in place of
metal floor plates and gratings.
1.7.3 EQUIPMENT GROUPING. Even before the concept of advanced outfitting,
it was good design practice to prepare an equipment-association list for any major piece of
equipment to be arranged and installed in a ship. This association list was used for a
number of purposes such as checking and equipment ordering, if the associated equipment
was not provided with the major equipment. However, for the purpose in mind, it was and
should be used to develop location in the system of all the items, and the connections
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between them. Only equipment which requires a foundation is listed. The addition of
valves, gauges, switches, etc. is accomplished when preparing the diagrammatic. This
equipment -association list was then developed into a connection network which became
the basis of the system diagrammatic. For advanced outfitting on-unit construction, it is
necessary to use the equipment-association list and network to select the grouping of the
equipment in the unit. A typical equipment-association list is shown in Table 1.8, and
Figure 1.103 is the resulting network.
TABLE 1.8
EQUIPMENT-ASSOCIATION LIST
System(s):
Major Equipment:
Association Equipment:
(a)
(b)
Units should be located with both the major equipment and the
system storage tanks in mind, so as to provide both the best
operational and least-cost arrangement.
(c)
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Machinery
206
Machinery
PART 1
SINGLE LAYER
STACKED LAYER
[A] COMBINED FLOOR PLATE/SYSTEMS SUPPORT
PART 1
FIGURE 1.108
209
Machinery
PART 1
Piping
PART 1
1.8 Piping
The design of piping systems in ships varies from simple in small ships to
complicated in large naval ships. It is a major cost influence in U.S. shipbuilding because:
l
l
l
Unfortunately, very few U.S. shipbuilders have done much to improve the efficiency
of their piping fabrication. Coupled to this is the fact that the design of piping systems has
not been performed with production in mind, and the result is inefficient design and low
productivity. That this is true can be proven by a visit to many recently constructed ships.
It will be immediately obvious that each pipe system has been designed with individual
hangers which may in turn be supported by primitive extensions to the ships structure.
Pipes will crisscross, be jogged around manholes, rise vertically through floor plates, and
obstruct access to equipment. They may even penetrate structure that should never be
penetrated. Yet it is clear that with some design planning, the design could have been
simplified, and the above mistakes avoided with signiiicant savings in material and
construction manhours. The use of advanced outitting has forced designers into locating
pipe runs in pipe passageways (or zones). However, this was done by some designers long
before advanced outfitting came into vogue. The efficient routing of all pipe in any part of
the ship is a basic step in its design. The combining of hangers and supports is another.
Yet as they are obviously not practiced by many piping designers, they are m-invented as
essential techniques of design for ship production.
. The frrst requirement for ship piping designers is a complete understanding of their
shipyards pipe fabrication facility and methods. This should be detailed in the shipyard
production specifications. The actual application, and any unique requirements for a
particular ship, should be detailed in the building plan The piping designer must be aware
of the assembly and module breaks so as to ensure that no equipment is located over
breaks, and also to arrange natural connections at the breaks. Again, whether or not the
advanced outfitting approach will be utilized, the steps outlined in Section 1.7 should be
followed, namely:
Prepare equipment-association lists
Prepare equipment-association networks
Prepare diagrammatic (use or modify a standard if possible)
Select distributive systems zones
Prepare routing diagrammatic
Prepare zone design composites
Prepare pipe assembly sketches and part list
Prepare pipe installation instructions
Like all other systems, standardization will assist in accomplishing design for
production . . . not only standard components but standard complete systems and standard
routing zones. Figure 1.110 shows possible routing zone standards. The benefit of using
these from ship to ship is that the shipyard designers and production workers will learn
from repetition where the different zones and systems are located. If, in addition to
standard systems routing zones, standard location for equipment is adopted, the resulting
benefits would be very noticeable. The concern of many that the continual use of
standards of this nature will restrict innovative development and progress in design must
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Piping
PART 1
be kept in mind. Where possible the system standards should be continually reviewed for
improvement and when technology warrants it, the standard should be completely
renewed.
Individual design for ship-production concepts for piping are worth development as
there is significant opportunity for productivity improvements. The combining of a number
of pipe runs into bundles or units has already been mentioned. The use of purchased pipe
hangers should be fully evaluated compared to individual design and fabrication. Special
hangers combined with unique support systems, such as those offered by UNISTRUT,
shown in Figure 1.111, are worth considering. Another concept is the use of flanges as
installation joints instead of welded joints. Flanges are used extensively in foreign
shipbuilding, but have been resisted in the U.S. The use of DRESSER pipe couplings and
VA-N-STONE flanges will reduce the installation manhours. One point of importance is
that flanged pipes can be located closer together than welded pipes due to the need for
space around welded pipes to get in to weld. For bulkhead penetrations a flange
connection at both sides of the bulkhead and installation of the spool piece during
structural assembly can save significant piping installation manhours. Multiple
penetration plates, and the use of bulkhead flanges instead of sleeves, is also a work
content reducer. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 1.112.
The design of seachests should be developed to reduce work content. One obvious
way is to reduce the number of parts. Figure 1.113 shows some ways this can be
accomplished.
The use of PVC and Fiberglas pipe can reduce the fabrication and installation
manhours, compared to traditional metal pipe. This results from the lighter weight and
simpler joining method. There are certain ship systems for which PVC and Fiberglas pipe
cannot be used, but where they can they should be fully considered.
Another detail that can incorporate work content reducing concepts is piping passing
through a tank top. Flanges should be provided just above the tank top for filling, suction,
and vent piping. This enabies the piping to be easily blanked off for tank air testing, as
shown in Figure 1.114. In some shipyards the navy inspectors have not allowed flanges in
fill and suction piping. In this case, a flange should be provided just above the bellmouth
in the tank. For the vent pipe the flange should be located just above the weather deck or
other convenient place. It is common practice to install open-ended sounding tubes with
striking plates welded to the tank bottom. Where the sounding tuba slopes at the end, it is
common to close the end by a welded plate and slots in the tube, or to weld an angle clip
over the end as shown in Figure 1.115. It is suggested that the slotted end with welded
plate should be used in all cases, as it requires no work in the tank once the tube is
installed. The second alternative is simpler, and if installed during the module assembly,
will require minimum work content.
The structural definition and assembly methods must be studied before pipe breaks
are selected. Pipe joints at bulkheads, flats, decks, etc., should be selected so that when
made they are at an easy working height from an existing position on which the worker
will stand. Many times such joints are located at an overhead position which needs
staging to allow the worker to reach them. This is illustrated in Figure 1.116.
213
PRODUCTION ORIENTED
TRADITIONAL
INSTALL FLANGE
CONNECTION JUST
OUTSIDE TANK OR
IF NOT ALLOWED BY
OWNER, JUST ABOVE
BELLMOUTH IN TANK
SO THAT TANK CAN
BE TESTED EARLY
Piping
218
PART 1
PART1
219
PART 1
Piping
220
PART 1
HVAC
1.9 HVAC
In traditional design and construction of ships, systems such as piping, HVAC, and
electrical are always fighting each other for space. To overcome this problem some
designers allocate space priorities to different systems such as HVAC first-large-diameter
pipe next-electrical wireways-and so on. Unfortunately, from experience, this approach
does not work well. This traditional conflict does not end with design and engineering, it
continues out on the ship during construction. Added to this shipboard conflict is the field
run pipe and "who gets there first problems. However, this conflict can be changed into
planned integration of systems by applying the approach described in Part 2: Engineering
for Ship Production.
An essential step to ensure a production-friendly design of HVAC systems is to plan
the distribution zones early in the design development at the same time as the
development of the zones for piping and electrical systems. Again, the use of standards for
HVAC components and diagrammatics is an effective design for production approach.
Obviously, the standards should be minimum-work-content designs. Some concepts for
ventilation duct are shown in Figure 1.117. The production-oriented designs are all easier
to construct and have less work content. The design of duct hangers can simplify
installation and reduce manhours, as shown in Figure 1.118. Also, where deep beams or
closely spaced steel accommodation bulkheads are fitted, the duct can be installed through
them during assembly, thus eliminating the hangers. By correctly planning the design of
the HVAC systems during basic design, the need for high-work-content penetrations, duct
jogging, and section changes can be eliminated. By considering louvers and plenum
chambers as integral parts of the structure, instead of HVAC fittings, considerable design
and installation manhours can be saved. The use of high-pressure ventilation systems will
reduce the size of ducting, and can result in significant installation manhours savings.
However, the cost of any special noise attenuation components will cancel out some of this
saving.
The provision of insulation inside the duct as is used in naval construction is worth
consideration as a work content reducer for commercial ships. However, it is not currently
approved by USCG Also, the use of individual room convector heater/cooler units should be
examined as a potential productivity improver without any operational disadvantages.
The locating of HVAC equipment, and the selection of duct joints, must be
compatible with the assembly and module breaks to facilitate advanced outfitting.
221
PART 1
HVAC
PART 1
PART 1
HVAC
224
PART 1
1.10 Electrical
As for the other traditional disciplines, the first design-for-ship-production-approach
requirement for electrical systems is that they be considered along with and at the same
time as the others. This integration of all systems is essential if an efficient and easily
constructed ship is to be designed. Routing zones for wireways should be assigned during
basic design and used for cable routing as the design is developed. The provision of
natural cable breaks by equipment or panels in way of assembly and module breaks
facilitates advanced outfitting.
In most shipyards, electrical design and engineer& is the minimum possible,
leaving many decisions to the electrical craftsmen on the ship. For example, many
electrical drawings are not drawn to any scale, and give general location pf the
equipment. This is a disaster when electrical equipment is installed early without regard
to the installation of other systems, which in many cases leads to the electrical equipment
being installed in a position assigned to another system, causing significant rework when
the problem is discovered. Such an approach should never have been tolerated in the past,
and today is absolutely not acceptable. All systems should be given equal and adequate
treatment for the needs of todays production approaches. In the case of advanced
outfitting, it is mandatory that electrical design be developed in detail, and integrated with
all other systems.
Marine electrical design and engineering is the ship discipline that has had the least
effort to improve it. The design-for~production potential is therefore large, and it should be
targeted for significant development. The impact of advanced outfitting and zone
construction is substantial on traditional marine electrical design, but can be used to guide
and direct the required electrical design-for~ship-production development. Aspects such as
combined control panels for units, complete electrical installation on units, on-block and
zone electrical installation, erection of complete deckhouses, etc., must be considered and
allowed for in the design approach.
The type of wireway used has an obvious work content influence. Figure 1.119
shows two typical types. Type (A) requires cable to be threaded and pulled through each
enclosed section formed by the supports on each side of the cross piece. Type (B) obviously
eliminates this problem. However, the use of this type is disliked by some due to cable
falling out when pulling. This can be prevented by providing lips, or by retaining clips, as
shown in Figure 1.120. Both types are generally spaced close together (24 to 36 inches).
The "rack-type wireway shown in Figure 1.121 has considerable installation
manhour-saving potential due to the smaller amount of connections to the ships structure.
The use of closely spaced clips for small cable runs as shown in Figure 1.122(a) is worth
changing. A possible alternative is the use of lightweight channel with widely spaced
connection to the structure as shown in Figure 1.122(b). Connections to structure should
be to the web of the beam, frame, or stiffener, and not to the face of the members or to the
plating, as shown in Figure 1.123. Obviously, on an unstiffened side of a bulkhead this
cannot be done. In such cases, supports should still be in line with stiffening.
It is surprising how many shipyard standard electrical equipment foundations
consist of as many parts as there are bolt connections. Design for production requires that
they be in one piece, suitable for mounting the equipment before the foundation is installed
on the assembly, module, or ship. This concept is shown in Figure 1.124. Also, the
practice of providing custom foundations for equipment, and locating them out of alignment
with stiffeners, thus requiring backup sfxucture, should be eliminated. This concept is
shown in Figure 1.125.
225
PART 1
PART 1
TRADITIONAL
PRODUCTION ORIENTED
230
PART 1
Integration of Systems
231
PART 1
Integration of Systems
232
PART 1
Advanced Outfitting
On Unit
On Block
OnBoard
233
PART 1
Advanced 0utfitting
234
Advanced Outfitting
236
PART 1
PART 1
237
Advanced Outfitting
Advanced Outfitting
238
PART 1
PART 1
239
Advanced Ouffitting
PART 1
Advanced Outfitfing
240
PART 1
Advanced Outfitting
The direct benefits of advanced outfitting are increased productivity and shorter
building schedules. Increased productivity is possible as the workers efficiency for
on-unit versus on-block and on-board advanced outfitting is one half and one
quarter, respectively. This can be seen from Figure 1.135 which is taken from NSRP
publication, Product Work Breakdown Structue. This results from the following benefits:
l
Figure 1.136 gives an overview of the goals and benefits of advanced outfitting as
modified from a similar figure in the National Shipbuilding Research Program publication,
Outfit Planning.
242
PART 1
Advanced Outfitting
243
PART 1
Advanced Outfitiing
244
ASSEMBLY
SUBASSEMBLY
ADVANCED
OUTFITTING
OUTFIT
UNIT
ON UNIT
ON BOARD
ZONE
MODULAR/
MODULARITY
245
PART 1
Advanced Outfitting
PART 1
Advanced Outfitting
1.12.4 UNIT DESIGN. The design of an actual unit will be dependent on the
equipment to be incorporated, the space available for the unit, location of unit relative to
supporting structure as well as production facilities, methods, and detail preferences. The
unit should be designed to be self-supporting during construction, transportation, and
installation into the module or ship. If the weight of such capability is unacceptable, a
temporary means of supporting the unit must be provided. Some shipyards have
developed and constructed special lifting frames to enable up to eight-point lifts for units,
thus eliminating the need for additional support structure. The following general points
should be considered when designing units:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
247
PART 1
Advanced Outfitting
Incorporate in the unit design permanent access ladders/rungs that
will be required on the ship for operation, and during unit construction
and installation. This eliminates need for temporary ladders.
The design of unit foundations should follow the guidelines given in
Section 1.5.4, and in addition the detail for on-block/on-board
installation weld to supporting structure should take into account
elimination of rework due to damage to paint, coatings, insulation,
etc., on the other side of the structure.
248
PART 1
Advanced Outfitting
Advanced Outfitting
PART 1
250
PART 2
ENGINEERING FOR SHIP PRODUCTION
2.1 General
Engineering for ship production is the use of production-oriented techniques to
transmit and communicate the design and engineering data to the various users in a
shipyard. There has been an increasing interest in this matter in the last few years, as
witnessed by discussions on the format and content of engineering drawings. It is
suggested that it is not the format and contents of engineering drawings that should be
discussed, but rather what technical information is required to procure and construct the
ship, and what is the best way to prepare and transmit this information. The format of
engineering information including the content of drawings has developed over many years
and changes and improvements have occurred very slowly, and in some shipyards and
design offices, not at all.
The earliest shipbuilders used no drawing, relying on their eyes and the skills
handed down from the master shipwright to the next generation through the
apprenticeship system. The next phase used sheer draughts and rigging plans, which
along with detailed admiralty models enabled the owners to understand the designers
intent before the ship was built. Although later wooden shipbuilders eventually prepared a
number of construction drawings, it was the development of iron ships that necessitated
detailed construction drawings.
Traditionally, shipyards were craft organized and required only the minimum of
drawings for which accuracy was not essential. The loft prepared the templates and made
everyday decisions on structural details. The pipefitters worked from diagrammatics and
developed their own pipe templates from the ship being built. This was also true for the
other shipyard crafts.
The early industrial engineers quickly proved they could increase productivity by
analyzing the work, breaking it down into small segments, creating specialization in work
via type and skills, and planning the method to accomplish the work in detail. This
approach proved popular to employers and some short-sighted workers as it eliminated the
need for long general craft and skill training. As a result it became necessary to examine
each task involved in constructing a total product, and subdivide it into small logical work
packages, each containing detailed instructions on how to accomplish the task. This
additional responsibility should have been shared between management and engineering.
In many shipyards, production departments have responded quite well to this challenge,
but often in the same shipyards, the engineering departments have not, even though they
could have significantly assisted the shipyard in successfully meeting the challenge by
altering their practices to suit the shipbuilding methods used by the shipyards.
The changeover from a traditional craft-organized shipyard to one of advanced
technology has obviously had a tremendous effect on all shipyard departments. It should
have had its second greatest impact on the engineering department. However, many
engineering departments did not rise to this challenge and therefore lost what might have
been their lead position for directing and controlling change. They simply ignored the
needed changes and left them to be incorporated in the shipbuilding process after they
251
PART 2
General
completed their work in the traditional manner. Such shipyards responded to this problem
by getting the information in its necessary form for production from other sources, usually
new groups which may have been called Industrial or Production Engineering, or
maybe from an existing planning group. Some shipyards have even accepted the fact that
engineering information was inadequate for production, and left it to the production
workers to make out as best they could, which has often resulted in the same work being
done over many times before it is reluctantly accepted by the inspectors. It is not
surprising that the attitude found in many shipyards throughout the world is that
engineering is a necessary evil, and that ships are built in spite of engineering.
Production performance is largely dependent on the quality, quantity, and suitability
of technical information supplied by engineering. By organizing for integrated engineering
and preparing design and engineering for zone construction, engineering can step forward
and take its proper place, and play an essential part in the renaissance of U.S.
shipbuilding. This part discusses how this can be done, but first considers what is
production-compatible engineering (integrated engineering) by comparing it with
traditional engineering.
252
PART 2
Traditional Engineering
However, U.S. shipyards have been improving their production processes for years,
and their information needs have changed during this tune. Some of them utilize
structural module construction, pre-outfitting, advanced outfitting, and more recently, zone
construction. To do these from traditional engineering is not impossible, but it requires
additional planning and even design and engineering to be prepared after the traditional
engineering is complete. This obviously does not lead to shorter performance time.
The preparation of structural drawings in many shipyards has really not developed
much from the days of the iron ship. Only within the last two decades have a few U.S.
shipyards prepared their structural drawings as block or module drawings showing
each erection module of the ship on individual drawings, even though they had actually
been constructing ships that way for twenty years Yet most U.S. shipyards and the
design agents that support them still prepare structural drawings as item drawings, such
as:
Tank Top
Shell Plating or Expansion
Decks
Bulkheads
Frames
etc.
The preparation of hull outfit, machinery, piping, HVAC, and electrical drawings
have developed over time with the progress in the respective technologies. However, they
are also currently prepared on a system basis and to differing levels of detail.
In many shipyard engineering departments, the installation of hull outfit systems
and equipment is conveniently considered a craft akin to cabinetmaking, and with this in
mind they give very little data to the production department in the belief it is better left to
the master craftsmen. Other shipyards get around the need of having their engineering
department involved by subcontracting joiner work to companies specializing in this field.
In reality, there is no logical reason to give joiner work any less engineering effort than is
given to hull structure or piping, especially as outfit can be just as large a consumer of
both engineering and production manhours as structure or piping.
The machinery drawings are used by the shipbuilder as a definition of equipment
arrangement so that the other engineering disciplines can prepare their detail design, such
as foundations, piping, floor plates, grating, etc.
253
PART 2
Traditional Engineering
Piping drawings are for individual systems for the complete ship. They may or may
not show pipe breaks, hangers, and some production-added information.
The same is true of HVAC and electrical, except that electrical drawings are
sometimes little more than pictorial concepts with no locating dimensions for equipment.
Interference control in traditional engineering is provided usually by space
composites, although engineering models are also extensively used for this purpose. A
major problem is that the electrical crafts go ahead and complete their hot work before
many of the other detailed systems and the composites are completed, in the easiest
location, without checking it out or even feeding it back to engineering for their position in
the composites. Apparent production work progress is being made early in the project, and
everyone is happy until the interference problems start and extensive rework is required.
Traditional engineering usually includes the bills of material on the drawings or as a
sheet of multisheet drawing. It also makes use of large drawings, often up to 12 feet in
length. Figure 2.1 graphically portrays the problem this creates out on the ship compared
to the proposed engineering for ship production.
254
Traditional Engineering
PART 2
As each drawing is for the total ship, but is required each time part of it is being
used in each module or zone, it must be printed and issued many times instead of once,
resulting in wasted and duplicated effort. Also when being reissued because of a revision,
planning and production must spend time to determine how many modules or zones are
impacted by the revision.
as:
255
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
Production-Compatible Engineering
PART 2
TABLE 2.1
PRODUCTION-COMPATIBLE ENGINEERING
General Arrangement
Outboard Profile
Lines
N.A. Drawings
Structural Module Drawings
Major Foundations
Weights, Centers, and Lifting Data
Lists of Hull Outfit
Lists of Hull Fittings
Nameplates and Notices
Summary Painting Schedule
Summary Deck Covering
Summary Hull Insulation Schedule
Furniture List
Plumbing and Fixture List
Galley Arrangement
Accommodation Arrangement
Steering Gear Arrangement
Rudder and Rudder Stock Arrangement
Rudder and Propeller Lifting Gear Arrangement
Anchor Handling Arrangement
Mooring Arrangement
Life-saving Equipment Arrangement
Hull Piping System Diagrams
Purchase Technical Specifications
Advanced Material Ordering Lists
Steel List per Module
MACHINERY AND PIPING
Machinery Arrangement
Shafting Arrangement
Stern Tube Arrangement
M/C Space and Wheelhouse Control Console Arrangement
Machinery Piping System Diagrams
Diesel Exhaust Arrangement
Lifting Gear in M/C Space
M/C and Pipe Insulation Schedule
Advanced Material Ordering Lists
259
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
TABLE 2.1 (Continued)
ELECTRICAL
Electrical Load Analysis
One-Line Diagram
Short Circuit Analysis
List of Motors and Controllers
List of Feeders and Mains
Electrical E&I Diagrams
List of Portable Electrical Equipment
Advanced Material Ordering Lists
HVAC
Heating and Cooling Analysis
HVAC Diagram and Equipment List
HWAC Insulation Schedule
Advanced Material Ordering Lists
260
Production-Compatible Engineering
PART 2
TABLE 2.2
WORK STATION/ZONE INFORMATION
Sequenced isometric
subassemblies.
Sequenced isometric
assemblies.
Sequenced isometric
Sequenced isometric
erection.
D.
E.
F.
G.
261
Production-Compatible Engineering
262
PART 2
PART 2
263
Prvduction-Compatible Engineering
Production-Compatible Engineering
PART 2
The timing of the performance of the various design and engineering tasks is very
important for the proposed approach. This is because all the design and engineering tasks
must be performed in a shorter period of time, as shown in Figure 2.6, and all disciplines
at the same time rather than staggered, as in traditional engineering, which was
previously shown in Figures I.1 and 1.2, and shown here in Figures 2.7 and 2.8 for
convenience.
Figure 2.7 shows how the traditional approach to design, engineering, and
construction has the cascading effect for each discipline. For example, the hull outfit is not
started until many of the structural system type drawings are completed, and machinery,
piping, HVAC, and electrical all have sequential staggered starts. This sequenced
staggering of system starts is continued into production, where perhaps 50% of the
structure is erected before any hull outfit, machinery, piping, HVAC, and electrical
systems are installed.
In deliberate contrast, Figure 2.8 shows how the integration of engineering with
planning and the use of zone construction can reduce both engineering and production
performance time. It is accomplished by engineering preparing structural drawings for
each module and ouffit drawings for each zone. In this way it is not necessary to wait
until up to thirteen structural system drawings are completed before the module work
package can be completed. Also the piping information is developed for each module or
zone instead of waiting until it is completed for the whole ship. This means that the time
to start fabrication can be halved.
Zone construction including advanced outfitting installation requires engineering for
the outfitting and machinery to be available at the same time as that for the structure. In
fact, the installation of piping, ventilation ducting, ladders, mooring fittings, equipment
foundations, and wireway supports should be accomplished on flat panels and/or
three-dimensional modules along with items of equipment, such as auxiliary machinery
and deck machinery.
Essential parts, and really foundations, to the proposed engineering approach are
the previously discussed shipyard production specification and building plan. Reference [2]
is a good description on the development of a building plan. Tables 2.3 and 2.4 give typical
contents of each part, respectively. The approach also is based on the use of zone
construction. It is further beneficial if all manufactured and purchased material to
construct the ship is categorized within a standard classification system (product
definition), and if the production methods to be used (product processes) are defined, work
stations can be decided. All this information will be contained in the shipyard production
specifications to be used by the engineers and planners when preparing the contract design
and the building plan. The product definition can be based on a group technology
classification and coding system such as the one described in Section 1.4.2, or it can be a
simple listing of major products such as shown in Table 2.5. The product processes will be
based on a process analysis for each product and the available work stations.
264
PART 2
100%
EFFORT
TYPlCAL TRADITIONAL
PERFORMANCE SCHEDULE
100x
EFFORT
ENGINEERING
MATERIAL
DEFINITION
PROCUREMENT
PRODUCTION
266
Production-Compatible Engineering
266
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
Production-Compatible Engineering
PART 2
TABLE 2.3
SHIPYARD SPECIFICATION
SHIPYARD SPECIFICATION
I. 0 FACILITY DESCRIPTlON
GENERAL
I.2 LOCATION
I.3 FACILITY ARRANGEMENT DRAWING
I.I
2. 0
FAClLITY CAPACITY
268
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
TABLE 2.3 (Continued)
2.8 MACHINING
WORK STATIONS/CRANAGE/
2.8.1 SHOPS
2.8.2 PORTABLE
2.9 PIPE PROCESSING WORK STATIONS/
CRANAGE/SERVICES
2.9.1 PIPE SURFACE PREPARATION
2.9.2 FITTING STORAGE
2.9.8 PIPE PAINTING/COATING
2.9.4 PIPE CUTTING
2.9.5 PIPE WELDING
2.9.6 PIPE SURFACE PREPARATION
2.9.7 PIPE ASSEMBLIES
2.9.8 PIPE PAINTING/COATING
2.9.9 PIPE INSULATING
2.9.10 PIPE KITTING
2.10 SHEET METAL WORK
SERVICES
2.10.1 SHEET METAL
2.10.2 SHEET METAL
2.10.3 SHEET METAL
2.10.4 SHEET METAL
2.10.5 SHEET METAL
2.10.6 SHEET METAL
2.10.7 SHEET METAL
STATIONS/CRANAGE/
STORAGE
CUTTING
FORMING
JOINING
PAINTING
INSULATION
KITTING
269
Production-Compatible Engineering
PART 2
2.12 CONTINUED
2.12 2 ASSEMBLY PAINTING
2.12.3 MODULE PAINTING
2.12.4 UNIT PAINTING
2.12.5 ZONE PAINTING
2.13 ADVANCED OUTFITTING WORK STATIONS/
CRANAGE/SERVICES
2.13.1 UNIT FOUNDATION/SUPPORTS
2.13.2 UNIT PIPE INSTALLATION
2.13.3 UNIT EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION
2.13.4 UNIT ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
2.13.5 ON BLOCK INSTALLATION
2.13.6 ON BOARD INSTALLATION
2.14 FITTING OUT
2.14.l FITTING OUT BERTHS
2. 14 2 CRANAGE
2.14.3 DRY DOCKS
2.15 TEST AND TRIALS
2.15.1 INSTRUMENTATION
2.15.2 TANK TESTING-HYDRO & AIR
2.15.3 DOCK TRIAL EQUIPMENT
2.15.4 INCLINING EXPERIMENT
2.15 5 TRIAL COURSE
2.16 SUPPORT SERVICES
2.16.1 ACCESS EQUIPMENT
2.16.2 STAGING
2.16.3 MAN-LIFTS
2.16.4 TEMPORARY LIGHTS
2.16.5 TEMPORARY VENTILATION
2.16.6 PORTABLE SANITATION UNITS
2.16.7 FUELING
2.16.8 PROVISIONING
270
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
TABLE 2.3 (Continued)
GENERAL
ENGINEERING AND PLANNING
PURCHASING
MATERIAL HANDLING
ADMINISTRATION
SCHEDULING AND CONTROL
DATA FLOW
271
Production-Compatible Engineering
PART 2
4. 0 CONTINUED
18
I9
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
4.25
4.26
4.27
4.28
4 . 2 9
4.30
4.31
4.32
4.33
4.34
4.35
4.36
4.
4.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
0
I
2
3
4
PIPE PROCESSING
HVAC PROCESSING
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
ADVANCED OUTFITTING UNITS
ADVANCED OUTFITTING ON BLOCK
ADVANCED OUTFITTING ON BOARD
HULL INSULATION INSTALLATION
JOINER WORK DIVISION INSTALLATION
DECK COVERING INSTALLATION
FURNITURE INSTALLATION
JOINER WORK FITTING INSTALLATION
PLUMBING FIXTURE INSTALLATION
CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT SERVICES
LAUNCHING
INCLINING EXPERIMENT
DOCK TRIALS
SEA TRIALS
DELIVERY
GUARANTEE PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS
OWNER STANDARDS
INDUSTRY STANDARDS
SHIPYARD SYSTEM STANDARDS
SHIPYARD PART STANDARDS
5.4.1
EQUIPMENT
5 . 4 . 2 ENGINEERING
5 . 4 . 3 LOFTING
5 . 4 . 4 STRUCTURAL
5 . 4 . 5 WELDING
5 . 4 . 6 PIPE
5 . 4 . 7 FITTINGS
5 . 4 . 8 OUTFIT
5 . 4 . 9 HVAC
5.4 I0 SURFACE PREPARATION
5.49 11
PAINTING
222
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
TABLE 2.3 (Continued)
273
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
TABLE 2.4
BUILDING PLAN
BUILDING PLAN
1.0 SHIP DESCRIPTlON
GENERAL
I.I
1.2 PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS
1.3 SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS
1.4 WEIGHT BREAKDOWN
2.0 REGULATIONS&
CLASSIFICATION
REGULATIONS
2. I
2.2 CLASSIFICATION
2.3 QUALITY
TYPE OF CONTRACT
DATE OF SIGNING
CONTRACTUAL DATES
PROGRESS PAYMENTS
PENALTIES/REWARDS
A. I
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
274
PART 2
Production-compatible Engineering
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
7.0
BUILD STRATEGY
275
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
DECKHOUSE OUTFITTING
MACHINERY SPACE OUTFITTING
WORK STATIONS UTILIZED
PROCESSING LANES UTILIZED
MATERIAL STOWAGE AND FLOW
276
TABLE 2.6
PRODUCT DEFINITION
Production-Compatible Engineering
278
PART 2
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
The proposed methods of preparing engineering data can actually reduce the hours
for structural engineering, but will increase all the other areas by up to 30% except for
piping engineering, which can increase up to 50% depending on the extent of the
traditional engineering it replaces. The use of computer-aided design can reduce the
structural and piping engineering. However, the overall increase in engineering manhours
to accomplish the proposed work should be less than 20%. In return-for this additional
effort by engineering, the production manhours should be reduced by 20% to 30%. It is
easy to see that this is a worthwhile tradeoff. However, as an example, assuming a
project that requires 250,000 manhours for traditional engineering, and a corresponding
l,000,000 production manhours for one ship, the proposed methods for engineering would
require 50,000 additional manhours, but could result in up to 200,000 production
manhours reduction per ship. Of course, if the shipyard using the traditional engineering
approach had no effective planning, scheduling, and control system in operation, then it
would be necessary to add the manhours necessary for this function, but they should not
be more than 40,000, still resulting in a significant overall benefit to the shipyard.
Another way of looking at it is, that on a one-ship basis, such an approach, including the
new planning group, would be worthwhile with a 9% reduction in production manhours; a
two-ship program requires only 4.5% reduction, and so on.
Table 2.6 shows typical percentage breakdowns for three ship types and both
production and engineering. It can be seen that steel, outfit, and piping combined take
80% of production hours as well as about 80% of engineering for the commercial ships and
about 70% for the naval ships.
Many shipyards recognized this fact and examined the needs for these areas to see
if their efficiency could be improved. As steel is the largest production percentage for most
commercial vessels and large naval vessels, it is the area which has received the most
attention. Piping and outfit lagged behind for some years, but have found compatibility
with advanced shipbuilding in zone construction and advanced outfitting.
The suggestions on how the engineering can best be provided to the production
department will be presented for each of the individual groups within the engineering
department even though it is obvious that as much standardization as possible of data
preparation is the ultimate goal. With this in mind, it is surprising how many different
drawing scales are used by the different groups in the engineering department. There is
really no need for more than two scales for each project. This is more significant when
computer-aided drawings are utilized as the basis for, or start of, all other drawings. It
also assists interference control if all drawings are to the same scale.
REFERENCES
1. Integrated hull construction, outfit, and painting (IHOP). U.S. Department of
Commerce, Maritime Administration, 1983.
2. J.D.F. Craggs, Build strategy development. IREAPS 1983.
279
PART 2
Production-Compatible Engineering
TABLE 2.6
TYPICAL MANHOUR PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN
PRODUCTION
Steel
outfit
Machinery Installation
PiPing
Electrical
ENGINEERING
Steel
outfit
Machinery Installation
Piping
Electrical
TRADITIONAL ENGINEERING
AS A PERCENTAGE OF
PRODUCTION ONE-SW BASIS
280
Offshore
Supply
Vessel
225 Kt
DWT
Tanker
Large
Naval
ship
36
24
6
22
12
56
16
6
14
8
37
13
12
21
17
100%
100%
100%
23
27
8
28
14
35
10
15
32
8
20
20
15
30
15
100%
100%
100%
5%-25%
2%-10%
12%-30%
PART 2
Dimensioning
2.4 Dimensioning
There appear to be as many ways used to dimension drawings as there are
dimensions on a drawing. Dimensions are provided in manual engineering so that
continuing engineering development can use stated dimensions rather than scale-off prints
of drawings, thus eliminating both human error and print accuracy problems. In
computer-aided design (CAD) this is not necessary, and many superfluous and sometimes
confusing dimensions are given on drawings. When computer-aided lofting (CAL) was
introduced to shipbuilding, it changed the needs of structural drawings. It was no longer
necessary to give many dimensions on the drawing, as these were developed and contained
in the computer data base. Also as plates were marked and cut by N/C-controlled burning
machines, the only dimensions that were still required to construct the structure of the
ship were those for checking, dimensional control, and module erection.
The practice of presenting dimensions to an item on the opposite side of the molded
line from the molded line is obviously useless to the production worker and forces the need
to take time to find out the plating thickness or simply ignore it, possibly causing fit-up
problems later on. The use of sequential dimensioning is not recommended for a number
of reasons. One obvious one is that it perpetuates an initial error, whereas dimensioning
to a common reference system is an automatic check on previous dimensions. It is a
well-known fact that the structure of a ship is not a suitable reference from which to locate
major machinery and equipment. This is because the structure may be inaccurately
located relative to other structures and will almost always be inaccurate to a total ship
reference system. The U.S. Navy specifications allow for ship structure to be out of
tolerance one inch for each hundred feet in length. However, machined equipment like
shafting is manufactured to a tighter tolerance, and merging it with the ship structure can
be a problem.
Therefore, for engineering
following approach:
for
281
PART 2
Dimensioning
282
283
PART 2
Dimensioning
PART2
PART 2
Dimensioning
PART 2
Dimensioning
Dimensioning
PART 2
PART 2
Dimensioning
PART 2
Dimensioning
PART 2
Dimensioning
PART 2
Reference Lines
2.5 Reference
Lines
The need for and benefit of reference lines was discussed in detail in Section 1.3.5.
It is proposed that any engineering-for-ship-production approach must utilize a reference
system similar to the multi-level one described in Section 1.3.5. The reference system
would be described in the building plan and utilized by engineering for both basic design
and product engineering. It would be utilized by production to locate products and quality
assurance (QA) to check configuration of the installation. It is therefore an important part
of the total ship process and as such must be correctly used by engineering at the start, or
it will only be partially successful throughout the remainder of the shipbuilding process.
Appropriate reference planes must then be shown on every functional design drawing, in
all transitional-design zone arrangement composites and work station/zone information
packages. They should be marked on the structural parts as they are being burned and
re-established after each process which obscures them, such as painting. It is only by
actually performing the design and construction of a ship, with a total ship reference
system, that the full benefits can be appreciated.
292
PART 2
Accuracy Control
REFERENCES
1. Process analysis uia accuracy control. U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime
Administration, 1982.
2. RL. Starch, Accuracy control of U.S. shipyards. IREAPS 1983.
3. Improving accuracy control while employing zone ouffitting in U.S. shipyards. U.S.
Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration 1982.
4. Accuracy control: A guide to ifs application in U.S. shipyards. U.S. Department of
Transportation, Maritime Administration 1983.
293
PART2
Accuracy Control
TABLE 2.7
SELECTION OF VITAL POINTS
EXAMPLE
1.
2.
3.
4.
DIMENSTIONS
RELATED TO
OPERATING
REQUIREMENTS
OUTFIT
COMPONENT
INTERSECTIONS
AT BUTT JOINTS
PROCESS
RELATED
MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENTS
TO FACILITATE
FABRICATION
tonnage/tankage measurements
1.
2.
locatlon/alignment of special
components--ro--ro ramps, gun
3.
MAJOR
STRUCTURAL
INTERSECTIONS
AT
BUTT JOINTS
1.
2.
chine offsets
3.
4.
1.
2.
establish capacity/tonnage
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
1.
fitup gaps
2.
welding shrinkage
3.
welding distortion
4.
bending accuracy
3.
5.
line heating
4.
6.
7.
curvature of components
fabricated on pin jig
1.
platen level
1.
assist fabrication
2.
jig alignment/accuracy
2.
affect productivity
3.
3.
4.
295
PART 2
Accuracy Control
TABLE 2.8
STRUCTURAL PROCESSES TO WHICH ACCURACY CONTROL
IS APPLICABLE
PART
Marking
Marking method by template
Ink marking
Automatic
Welding
Running direction
Condition of welding
Leveling
Method of securing angle
296
PART 2
TABLE 2.8 (Continued)
ASSEMBLY (continued)
Marking
Ink-marking method
Positioning
Cribbing arrangement and leveling
Method of leveling
Method of deciding inclination
Slope of building berth
Bending and twisting of block
Rectangularity of hull body
Welding
Condition of welding
Sequence of welding
Joining gap and shape of edge preparation
297
Accuracy Control
PART2
TABLE 2.9
PLANNING VITAL POINTS FOR A BULK CARRIER
PLANNING VITAL POINTS FOR A BULK CARRIER
Vital points are necessary for achieving accuracy specified for an and product. Thus, identifying vital points Starts
with the complete hull and proceeds. as any other planning activity, to address reverse production flow i.e.. erection.
block assembly. sub-block assembly and part fabrication. Also. because they impose different problems. each major
division of a ship body has its own vital-point explosion
Vital points can be classified and sub- classfied as:
a. Hold Zone
b. Curved Zone
c. stern zone
2. At Block Assembly
a. Straight Block
b. Curved Block
c. Flat panel Base
d.Curved panel base
3. At Part Fabrication
B. Detail Descriptions
a. Hold Zone
Usually accuracy of the hold zone impacts most on the overall form of the hull because it contains the
blocks For vital-point matters. the hold zone can be subdivided into:
most
The vital points for setting each block on the ways is derived from the foregoing and noted for shipwright
298
Accuracy Control
TABLE 2.9 (Continued)
b. Curved Zone
In order to set a curved block, fixing suitable points is nesssary. For example:
Note
2: TO Iocate
299
A1 on
the shell:
Accuracy Control
PART 2
TABLE 2.9 (Continued)
c. stem zone
Accuracy of the stern zone influences a ships performance significantly. Accuracy of the shaft line involves:
l
PART 2
Accuracy Control
TABLE 2.9 (Continued)
b. Curved Block
Flat-panel base. curved blocks are asseambled on a platen in accordance with a sequence which is partly
dependent upon internal structure
301
PART 2
Accuracy Control
TABLE 2.9 (Continued)
VITAL POINTS FOR ACCURACY
AT ERECTlON STAGE
In order to check and maintain accuracy of the tank top zone during the erection stage. three methods are necessary:
l
l
Relativity Check of center double bottom. center side double bottom, and budge blocks in every hold and over the full
tank-top length.
Level Check of each block both on the tank top and bottom.
Description
I. Center Line Check
When: Every block before fitting and and after welding an enter hold length.
who: worker and A/cengineer before fitting and A/c engineer welding .
Where: At the front edge of each block.
How: By transit (allowance max. l/8 at each target).
Noticesif the relativity is larger allowed and thatamouts is less than 1/4",defer correction until welding is complate for a hold length.
3. Level check
The data should be reconded and arranged in a simply style(picture,graph,chart,etc)Further each records should
contain the date. time and temperature when the check was made. Recommended methods for recording these checks
follow.
302
PART 2
Accuracy Control
TABLE.33 2.9 (Continued)
THE VITAL POINTS FOR ACCURACY AT ERECTION
STAGE FOR TOP SIDE TANK ZONE
where At the line (see the figure at the end of this Attanchment).
303
PART 2
Accuracy Control
TABLE 2.9 (Continued)
Notice: Points a & b at forward end.
Points c $ d at aft end.
Points e & f at forward part of f preceding block.
How:
By transit.
304
PART 2
TABLE 2.9 Continued)
It is generally difficult to check deforamtion of the curved unit shope. However. from the point of accuracy controlit is necessary to check defornmation of the curved shape during assembly work.
Calualte the upper wateline saection's depth and the lower waterline section's depth at the middule frame. And also
calculate the aft frame section depth and for'd frame section's depth at middle waterline .
Using the result of the above calculation, draw the checkking data diagram as show in Fig.2.
305
PART 2
Accuracy Contrd
TABLE 2.9 (Continued)
2. A.C.
checking
Procedure
FIG. 3
306
PART 2
Accuracy Control
TABLE 2.9 (Continued)
307
PART 2
Basic Design
2.7.2 CONTRACT DESIGN. The 1930 Maritime Bill required that shipowners
requesting government financial assistance in constructing new vessels had to submit
preliminary data for the intended vessels and trade route. If MarAd approved the
preliminary request, the shipowner then had to submit a contract-design package
consisting of drawings and specifications to MarAd for review and approval. MarAd then
sent out the package to interested shipbuilders who in turn submitted their bids to MarAd.
Table 2.10 is the list of documents suggested by MarAd for a contract-design package.
Understandably, shipbuilders were unwilling to spend time preparing contract
designs as they could not guarantee that they would be the lowest bidder when the design
was sent out for bid. Thus, contract designs were mostly prepared by marine consultants.
Although this system has produced many fine and successful ship types, it has a number
of significant disadvantages. This can be understood by reviewing the list of documents in
Table 2.10. Many of the drawings define basic construction and installation details which
the shipbuilder must follow. When this is done, it is difficult to take full advantage of any
particular shipyards production facilities and methods as it is not known at the time which
308
Basic Design
PART 2
TABLE 2.10
309
PART 2
Basic Design
TABLE 2.10 (Continued)
CONTRACT PLANS
Lines Plan
General arrangements, plans, and profiles
Machinery arrangement plans, sections, and elevations
Heat balance
Midship section approved by regulatory bodies
* Arrangements of accommodations
* Arrangements of service spaces
* Cargo handling (dry and liquid)
* Piping system diagrams (bilge and ballast and fuel oil)
* Electric load analysis
* Electronics antenna system
* Power and lighting one-line diagram-ships service
* Scantling plans, sections, and elevations
* Shafting arrangement
* Capacity plan
* Curves of form
*These plans show arrangements, data, and equipment which are subject to
alterations, developments, and refinements by the contractor pursuant to requirements of
applicable sections of the specifications.
DESIGN STUDIES AND CALCULATIONS
a. Estimate of lightship weight and center of gravity summarized by weight groups
in accordance with Maritime Administration Weight Classification system and
recorded on forms MA-36A to 36F inclusive. Also, furnish one copy of back-up
sheets supporting this weight estimate.
b. Floodable length curves including bonjean curves and inboard profile of the
vessel.
C.
Intact trim and stability estimates for each operation condition, i.e., full cargo,
half cargo, and no cargo, each cargo condition with full, half, and 10%
consumables.
310
PART 2
shipyard will be the successful bidder. If the shipyard has developed standard details to
suit its facilities, then it must either request, prior to bid, to use its own standards or else
put in extra cost to deal with a non-standard vessel. Of course, it could bid based on its
standard, and then hope that the shipowner will accept its standards if they are the
successful lowest bidder. As an attempt to relieve this problem, consultants list certain
plans as contract guidance plans in the contract specifications. It is suggested that if a
drawing is for guidance only, then it is not really required, and it would be more
economical to eliminate it. In most cases a special requirement can be adequately covered
by description in the Contract Specifications and if anything more is required, by a simple
sketch as a page in the contract specifications.
It is interesting that the U.S. shipyards with the best order book records (and
therefore the most competitive) in recent years are those with their own design groups.
This fact plus the knowledge that a design prepared without knowing who would build it
would not be the most economical for a given shipyard, were some of the reasons why the
1970 Maritime Bill introduced the negotiated contract. This allowed shipowners and
shipbuilders to get together directly to design and construct the most economical vessel the
shipyard could build to meet the shipowners requirements.
This approach had some early successes but mainly for bulk carriers and oil
tankers; and a number of shipyards that did not have in-house design capabilities started
to build up this capability. Unfortunately, the Arab oil embargo eliminated the U.S.
tanker boom, and the general work recession has reduced the growth of world trade.
Therefore, the demand for new vessel construction in the U.S. has fallen far short of the
expectations of the early 1970s. The economic fact of no work, no need for in-house
designers stopped the shipyard design group growth, and most new designs are again
being prepared by consultants.
It is suggested that a better way to achieve a minimum-cost U.S. shipbuilding
industry is to reduce the number and detail of the contract design plans prepared by a
consultant. A contract liens plan should be provided if the model tank tests have been run
as part of the contract design If the model tank tests are to be run by the shipbuilder, or
if the shipbuilder is contractually responsible for the trial speed, only a preliminary plan
should be prepared showing body plan and bow and stern profiles [10]. Table 2.11 lists
the documents which it is considered are adequate for the purpose of a contract-design
package to enable a modem shipyard to bid. It should also satisfy MarAd if construction
differential subsidy (CDS) is ever available again, especially as they have changed their
role in the design approval area.
Many contract designs are submitted to the classification societies and regulatory
bodies for approval before they are released to the shipyards for bidding. While it is
appreciated that some shipyards may like the apparent insurance of knowing that contract
documents
are-approved by such organizations, it is suggested that this is only necessary
for novel design concepts, and not for normal modem ships. By eliminating this step, the
contract design package could be in the hands of the shipbuilder at least two months
earlier. If these two months were given to the shipbuilder as additional time to prepare his
bid, it would enable a better bid to be prepared, thus ensuring the most competitive prices.
It would also give the successful low-bid shipyard the responsibility of getting the design
details approved as early as possible by his regional approval office. This is so important,
as often when consultants get approval of contract plans, they are approved in New York
or Washington, D.C., and the shipyard developing the plans proceeds as if everything is in
order, until it is quickly brought back to reality when the regional office disapproves details
based on the headquarters approved contract design.
311
PART 2
Basic Design
TABLE 2.11
PROPOSED CONTRACT DESIGN FOR MARAD
1. MarAd format specification
2. General arrangement
3. Capacity plan
4. Preliminary lines
5. Machinery arrangement
6. Piping-system diagrams (cargo if applicable, fuel, bilge and ballast)
7. Electrical one-diagram
8. Electric load analysis
9. Preliminary hydrostatics
10. Trim and stability booklet
11. Damaged stability booklet
12. Lightship weight estimate
13. Longitudinal strength calculations
If the contract design is prepared by the shipbuilder, the basic planning for the
design of the machinery space should be performed. The locating of the propulsion
machinery should take into account the space needed for units, pipe/system corridors, and
working space such as shown in Figure 2.11. This is where the use of standards, such as
standard machinery space arrangements, system units, system corridors, etc., pays off.
This approach also enables a quick check on space requirements before the design has
progressed too far. The module definition will also be prepared either for an in-house
contract design, or as a bid preparation document for an owner-preparea contract design.
ORGANIZATION
REGULATORY
2.7.3 CLASSIFICATION AND
REQUIREMENT. .The drawings which must be sent to the classification society and
regulatory body to obtain their approval and certificates for the vessel are listed in their
rules and regulations. It is unusual to prepare drawings exactly matching the lists, but
their intent is all that need be followed.
The normal practice of submitting the shipyards proposed drawing list to the
various organizations which will be involved, to get their indication of the drawings they
want to approve, achieves a useful end result, but often also results in organizations
requesting drawings that they really do not need. In the past, many drawings were really
shop detail and duplicated what was shown on other general drawings. Every attempt
should be made to keep shop detail and instructions out of the drawing list and therefore
the approval cycle. For example, many shipyards prepare work station drawings for each
structural assembly in addition to the complete structural module drawings. The
structural module drawings are approved but the shipyard still sends the assembly work
station drawings for approval, which is completely unnecessary. ASS have indicated that
they would rather not see the assembly drawings, but if a drawing is submitted to them
they must review it and comment or approve same. The concept of approving a detail only
once should be the guide on what is a drawing necessary for submittal to external
organizations for approval or record and what is simply more detailed shop instructions of
the same data and should be kept in-house. This is conveniently accomplished in the
proposed approach by only submitting functional design data. It is an obvious requirement
312
PART 2
313
PART 2
Basic Design
that work station instructions should be given to resident owner and other inspectors to
assist them in their work.
The procedure in this country where USCG approves hull drawings after they have
been approved by ABS and also ABS approves machinery drawings for USCG is most
beneficial to all concerned and complements the above suggestions.
It is recognized that many preparers of engineering data leave necessary
information off their design drawings and diagrammatics, knowing that .they will later
submit detailed drawings. However, it is suggested that it is better to provide all the
information required for approval on the drawings and diagrammatics even though it
requires more detail and greater accuracy. Complete diagrammatics with piping shown in
the correct location and all materials and equipment specified should be provided. Both the
USCG and ABS have agreed to accept complete and accurate piping diagrammatics as full
submittal for most piping systems, as can be seen from Table 2.12. It is not necessary to
prepare a piping arrangement and detail plan for the cIassification and regulatory body
approval. Again, this is the proposed approach, in that the finctional design completes all
design and provides the information as desired by the classification and regulatory bodies.
2.7.4 OWNER ENGINEERINGS REQUIREMENTS. The owner has the need
314
PART 2
Basic Design
TABLE 2.12
315
PART 2
Basic Design
TABLE 2.12 (Continued)
g. The yard shall make all existing plans, diagrams, prints, fabrication and
outfitting sketches and/or models, etc., available to the inspector upon his
request.
h. Where diagrammatics do not provide sufficient information, but in the judgment
of the Technical Office, plans of the entire system are not necessary, the
Technical Office may utilize one or more of the following alternatives:
(1) request a sketch of a detail (such as manifolding, interlocks, etc.)
(2) require particular dimensions to be added to the diagrammatic
(exact locations of foam monitors, etc.)
(3) direct the Inspectors attention to the questionable detail and
comment on what would or would not be acceptable
316
PART 2
Basic Design
The engineering information preparation for the modular approach must be complete
and accurate compared to the traditional practice. Whereas before, the designer could
leave some details to be resolved by the loft, this is no longer acceptable.
The usual practice of preparing the lofting from and, therefore, after the preparation
of the structural drawings should be changed. Most shipyards today utilize
computer-aided lofting (CAL). The initialization of the CAL data base should be
commenced as soon as possible. This includes the CAL fairing of the lines, interior and
shell traces, butts and seams, etc. In the minimum, the ,CAL system can then be used to
provide the basic structural module drawing backgrounds. Many shipyards are using
computer-aided design (CAD) systems which are linked with the CAL system, in which
case the drawing data base and the CAL data base are ideally one and the same or at
least developed parallel and from each other. The lofting is then effectively developed
along with the design, and is turned over to the product engineering group for the retrieval
of the computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) details needed to process structural parts.
Such an approach results in a significant reduction in engineering/lofting manhours due to
the logical and hierarchical development of the detailed parts. This can be contrasted with
the lofting after engineering approach, where even with module structural drawings, the
CAL programmers are inclined to program each drawing separately. This, in turn,
requires additional part programming and checking as well as the extra effort to check
that interfacing parts shown on different drawings are compatible. Another advantage of
utilizing a single-data-base CAD and CAL system is that the drawings will show details of
the structure as they will be actually cut and processed. This obviously assists in
interference avoidance and control, especially if all penetrations are programmed into the
data base and cut by the N/C burning machine.
2.7.6 HULL OUTFIT FUNCTIONAL DESIGN. Hull outfit functional design
consists of developing all the details for the outfit design and completing the definition of all
ouffit material. Again, the use of standards reduces the effort. Also ship standard details
should be completed for issue to the product engineering section. A very large part of hull
outfit functional design consists of preparing technical specifications for the purchase of
required equipment and material. If the contract design for the ship is not prepared by the
shipyard, considerable effort will be required to prepare accommodation layouts. The
output from hull outfit functional design should include:
List of Ladders
List of Hatches
l List of Manholes
l List of Windows and Airports
Summary Painting Schedule
l Summary Deck Covering Schedule
l Summary Hull Insulation Schedule
l Furniture List
l Plumbing Fixture List
l Galley Arrangement and Equipment List
l Anchor Handling Arrangement
l Mooring Arrangement
l Lifesaving Equipment Arrangement and List
l Hull Outfit Purchase Technical Specifications
l Advanced Material Orders for Hull Outfit Material
l Vendor Selection
l Vendor Plan Approval
l
l
318
Basic Design
PART 2
Where new units are to be designed the procedure outlined in Section 1.7.3 should be
followed. This will result in unit arrangement and unit foundation drawings which along
with their parts list are the end-product of the functional design phase.
HVAC end-products for this phase should be:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Basic Design
320
PART 2
PART 2
Basic Design
Figure 2.14 shows two possible ways to arrange electrical system distribution. For
passenger ships, warships, and multideck cargo ships, vertical distribution within each
module will be best for production. It will also be best from the damage control aspect.
For a bulk carrier or tanker, there is no choice and horizontal distribution is used. Again,
all Purchase Technical Specifications and Advanced Material Ordering should be prepared.
The end-products from this phase are:
One-Line Diagram
l EIectrical Load Analysis
Short Circuit Analysis
l List of Feeders and Mains
l List of Motors and Controllers
l Electrical Purchase Technical Specifications
l Electrical Distribution Diagrams
l List of Portable Electrical Equipment
l Advanced Material Ordering for cable, cable hangers, etc.
2.7.9 SYSTEM AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING. As already stated it is
preferred to integrate both systems engineering and production engineering into the three
basic design disciplines than to have separate specialist groups. However, for this to
happen it is necessary to know what the functions of each group entail.
321
PART 2
Basic Design
Module Definition
Zone Definition
Assembly and Construction Approach
Advanced Outfitting Approach
and this should be done before the functional design is commenced. This is very important
because the application of production engineering during contract design makes possible
the lowest cost design, whereas if it is applied after the completion of the contract design it
will probably result in design changes in order to achieve low cost, but will have wasted
time and design effort (cost). The production engineering decisions should become part of
the building plan, as shown in Figure 2.15, which is based on a figure from reference [9].
An effective production engineering tool is the Product/sage Chart shown in
Figure 2.16, which is based on a similar chart developed by A&P Appledore, Ltd. From
such charts the sequencing of the products that go into a module, zone, or on to a unit can
be better understood and planned.
The module definition should be based on a structural product breakdown listing
such as shown in Figure 2.17. The zone definition can be similarly based on a zone
breakdown listing as shown in Figure 2.18. Both breakdown listings are integrated as
shown in Figure 2.19.
323
PART 2
Basic Design
ENVELOPES
FUNCTlONAL
SPACE ALLOCATION
PART 2
325
PART 2
Basic Design
REFERENCES
1. G.M. Watson, Estimating preliminary dimensions in ship design, IESS
Transactions, vol. 105, 1961-1962.
2. R.T. Miller, A ship design process, Marine Technology. SNAME, October 1965.
3. T. Lamb, A ship design procedure, Marine Technology SNAME, October 1969.
4. D.G.M. Watson et al, "Some ship design methods, RINA Transactions, vol. 119,
1977.
333
PART 2
Product Engineering
Pipe Assembly
Vent Assembly
Wireway
Foundation
l Floor Plate Group
etc.
l
l
l
l
The required zone/unit material quantity is also developed at this time. Typical
forms used for this purpose are shown in Table 2.13. By accumulating the material
quantities as the zone design arrangements are prepared and deducting the material from
the advanced material orders, effective material ordering control is possible. A listing of
all the products in a zone/sub-zone provides an accurate compartment checkoff list.
Obviously, during the preparation of the zone design arrangements, all systems are
developed for interference avoidance and checked for interferences as the work progresses.
It should be obvious that the use of CAD for this design phase has many
advantages. Three-dimension solid modeling CAD systems enable a true prototype to be
modeled and all working, maintenance, and access requirements to be checked prior to any
construction.
334
PART 2
Product Engineering
SECTION
FIGURE
TABLE 2.13
ZONE DESIGN ARRANGEMENT
ZONE
DESIGN
ARRANGEMENT
ZONE
UMBER
312
Q U A N T I T Y
MEASURE
NUMBER
CODE
1453066627 FOUNDATION
FLOOR
RAIL
LADDER
5200661004 FIRE PUMP 1
5200661004 FIRE PUMP 2
5280661003 DUPLEX FILTER
5228661.407 PIPE ASSEMBLE
5228661407 PIPE ASSEMBLY
5228661407 PIPE ASSEMBLY
5228561407 PIPE ASSEMBLY
5228641404 PIPE ASSEMBLY
: 3 1
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
DESCRIPTION
.
5220461471
5220461482
5220441494
5230661463
5240000001
5240000002
5240000003
5211100042
5221100032
5221100021
PIPE 6"
PIPE 4"
PIPE 11/2"
90 ELBOW 6"
6" HANGER TYPE I
4" HANGER TYPE I
11/2" HANGER TYPE I
GATE VALVE 6"
GLOBE VALVE 4"
GLOBE VALVE 11/2"
QUA
NUMBER
.5 2 7 - 1
MEASURE
10 FEET
20 FEET
80 FEET
PART 2
Product Engineering
The first three items are difficult to hold to for certain shipbuilding tasks on the
berth but should be achievable for most shop work.
Engineering can effectively participate in preparing some of this information, and in
doing so eliminate a lot of current duplication of effort. The selection of the tasks to meet
the first three requirements will be decided by Planning. Engineering can prepare the
information covered in the last two.
To do this, it is proposed that separate work station information be prepared for
each work package. Work station information should be prepared on the following basis:
PART 2
Product Engineering
assembly, and module construction need not contain any dimensions other than check and
QA control dimensions. What is required is a way to provide the required information that
is completely compatible with the way in which it will be used in the various stages of the
construction of the structural hull and deckhouse.
It is suggested that this can be effectively and efficiently accomplished by utilizing
the following data packages:
l
The advantage of structural work station information is that only the data
necessary for the work being accomplished at a given stage is given. There is no need to
search through a number of large plans to get the necessary data. An advantage of
module assembly sketches is that they enable the designer to consider access requirements
for both people and machines at the various construction stages. The advantage of
sequence sketches is obviously the fact that they actually show how to build the
subassembly, assembly, or module. This is of great assistance to engineering, planning,
production workers, and their supervisors. The preparation of sequential construction
sketches requires a closer relationship with planning and production than usual. While it
is always necessary, in order to correctly design a ships structure, to know how it will be
built, it is essential with sequential sketches to work with planning and production to
decide in considerable detail how it will all go together. Holes, notches, clips, and other
means to facilitate the use of available manual alignment and fairing tools, such as
hydraulic pullers and fairing rams, should be designed into the structure and shown by
engineering on the subassembly, assembly, and module assembly sketches.
Actually, this extra effort is well worth it, as once it is done, it aids everyone
involved in getting the structure constructed. Without it, either planning has to prepare
instructions to accomplish the same end result or it is left to the supervisor and men on the
job to plan the construction sequence. With such an arrangement, the shipfitters may
construct the module in a different way to that envisaged by the designer, and sometimes
the parts cannot go together and modification on the job is necessary. It is much better to
get all the people responsible for engineering, planning, and building the structure together
at an early stage of the project to decide these matters and include them in the building
plan..
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A typical work station information package (process sheet) for structural shapes is
shown in Figure 2.22. It shows the finished part for a floor stiffener. It gives material
total quantity required to cut all the parts listed. It also handles the fact that the parts
are of different lengths. Included on such a drawing can be delivery instructions regarding
unused material and finished parts. Accuracy control data can also be included.
The CAL N/C plate cutting drawing with attached instruction sheet such as shown
in Figure 2.23 is typical of a plate part work station information package.
Figures 2.24, 2.25, and 2.26 show the work station information packages for typical
subassembly, assembly, and module, respectively. Note that for the assembly and module
the parts lists are separate from the drawings. The parts list should be sequenced in the
way that the product is to he constructed. Again, the Product/Phase Chart can be used
to develop the sequencing. Figure 2.27 shows a typical parts list.
The work station information for the joining of the modules should include
alignment, fitting, dimension control, accuracy control, and welding data. Figure 2.28
shows a typical welding work station information sheet.
2.8.4 HULL WORK STATION/ZONE INFORMATION. The hull work station/
zone information will be provided for shops, assemblies, modules, and zones. The
Product/Stage Chart. is very helpful in deciding the work packages. Work station
information for shops for both processing and assembly will be required for hull fittings,
pipe, sheet metal, foundation structure, joiner, paint, and electrical work. Typical work
station information packages are shown in Figures 2.29 and 2.30. It is suggested that
assembly, module, or zone be used instead of the term work station for all installation
work package information. The, assembly and module installation information will be
prepared for hull. This would cover all on-block advanced outfitting work. Figures 2.31
through 2.33 show typical hull assembly and module information packages. Zone
instruction information will also be prepared for the same type of products which would
cover all on-board advanced and remaining normal outfitting. Work station and zone
information for piping, electrical, and HVAC would be identical to that described in
Sections 2.8.5 and 2.6.6, respectively. Work station and zone information for joiner work
would be identical to that described in Section 2.8.6.
2.8.5 MACHINERY SPACE WORK STATION/ZONE INFORMATION. The
work station/zone information prepared for the machinery spaces will be considerably
simplified compared to the traditional engineering approach. This is mainly due to the
logical breakdown of the total machinery space design and engineering and the preparation
of work station/zone information packages in place of the traditional working drawings.
The machinery arrangement becomes a series of major pieces of machinery, units, and
connecting system corridor/floor plate units. However, the quantity of information
provided to Production is vastly increased in scope compared to traditional engineering,
plus all systems are given equal depth of consideration and shown to the same detail.
Work station information for shops for both processing and assembly will be
required for foundation structure, pipe, sheet metal, paint, and electrical work. Work
station information will also be required for machinery installation, unit assembly, pipe
installation, etc., for units. A typical unit foundation work station information package is
shown in Figure 2.34. Other typical unit work station information examples are shown in
Figures 2.35 through 2.37.
Assembly and module information will be prepared for all machinery space
on-block advanced outfitting work such as shown in Figures 2.38 through 2.40.
340
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Product Engineering
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JOB: 000
DESCRIPTION
M411
M412
M413
SUB-ASSEMBLY
SUB-ASSEMBLY
SUB-ASSEMBLY
M414
M415
M416
M417
M418
M419
1
1
1
1
SUB-ASSEMBLY
SUB-ASSEMBLY
SUB-ASSEMBLY
SUB-ASSEMBLY
1
1
SUB-ASSEMBLY
SUB-ASSEMBLY
PART
PART
PART
PART
SEQUENCE 2
SEQUENCE
1
1
1
x41-1
H41-2
M41-3
M41-4
SEQUENCE 4 .
M41-A
SEQUENCE 5.
M41-5
M41-6
ASSEMBLY
( M I NOR )
PART
PART
1
1
PREP. BY:
PART 2
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Product Engineering
000
PREPARED BY:
DATE: 5/21/85
PAGE 2 OF 2
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PREP. BY: 1
FIGURE 2.31 Hull fitting work station information.
349
Product Engineering
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PREP.
BY:
PAGE
OF
OUT
FITTED
ASSEMBLY -
JOB:
000
PAINTED
PAGE
PREPARED BY:
FIGURE 2.33 Painting work station information.
OF
Product Engineering
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PREP. BY: -L
DATE: 5-19-85
Product Engineering
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PREP. BY: L
FIGURE 2.36 Unit pipe installation work station information.
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produt Engineering
Product Engineering
356
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Product Engineering
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PREP.
BY: -T
FIGURE 2.40 On-block advanced outfitting
installation work station information for electrical.
358
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Zone information will be prepared for all products to be installed in zones which
would cover all on-board advanced and remaining normal outfitting as shown in
Figures 2.41 through 2.45. Figures 2.44 through 2.46, are for electrical work. Electrical
Product Engineering should be prepared to show wireway installation on structural
assemblies and modules in the attitude most suitable for the installation. It is not
surprising that mistakes are made when installing wireways on a deck panel when it is
lying in the shop upside down, and the wireway drawing is of the normal complete ship or
space type, showing a plan view through the deck.
One area where electrical product engineering can save significant electrical
production manhours is in identifying cables on each wireway, identifying cables starting
and ending in each compartment, providing required length of cable for each run, and
length of cable in each space where it starts or ends. Figures 2.45 and 2.46 show this
type of approach.
Electrical fixtures in accommodation spaces should be located on the joiner work
zone information sketches as shown in Figure 2.47. All distribution panels, controllers,
junction boxes, and other electrical equipment must be shown and located on installation
sketches, and the support connections to the structure included in the structural assembly
and/or module work station sketches.
2.8.6 DECKEHOUSE WORK STATION/ZONE INFORMATION. The deckhouse
work station/zone information will be prepared in a similar manner to the hull and
machinery space. However, the method and phasing of joining the deckhouse assemblies,
whether the deckhouse will be erected on the hull in one or more parts, and the extent of
advanced outfitting, all have a major impact on the work station/zone information
approach. For example, a tiered approach could be used as shown in Figure 2.4S(a) where
each deck level is assembled upside down, and all overhead systems installed. Then each
tier would be erected on top of each other, right way up,. and further outfitting installed
before erection on the hull as one unit. Another option shown as (b) would be to build the
complete deckhouse structure less wheelhouse upside down and install all overhead
outfitting down hand. Then the deckhouse would be turned right way up, wheelhouse
added, and outfitting completed before erection on the hull. Again, this is building
strategy, and should be decided during contract design, and included in the building plan.
Figures 2.49 through 2.53 show typical work station/zone information for
deckhouse-specific work. Work station/zone information for piping and electric would be
identical to that described in Section 2.8.5.
359
FIGURE 2.41 On-board advanced outfitting unit installation work station information.
FIGURE 2.42 Normal on-board outfitting work station information for pipe.
FIGURE 2.43 Pipe assembly installation work Station information (parts list).
Product Engineering
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Product Engineering
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Pmduct Engineering
372
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Material Requirements
374
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NENTS
SORTING
375
PART 2
Engineering Models
l
l
l
l
l
Display and training models need not be accurate to scale, whereas for all the other
uses accuracy is important. Engineering models have proved beneficial in design where
there is a lack of good, experienced distributive system designers or ability of engineering
managers to control the integration of design development in ships. A model can then act
as a communications and conflct/problem-resolving tool.
One important requirement when utilizing engineering models is to construct them
at the most beneficial stage of the design, engineering, and production cycle. Many times
models to assist design and engineering are constructed too late to help them, and are not
production-aid type, and end up being show pieces to impress the inexperienced visitors.
It is also important that users be given some guidance in how to use engineering models.
Many designers are so impressed with the overall impact of viewing a model that they
do not see the detail problems that the models were to be used to eliminate. Another
problem with engineering models is the carry-over of traditional design practices. For
example, the age-old design practice not to prepare arrangement drawings for piping
below l.5-inch-diameter or to show small wireways is usually given as a requirement to
the model builders. Also it is very seldom that pipe hangers will be modeled. This is
unacceptable, and the additional expense of providing a complete model will be
replaced many times by the elimination of production rework hours to change design to
accommodate field run systems.
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Engineering Models
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2.10.2 SYSTEM DESIGN MODELS. When a shipyard decides that models can be
beneficially used to overcome the lack of arrangement by designers of distributive systems,
they should be used completely. It is unsatisfactory to use them as a design tool for piping
systems while preparing arrangement design on paper for electrical and HVAC. The
model becomes the transitional design medium, and the product engineering should be
prepared directly from it. This can be done by manually measuring and preparing the
product engineering information, or photography [1], photogrammetry [2], and computer
digitizing [3] can be used, The construction of the model must take into account the
method to be used. For example, for photogrammetry, the model should be constructed in
longitudinal vertical section-that is, sections between planes cut by buttock lines. It is
probable that only certain complicated areas of the ship will be designed with the use of
engineering models. Obvious areas are:
Machinery Spaces
Product Tanker Deck Piping
l Spaces such as Control Rooms,
Communications Center, etc.
Fan Rooms
l
l
It is also probable that the machinery-space section. would make most use of
engineering models. Hull and deckhouse sections would only use them in special cases. In
the case of an engineering model for a machinery space which is to be advanced outfitted,
the model should be constructed so that each unit is separate in order to control
interference, and develop installation details and sequencing. When using engineering
models for system design, the integration of the systems and their support structure must
be given the proper consideration. Standard units should be used to build up the new
arrangement design.
Depending on use of model, it may be beneficial to construct the structure of the
intended assemblies and modules so that they can be used for advanced outfitting
planning. If this is not done, module breaks and planned equipment access must be
identified on the model structure so that the design is compatible with them.
When using a model for design, it is advantageous to indicate distributive system
routing zones as blocked-out space, and to construct the detailed model of the zones
separately from the main model as shown in Figure 2.61. When the detailed zone models
are completed they are inserted into the main model. This gives a linal check on
interference with surrounding zone models. Obviously such a modeling approach offers the
advantage of being used as a photographic sequencing tool to assist production in actually
constructing the space that is modeled.
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FIGURE 2.61 Advanced outfitting unit models used to build up space model.
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REFERENCES
387
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of the early CAL systems were gradually extended back into CAD so that structural
drawings could be prepared through them as well as scientific design programs such as:
Hydrostatics
Stability Curves
l Subdivision
l Damage Stability
l Longitudinal Strength
Launching
l Capacities
New Hull Form Development
l
This is shown in Figure 2.64, which attempts to show the phased development of each
system.
The changes in the application of CAD/CAM in shipbuilding were driven by the
advances in computer technology and hardware, and not by declared need by the
shipbuilders. The early application of CAD and CAL used batch input data sheets, and
received the processed data back as batch-printed computer listings. The man/computer
interaction was improved through the development of the cathode ray tube (CRT) and
mini-computers. Most CAD systems use terminals with mini-computers, and CRTs for
input and interactive control of the system. Many CAL systems in shipyards still use
batch processing with cards or magnetic tape for input.
The CAM side of the systems has also improved with the same development of
computer technology. Only a few U.S. shipyards with N/C-burning capability utilize DNC.
Paper tape is still very much a part of the daily operating system.
The aircraft industry was an innovator and a proponent of Interactive Computer
Graphic systems along with General Motors, who started working on a system in 1959,
but kept its work secret until announced at a conference in 1964. Two aircraft companies
developed their own systems through the late 1950s, namely McAUTO by McDonnell
Douglas and CADAM by Lockheed. Other systems were developed by software groups
such as CALMA, COMPUTERVISION, AUTOTROL, MEDUSA, and others.
Reference [7] is an excellent introduction to IACG, and its early applications in the marine
industry. Table 2.14 shows the current U.S. shipyard IACG system situation. It should
be noted that these IACG systems are general purpose, and do not offer a complete
shipbuilding system. There are only a few systems which come anywhere near that
description, and some of these are: FORAN, BRITSHIP 2, AUTOKON, and STEERREAR.
The development of CAD in the area of outfit and distributive systems has been
sporadic and stand-alone rather than a logical continuation of existing structural systems.
There is no good system routing and interference control or avoidance package available,
although most LACG CAD/CAM systems can be used to provide interference control.
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TABLE 2.14
U.S. SHIPYARD IACG SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS
Shipyards
System
COMPUTERVISION
NAVSEC
Puget Sound Naval Shipyard
J. J. McMullen (consultants)
CADAM
AUTO-TROL
CALMA
MEDUSA
Self Developed
burning
frame bending
pipe cutting and bending
sheet metal cutting
There are many shipyards in the U.S. now using N/C-burning machines, one with
an N/C frame bender, and one with N/C sheet metal cutting. Most shipyards use
computers for some design calculations, planning/control systems, and production data
processing. Most of the original shipyard CAD/CAM systems have been modified to utilize
IACG. This allows the engineer to interact with the computer to create, view, and analyze
his design as it is displayed on the system selector box or panel, and a menu on the CRT.
Figure 2.65 shows these items schematically. It is interesting that most of the developers
of the original systems developed their own IACG software for their systems. However,
BSRA did not [8,9]. Instead they selected an existing IACG system, and interfaced it with
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Computer-Aided Engineering
their unique shipbuilding system. They initially selected CADAM, and the currently
available BRITSHIP 2 system uses CADAM. However, at the request of other British
shipbuilders, they have adapted their system with COMPUTERVISION as the IACG
module. Figures 2.66 and 2.67 show the BRITSHIP 2 system. Figure 2.68 shows similar
data for AUTOKON 79.
Experience has shown that when any new system is available to an ongoing
organization, the first phase of its use is simply to do the same thing they have been doing
for some time, and with which everyone is comfortable. It usually still has benefits such
as improved accuracy and shorter preparation time. Sometimes it is the only option to
accomplish the work, as the availability of trained personnel for the old way is low. This
has been true in many cases where shipyards lacking good loftsmen subcontracted the
effort to CAL service companies. The danger of this approach is that the full potential of
the new system is not utilized. The more enlightened approach is to step back away from
existing details and to seek basic requirements, and to see how the new system can
provide these. This approach makes it essential to have an implementation plan
developed, detailing how the system will be used, before the system is made available.
This should eliminate the danger of perpetuating traditional manual techniques and
procedures.
This is especially true for CAD/CAM, and if it is used to design the product and
prepare the detailed working drawings in the same way as before the introduction of
CAD/CAM, then it is certain that the new system is not being fully utilized. When
considering the application of CAB/CAM, the question must be asked whether the
traditional drawings are needed. What is required to construct any product is:
l
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Compute-Aided Engineering
as they prepare pipe assembly sketches, layout and template makers as they develop
sheet metal patterns, and planning as they prepare work packages including additional
sketches, as well as written instructions to detail how the work will be sequenced and
accomplished. This situation has developed over many decades, and it is difficult to
change. However, change it must, if shipyards are to take full advantage of CAD/CAM to
improve productivity, and thus their competitive position. The owner needs data that
describe the ship in sufficient detail for contractual purposes. While certain characteristics
can adequately be stated by words, the layout, arrangement, and overall aesthetics can
most efficiently and effectively be stated by visual depiction.
With this knowledge plus an understanding of the capabilities of CAD/CAM
systems, it is possible to set up today, with currently available systems, a procedure that
would accomplish all the requirements which will be more efficient and effective than any
other approach, for a given shipyard. To do this, it is necessary to develop a number of
approaches which will accomplish the requirements, and to analyze each approach for its
efficiency, effectivity, and lift-cycle cost. The extreme cases could be the existing basic
traditional system as described above, and the other is one where no printed drawings are
prepared. All the data are stored in a common data base that would contain all the
information required at the various stages of contract, design, production, and operation of
the ship. This extreme is possible today, but it is questionable if it would be accepted, as it
is so far a departure from the existing situation. It is also uncertain if it would be cost
effective at this time. It will therefore be discussed more in Section 2.11.5.
The future approach would necessitate a better integration of design, engineering,
and production than is presently existing in most U.S. shipyards. A number of developers
are calling this approach computer-aided engineering (CAE) to differentiate it from current
CAD/CAM applications. A few others have named it integrated CAD/CAM. This is a
better designation, as it clearly states what it covers. The future extreme could be called
the paper-less approach, but it is preferred to call it the advanced integrated CAD/CAM
approach. The first extreme will be named the traditional CAD/CAM approach. These
extremes are pictorially presented in Figures 2.69 and 2.70.
Many U.S. shipyards without a CAD/CAM capability are preparing the information
manually in an advanced format and eliminating unnecessary traditional detailed system
drawings [10]. Unfortunately, some U.S. shipyards utilizing CAD/CAM are perpetuating
the traditional approach by using the new system to prepare the usual traditional detailed
system drawings. The other shipyards with CAD/CAM capability are operating
somewhere in between the two extremes, but unfortunately closer to the traditional
approach. This is because of the situation described at the beginning of this section,
wherein the new system is used in the same way as before it was introduced.
Successful operation of CAD systems utilizing IACG demands that an entirely new
approach be taken. We are no longer preparing drawings, we are building the prototype in
the computer. Drawings may or may not be required, and if they are they can be an
automatic fallout from the system. This is the most important fact to realize. If it is not
accepted and followed in practice, the full benefit from todays best CAD/CAM systems will
not be achieved. In using CAD/CAM systems we are no longer driven by a drawing
schedule, but rather to build up a complete detailed data base which can provide the
information necessary to develop and check the design, and to purchase and process
material, and construct the ship within the desired time table. This approach necessitates
a number of departures from existing CAD and CAL systems. For example, all data
during design must be entered in a common three-dimensional coordinate system. Also,
actual thickness of material must be entered. The traditional practice of using molded
lines, and the thickness related to that, is no longer acceptable. Figure 2.71 shows how
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this has significant benefits compared to traditional drafting and lofting. At any time the
stored data can be called to the terminal CRT and all or partial data selected for further
development or printing as a hard-copy drawing.
Figure 2.72 is an attempt to pictorially show how the data base could be
constructed. It shows that the traditional stages and disciplines overlap. An obvious
advantage of this approach is that the data base is a dynamic composite at all times. If an
item has to be changed or relocated, it is not done as a system isolated from all other
systems, thus requiring a check of the independent composites, if they exist at all. It is an
integrated action involving everything known to be in the vicinity of the item being
changed.
There are many other advantages of IACG CAD/CAM, and most of them are well
known. However, there are some which may not be appreciated for shipbuilding.
Shipbuilding in this country cannot be considered a stable industry. The need for
engineering staff fluctuates regularly, and for this reason there is a tremendous mobility of
engineers. With this mobility a given shipyard loses its experience. Even with the best
intention to develop standards and good records of past practices, it is never in a form that
new engineers can easily find and use. CAD eliminates this problem by focusing on the
objective to define an item only once, and then to duplicate it as required. It also provides
an almost instantaneous memory of standards and past practice. As the engineer is
interacting with a computer with a memory (data base) far more accessible than his own,
or any other individuals, he is able to draw on that experience, and use directly or
improve on that available. This enables operators to develop new designs far quicker than
before CAD. Another benefit of increased and easier accessed documentation of previous
designs is the avoidance of errors.
The single data base, and instantaneous access to it, also simplifies and improves
change control.
The common data base would provide [17]:
1. Information independence: Making the information in the files independent of
the various reports needed (this is because of the assumption that once the
information is located, there is no effort required to generate the report).
2. Information non-redundancy: Minimizing the number of different files which
contain the same information.
3. Information relatability: Having information in a form that all reports and
forms can use or modify easily.
4. Information integrity: Improving information quality, consistency, and
recoverability.
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8. Information performance: Providing proper controls for changing the filing
system as time and changing user needs cause the basic systems requirements
to change.
9. Information administration: Supplying appropriate standards, procedures, and
guidelines to ensure consistent evolution of the filing system as demands and
technologies change.
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production and typical time frame is given in Table 2.15(a). It uses the normal
shipbuilding language such as lofting, structure, machinery, ouffit, etc. However, it is
perhaps of more benefit to consider them all interim products of the final product, the
ship, as is shown in Table 2.15(b). The engineering for ship production logic fits well with
current computer system capability, but must be communicated to system developers for
future development. Otherwise, it is possible the new developments will not perform the
desired tasks in the best way for a shipyard. Computer application can provide the desired
integration and control of all data for:
Instantaneous access by all to latest design and status
information
One source of standards
l Work station visual information
l Work station parts list
l Material scheduling and procurement
l Work package schedule
l Product engineering schedule
Progress control
Configuration control
l
The use of computers forces the users to logically think out what they want to do,
and how they should do it before they start. Program flow diagrams, structured
programming, etc., lead the user through the operation steps. In addition, as central
processing unit (CPU) use time is usually expensive, programmers have developed a basic
need to efficiently develop the required data, and to eliminate unnecessary steps and
duplication of data
These goals are an exact matchup with the goals of engineering for ship production.
As already stated, the biggest hurdle to overcome is the tendency to use computers to
provide the same information as is currently provided, instead of using them to develop
that which is required in the best way for the new tool, such as a full-size prototype of the
design from which the necessary information to procure, fabricate, construct, and test the
ship can be extracted and presented in the most effective way.
2.11.5 TEE FUTURE. The near future will probably see utilization of currently
available CAD/CAM capabilities to their fullest and most efficient extent. The future
extreme mentioned in a previous section based on a common integrated data base from
contract negotiations through to the operation of the ship should occur in this time frame.
This is conceptually shown in Figure 2.74. Users of the data would have IACG terminals
by which they could call up any required data at any time after it was developed. Instead
of contract drawings and typed specifications, a magnetic tape or disk would be delivered
to prospective bidders. The bidders would expand the data base as required to furnish a
bid. The successful bidder would use the data base to develop the contract data This
405
TABLE 2.15
CAD/CAM DATA RELATIONSHIP
Major Data Input
Time
Data Output
Month 1
Month 2
to
Month 8
Month 4
to
Month 9
Month 6
4. Work station into for dist. system processing
to
5. Work station info for dist. system assembly
Month 12 6. Work station Into for dist. system Installation
Month 12 7. Work station into for advanced outfittlng
to
8. Work station Into for electrical Installation
Month 18 9. Work station info for outfit installatlon
Month 9 10. Work station Into for module erection
to
11. Work station Into for module welding
Month 24
[B] FOR INTERIM PRODUCTS
1. Develop major characteristics of product
Month 1
Month 2
and
Month 3
Month 2
to
Month 4
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contract data base would be used as the starting point for developing the detailed design of
the ship. Magnetic tapes or disks would be provided to the owner, classification society,
and regulatory bodies for their use in approving the design. The actual data would include
math models, finite element models, system design calculations, structural analysis, and
the visual information.
The final construction phase data base would be a full-scale computer mock-up of
the ship. An automatic output from the construction phase data base would be bills of
material, N/C instructions for structure and pipe processing, assembly and erection, and
equipment installation. Again, actual printed drawings and text would not be produced but
rather presented on IACG terminals at the various work stations. This could be
accomplished by having all terminals connected to a central computer containing the data
base or by transfer of selective parts of the data base to smaller satellite computers
either directly by line connection to the host computer or by magnetic tape or disk.
Once the data base was completed, magnetic tapes or disks containing all the
necessary information would be given to the owner and the operating crew. This approach
is based on modeling the ship down to the minutest detail, and would be difficult to do with
2D CAD systems. A 3D system would be used, and this would require putting each item
in the detail base only once. It would be possible to take a visual tour throughout the ship,
and look at any item from any position within or without the ship. This possibility should
excite anyone who has struggled and been frustrated over system routing, interference
control, or compartment check-off lists. It would be like having a mobile video camera (or
space probe for those who saw The Empire Strikes Back) controlled by the operator.
This is depicted in Figure 2.75. The application of this capability to human engineering,
equipment removal routing, maintenance space, etc., is mind boggling.
The long-term future will see the development and use of complete design systems.
What is meant by design system is one where upon logging onto the computer, the ship
design system would be called up. A menu would then appear on the CRT from which the
type of ship would be selected, such as bulk carrier, destroyer, landing ship dock, navy
oiler, etc. The basic requirements such as speed, endurance, capacity, etc., would then be
requested and entered. The computer system would then develop the design automaticnlly,
and show it on the CRT screen. Logically, the system would have built-in stops, at which
time the operator could accept or change design details. It may even have the ability for
the operator to interrupt the system at any time to change something.
Once the design was technically complete, production data, such as maximum size
and/or weight of erection blocks, location of major module breaks, etc., as well as
construction sequence and schedule would be entered, and the preparation of information
such as material requisitions, bills of material, parts lists, and work instructions required
for the procurement and production departments generated automatically. Obviously for
such a system to operate, it is necessary to program the design algorithms and establish
data bases containing acceptable marine design practice and decision tables. To do this for
even one commercial ship type is quite an investment, and for a major combatant type
would be three or four times as involved. The basic arrangement and structural detail are
relatively straightforward, and some success in both these areas has been achieved
[11,12,13,14]. It is the design of the distributive systems which requires the greatest
effort. Standardization of both individual items as well as groups of items and complete
systems would lessen the effort. To undertake the development of such a system will
require significant resources of both talent and money. It may not be considered justifiable
in this country due to the uncertainty associated with private shipbuilding. This would be
408
PART 2
Computer-Aided Engineering
Computer-Aided Engineering
PART 2
most unfortunate, considering the lead the U.S. has in computers and interactive computer
graphics. However, the development has already started in other countries [15&16], and
U.S. shipbuilders may have to wait on others to develop the complete automatic ship design
and production (AUTOSHIPDAP) system, and obtain it from them when and as they can.
410
Computer-Aided Engineering
PART 2
REFERENCES
411
PART 2
Technical Support
412
PART 2
Technical Support
TABLE 2.16
ENGINEERING FOR SHIP PRODUCTION TASK BREAKDOWN
Contract
Contract
Contract
Contract
Contract
Contract
Design Calculations
Design Drafting
Specification Preparation
Purchase Technical Specifications
Estimating Support
Material Take-Offs
413
PART 2
Technical Support
TABLE 2.16 (Continued)
GROUP 5 - INTEGRATED LOGISTICS SUPPORT (ILS)
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
ILS Engineering
Maintenance
Support and Test Equipment
Supply support
Transportation
Engineering Drawing Specification
Technical Manuals and Other Data
Facilities
Personnel and Training
Training Equipment
Inclining Experiment
Launching
Test and Trials
Liaison
Technical Publications
Engineering Services to Production
Label Plates
Vessel Surveys
Reproduction
GROUP 7 - ADMIMSTRATION
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
Supervision
Engineering Planning
Scheduling and Progress Reporting
Conferences
Travel
Project Engineering
Drawing Checking
Engineering Q.A.
414
PART 3
ENGINEERING ORGANIZATION FOR SHIP PRODUCTION
3.1 General
There have been, and notwithstanding the current world shipbuilding recession, still
are many successful shipbuilding companies in the world. The engineering organization of
these successful companies, although similar, probably has significant differences. These
differences are due to the development of the companies, their products, and the skills and
experience of their employees and their managers. The development of todays
shipbuilding engineering organizations evolved as engineering work was split into hull and
machinery, and then into structure, ouffit, hull systems and machinery, machinery and
electrical. Through time, design and technical calculations were separated from working
drawing preparation. In most engineering organizations these divisions or, as they are
often called, disciplines, still exist. However, the way ships are designed and built has
significantly changed over the last 25 years. It is not surprising to many that engineering
organizations did not change during this time to suit the design and building methods.
During the same time frame another significant change that directly affected
engineering requirements occurred, namely, the demise of the craft apprenticeship system.
This resulted in the workers being less skilled and experienced and required more and
easier-to-understand data and instructions from the engineering organizations. As
already stated in Part 1, the craft-organized shipyards work from the minimum of
engineering, and the well-trained and experienced workers developed their own details.
Because of this, engineering and production often were isolated from each other. Todays
integrated shipbuilding necessitates a very close relationship between planning,
engineering, and production employees. It also requires an intimate knowledge by the
engineers of the methods used, and the difficulties involved in constructing a ship in the
facility for which they work. Details can no longer be left to be solved by the loft,
shipfitter, or pipe shop! Even though this approach appears to place more responsibility on
the engineer, in general it is more enthusiastically accepted by the engineer.
Unfortunately, it has been met with mixed emotions by other departments in shipyards.
The reasons for this are many, ranging from incursion into their area, to insulting their
intelligence by the issue of simpler but better instructions.
Neither reason, or any in between, is justifiable. Everyone in the shipyard should be
working as a team, ready to adapt to whatever approach helps it to achieve the goal of
competitive ships in minimum construction time. An efficient, successfully operated
company should be like a set of precision gears, each department like many input shafts
with gears meshing with the production department, which of course is the output shaft.
This concept is shown in Figure 3.1. Incidentally, communication is the necessary
lubricant for the organization (gear) and the collection of the lubricating oil and its
processing for return to the gear is the organizations feedback. For optimum
performance, all service departments (input gears) must mesh with the production
department (output gear) in exact accordance with the organization (gear) design. It must
operate like a properly lubricated and maintained set of precision gears.
If any service department tries to do more or less than it is required to, or if the
production department tries to drive a service department, then the total organizational
415
General
PART 3
416
PART 3
General
output diminishes, and the output gear will become overloaded and may self-destruct.
Only by each part of the organization functioning as it is designed to will the efficiency
approach its optimum. A set of precision gears can achieve 98% efficiency. It is doubtful
if any organization can claim anywhere near this value.
Just as it is essential for the design of a gear, the detail requirements for each part
of the organization must be fully understood to complete the design successfully.
Therefore, it is essential that the objectives and results for every department be clearly
defined, and the responsibility, authority, and accountabiility be correspondingly assigned to
the departments.
Like most things in life, there is more than one way to approach the design of an
organization, but in all cases the engineering goals must be clear and the resulting
organization must be capable of achieving the goals. Even then it is only possible if all
involved use the organization in the way it is designed. If the employees or, worse, the
management do not enthusiastically adopt the integration of engineering and other
departments, and the organization to allow this, full benefit from the approach wilI not be
achieved.
417
PART 3
Engineering Objectives
Engineering
l Organize to best support integrated shipbuilding
Prepare drawings, material lists, lofting, layouts, pipe assembly
drawings, and other production-required information
Perform configuration control of all engineering information
l Provide engineering liaison to production department
MEET ALL ACCEPTED SCHEDULES
For an engineering department using a marine design consultant to prepare both the
design and the working drawings, objectives of the in-house engineering department
include:
Design
l
l
l
l
Engineering
l Organize to best support integrated shipbuilding
l Provide overall engineering leadership and direction
l Ensure engineering is developed in the way desired for shipyard
rather than what the consultant wants to do
l Prepare lofting, pipe assembly drawings, layouts, etc.
l Prepare the technical information to complete work package required
by production department
l Provide engineering liaison to production department
l MEET ALL ACCEPTED WORK SCHEDULES
In both cases the objectives should be reviewed regularly to enable a self-improving
capability to flourish.
418
Organization
PART 3
3.3 Organization
Organizational theory has steadily developed along with the better understanding of
human relations, motivation, and worklife sciences. That this is so is clear from a review
of any bibliography on the subject of organization. It is not the intent to describe or
recommend any of the theories, especially as the very foundations have been discredited in
recent books about the most successfully operated U.S. companies [1] and future trends
[2]. What will be discussed is the basic organizational requirements for a shipyard
engineering department.
A number of papers and reports [3,4,5,6,7] touch on engineering organization, but
only the later ones do so in any depth or cover the reasons for the differences. Books on
general, technical, or engineering management [8,9,10] describe some organizational
aspects which can be helpful when examining shipyard engineering organization. The
more recent papers and reports on advanced shipbuilding technology all contain three basic
principles for shipyard engineering organization:
1. Shipyard engineering should be divided into basic design and product
engineering.
2. Engineering information should be presented in the simplest and
most effective manner.
3. Engineering information should be developed to transmit only the
information needed by one or more workers at a specific work
station to perform the work at that work station.
To these three should be added a fourth, namely:
4. Engineering and planning are synonymous, and the product
engineering section should prepare all planning material such as
lofting, N/C processing data, pipe sketches, sheet metal layout, and
work station process or instruction sheets.
The reason for this additional principle should be obvious to the readers of this book.
It connects together the logical sequencing of the same data. With the increasing use of
computers and software for CAD/CAM, it is possible to generate all the planning material
as a natural fallout from the engineering data base.
Before proceeding, it is necessary to review some of the well-known organizational
structures. These include:
Function
Product
l Process
Customer
l Matrix
PART 3
Organization
420
PART 3
Organization
organization has been used for the production division of many large manufacturing
companies.
Some manufacturing companies have found it beneficial to use an organization
structure which fits in with the various processes through which their work moves, thus
the name process organization, for which a typical structure is shown in Figure 3.4.
Service companies often utilize a customer organization structure. This type of
structure is suited to sales-oriented divisions or departments such as marketing. A typical
organization is shown in Figure 3.5. The usual reason for adopting this type of
organization structure is to ensure that the needs of each customer are more than
adequately met, and to give the appearance of special individual attention.
The matrix organization structure which is shown in Figure 3.6 developed from the
attempt to combine the benefits of more than one of the above types. This type of
organization was utilized extensively by defense contractors. In its most common form the
matrix organization provides the manager with the benefits of both the function and
product (project) organization types.
A number of these were discussed in Section 1.4 from the point of view of production
systems. It was concluded therein that the modern shipyards were utilizing the product
structure organization. Obviously, the most benefit will result if all departments are
organized in the same way. Much of the current problems are due to the fact that
departments within the same shipyard have different organization structures, and the
resulting mismatch of personnel in them. For example, it is not uncommon to find that
engineering is functionally organized, purchasing is product organized, and production is
functionally organized. This has to be changed to achieve high-productivity shipbuilding.
It is also necessary for all departments to be organized in the best way to support the
production department.
The MarAd/SNAM-sponsored IHI Shipbuilding Technology books lead from outfit
planning to design for zone outfitting. They develop a very specific approach to engineering
organization which basically follows their overall production organization. This is shown in
Figure 3.7. Figure 3.8 shows a typical U.S. shipyard engineering department
organization, and Figure 3.9 the same for a British shipyard. The British organization is
basically a two-zone type. The ship section handles and integrates everything outside of
the machinery space, which is handled by the machinery section. This approach is also
used by at least one of the successful large Japanese shipbuilders. However, in the British
shipyard, even though engineering was somewhat product (zone) organized, the production
department was still functionally (craft) organized. The U.S. shipyard engineering
organization is functionally organized, with the different disciplines working in all areas.
As such, it has little to recommend it for improved shipbuilding technology.
What, therefore, should be the organizational structure for the future in U.S.
shipyards? It is suggested that it should not be the MarAd/SNAME IHI type. This is
because the IHI approach is not pure; it mixes organization types such as functional,
product, and process structure with zones. This can be seen from Figure 3.10, which
shows that even though hull block construction, painting, and electrical are involved in all
three zones, they are organized independently, and in a different way to the desired zone
treatment of outfit. It can also be seen that electrical, which is a function, is treated at the
same level as the zones, giving the D-A-M-E approach to outfitting. The inclusion of the
E for electrical has no organizational basis for being linked in this way to the three
zones. It is suggested that it is done simply because of tradition in some Japanese
shipyards.
421
Organization
PART 3
422
PART 3
Organization
423
PART 3
Organization
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
I
ELECTRICAL
OUTFIT
H U L L
I
STRUCTURE FUUNDATIONS OUTFIT
M/C
ARRGT
PIPING
HVAC
DECK
M/C
ELECTRICAL
MACHINERY
HULL
PIPING HVAC
POWER LIGHTING
STRUCTURE OUTFIT
HVAC
PIPING DECK.
M/C
424
LIGHTING
PART 3
Organization
INTEGRATED
PRODUCT
SHIPBUILDING
KEY- s
J
PA
PI
(DEPARTMENT)
STRUCTURE
JOINER
PAINT
PIPS
v VENT
E ELECTRICAL
SF STR. FITTING
M MECHANICAL
PART 3
Organization
426
PART 3
Organization
FIGURE 3.12 Basis for engineering sections from expanding common data base.
427
HULL
DECK
HOUSE
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURAL FOUNDATIONS
DESIGN COMPOSITES
PAINT
P
VENTILATION
MECHANICAL
ELECTRICAL
MACHINERY
SPACE
KEY
- STRUCTURE
- PAINT
DC - DESIGN COMPOSITE
PI - PIPE
V - VENTILATION
E - ELECTRICAL
SF - STRUCTURAL FOUNDATIONS
M - MECHANICAL
S PA DC PI V E
PA
DC
PI
SF M PA DC PIVE V E
Organization
PART 3
430
PART 3
Staffing
3.4 Staffing
The staffing of the organization is one of the most important factors affecting its
success. Another is training. Even the best organization will not accomplish its goals
effectively and efficiently if it is not staffed with the correct number of people with the
correct balance of education, training, and experience. This is equally true of all
departments in a shipyard, not only engineering. In order for the modern shipbuilding
methods to be accepted and competently used, it is necessary to upgrade the technical and
educational level of all shipyard managers and supervisors.
It is often stated [11,12] that the U.S. engineering problem is due to an inadequate
number of engineers directly employed by the shipbuilding industry. While it is true that
more engineers would give the engineering managers more resources to accomplish the
work, it may simply mean more engineers preparing the work in the same outdated,
inefficient way. It would obviously increase the cost of engineering, so there would need to
be a resulting greater reduction in production manhours for it to make sense.
Table 3.1 gives the number of graduate engineers per 1,000 employees in the U.S.
aircraft and shipbuilding industry as well as the same ratio for British and Japanese
shipyards.
TABLE 3.1
GRADUATE ENGINEERS/l,000 EMPLOYEES
10
U.S. Aircraft Industry
5
U.S. Shipbuilding
British Shipbuilding
6
Japanese Shipbuilding 52
The SNAME SP-9 Panel on Education and Training issued a report, Curricular
Needs of Shipyard Professionals, in June, 1984. This report shows that for ten U.S.
shipyards, the ratio of graduate engineers per 1,000 employees was actually fourteen.
Before it is concluded that this means that everything is therefore fine in the industry, it
should be noted that the same report states that only 20% of the engineers were naval
architects and marine engineers. The report states, This means that the other 80% of the
entry level technologists most likely have not been exposed to the shipbuilding industry
prior to graduation.
Table 3.2 (from reference [13]) shows the ratio for both graduate engineers and
designers for British shipbuilding. It can be seen that the number of graduate engineers
has fallen from 13 to 6 per 1,000 employees from 1965 to 1974. The total number of
technical staff has, however, remained constant at about 60 per 1,000 employees. The
natural question is, does the shipbuilding industry really only require half the number of
engineers that are necessary for the aircraft industry? Japanese experience shows a
significantly higher ratio. However, it is necessary to look at the Japanese ratio closer to
make sense of the comparison. Japanese graduates are of two types. The first is similar
to U.S. and European engineering graduates. The second is similar to a technical college
431
PART 3
Staffing
student. The second type is not included in the U.S. or British ratios in Table 3.1.
Nevertheless, it is probable that the Japanese ratio for the similar engineering graduates
would be about 20 per 1,000 employees, still significantly higher than the U.S. and
Britain. It is suggested that this higher number of technically educated people in the
shipyards is a major reason for their success in shipbuilding and advanced shipbuilding
technology.
Figure 3.16 shows the employers of and occupation of naval architects in the U.S.,
Britain, and Japan based on figures from reference [14]. Its message is clear! The U.S.
needs more naval architects (and other engineers) in the shipyards. How can this be
justified, let alone accomplished, in a contracting industry? It must be that training
engineers in the advanced shipbuilding technology, and allowing them to practice the new
way in both engineering and the other shipyard departments, must improve their
performance to accomplish the goal of higher productivity and shorter building cycles for
future ships. It is understandable that in the work-scarce and competitive situation U.S.
shipbuilding is currently facing, it may be difficult for shipbuilding management to take
such steps. However, those who survive the current crisis will probably be the ones who
try innovative solutions to the current problems.
432
TABLE 3.2
TECHNOLOGIST AND TECHNICIAN STATISTICS
FOR SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY [3]
Notes:
Quantified Scientists and Engineers (QSS) include all employees who hold a university degree or equivalent, or are
corporate member of appropriate professional institutions.
Prior to 1968 the HNC was included in the definition of QSS but was subsequenlly excluded.
Prior to 1969 tracers were included with draughtsmen.
PART 3
(BRITAIN)
us
JAPAN
PART 3
Training
3.5 Training
Training is another major factor affecting any organization. When it is realized that
well planned and practical apprenticeships are almost nonexistent in the U.S. shipbuilding
industry, and that most engineers and designers are left to learn the hard way, it is not
surprising that it is close to the bottom of the shipbuilding technology ladder. It is
essential for the U.S. shipbuilding industry to upgrade the knowledge level of shipyard
employees. It will be futile to introduce advanced technology into shipyards if they are
staffed by inadequately educated and trained personnel.
As it is obvious that there is not an abundance of engineering personnel already
practicing the proposed engineering for ship production, it will be necessary to educate and
train existing and new shipyard design and engineering department employees as well as
those of marine design consultants in the methods and procedures to be used.
Another problem that must be recognized is that todays shipbuilding management,
including engineering, has been trained in the traditional ways and is often too busy
dealing with everyday problems to take time to learn and completely understand the new
ways. In such an environment new graduates educated and others trained in advanced
shipbuilding technology and engineering for ship production will be frustrated by the
apparent lack of interest shown by these busy managers.
Therefore, it is suggested that shipyards, either individually or in association with
other shipyards and/or universities and technical colleges, offer the education and training
that is required to provide the level of advanced shipbuilding technology to increase the
possibility of successful operation in the near and far future.
The subject of training for any industry is complex and large. It is not even
suggested that it can be covered in an engineering approach book. It was necessary to
briefly discuss it in order to draw attention to the need for a well planned effort by each
shipyard and even by the industry. Until such a system is in use, it behooves each
engineer and designer to plan his/her own training. With this in mind, a recommended
reading reference on this matter is a recent paper by B.N. Baxter [15].
Figure 3.17, which is from a paper by G. Sivewright [16], indicates the thought and
planning that must be expended to develop a successful program, as well as guide the
self-trainer on areas to be developed to be a successful practitioner of engineering for ship
production. Table 3.3 lists the training programs that were established by the British
Shipbuilders Training Board for various professions in shipbuilding. Another reference
worthy of reading is the RINA Symposium on the Training for Naval Architecture and
Ocean Engineering [17].
It should be remembered that education and training are the food and exercise
essential for the healthy and sustained life of any business. The shipbuilding industry in
the U.S. will not become competitive if left undernourished and unfit.
435
PART 3
TABLE 3.3
Training
INDUCTION
The shipbuilding and shiprepairing industry or, where appropriate, the boatbuilding industry.
Short history of shipbuilding and shipping - the wooden, iron and steel ship era and progress in materials and
propulsion machinery to date. The industry - size. distribution, products and customers.
Future prospects.
International competition.
The major associated industries, e.g. steel, engineering.
The Firm
History, organisation. layout.
Products, markets, main sub-contractors.
The skills used and the contribution of each trade to the end product.
Tour of the yard, shops and offices.
Trade Unions.
The trade union movement - its history and role.
Joint consultation - national, district, group and yard.
Conditions of Service
Hours, clocking, meal and tea breaks, lateness, absenteeism.
Payments: sickness payments, management of personal money.
Holidays. canteen. sports and social facilities.
Work rules, discipline.
Training and further education opportunities, career opportunities.
Safety and Health
The importance of safety, hygiene, safe working practices; accident prevention and good housekeeping.
The safety officer.
Fire precautions.
Factories and Offices Acts. Health and Safety at Work Act.
Shipbuilding and Shiprepairing Regulations. Woodworking Machines Regulations and Associated Codes.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR
Visits to ships under construction and repair. Instruction to include:Layout of ship.
Ship terms.
Sequence of building a ship from inception to completion.
Overhaul, drydocking and damage repairs.
Types of ship and their functions.
HULL CONSTRUCTION
Practice in simple caulking, burning and metal-arc welding.
Visits to ships under construction and to fabrication and other shops.
Procedure for erecting the hull of a ship.
The principal tools, machines and equipment, hand and power, used for hull construction in the shops and
yard.
The principal materials used - their characteristics and uses.
Contribution of the various metal-using trades.
Safety precautions.
LAUNCHING
Visit to ship being prepared for launching and being launched.
Procedure for launching a ship.
Contribution made by rigger and plater/shipwright.
Methods used at home and abroad.
OUTFITTING
Measuring, marking out, joining and fashioning wood and metal including practice in simple operations
therein.
437
Training
PART 3
TABLE 3.3 (Continued)
438
Training
PART 3
TABLE 3.3 (Continued)
GENERAL TRAINING
A. DESIGN FUNCTION
Trainees should receive training in the drawing office appropriate to their specialisation, preferably in an area
ret aside for the purpose. The following is a general guide and must be related to the selected specialisation. The
guide is more relevant to mechanical engineering and electrical engineering technician engineers and technicians:
a programme for trainees in the hull construction and outfit group should be prepared by selecting suitable items
from T.P.S. No. 7, Appendix C.
Training Programme Guide
Drawing Office Practice - BS308
(a) Routine
(b) Drawing and liaison
(c) Standards
(d) Development of drawing skills
Trainees should appreciate why particular systems and routines have been adopted and the support given by
the Drawing Office to other departments.
Control of Size, Shape and Company Standards
(a) Symbols, dimensions and tolerances
(b) Interchangeability:
Trainees should understand the concept of tolerances and in addition to dimensional tolerances be made
aware of geometrical tolerances in terms of squareness, flatness, parallelism, etc. They should know how tolerances are indicated and how they need to be interpreted. They should appreciate the need for standards and any
special problems arising from metrication.
Selection of Materials and Components
(a) Standard shapes and components
(b) Properties
Trainees should understand the use of standard components and why standard shapes exist. They should
appreciate the inter-relationship between such factors as weight, physical properties, cost and availability.
Production Processes
Trainees should be acquainted with methods of changing the shape and size of materials. They should understand the extent to which a method of construction may impose limitations on design. They should appreciate
the safety hazards associated with different processes.
Fastenings
Trainees should appreciate the kinds of solution available to problems of locating components, enabling a
correct choice to be made which takes account of the relevant factors of function, servicing, quantity, cost, time
reliability.
Simple Power Transmitting and Control Systems
Trainees should be made aware of the choices which are available. Illustrations might be given, for example,
of mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic and electronic systems to demonstrate the range of options and
the factors which influence their use.
Tribology
Trainees should appreciate the factors that need to be taken into account in the design of components having
surfaces in contact.
Safety in Design
Trainees should be made aware of the steps that can be taken at the design stage to minimise hazards under
operating conditions.
439
PART 3
Manufacturing Processes
Methods of changing the shape and size of materials. Projects to be arranged to illustrate the extent to
which the method of production may impose limitations on design.
Fastening
Nuts, bolts, studs, dowels, locking devices, spot welds, sheetmetal fasteners, rivets, catches, lock and tab
washers, adhesives! self-tapping screws, circlips, other spring steel retainers. Types of thread, fixing devices and
their uses. Illustration by seeing examples and by problem solving.
Simple Power Transmitting Devices
Appropriate emphasis on shafts, keys and keyways, gears, couplings shaft alignments.
Tribology
Appreciation of the design, manufacture and operation of bearing and bearing surfaces.
and finishes, friction, wear, lubrication and lubricants.
Bearing materials
Safety in Design
Refer to BS CP 3004:1964
Ergonomic and environment considerations.
EXAMPLE 2
Trainee Technician Engineer Specialising in Electrial Engineering
Drawing Office Practice
Work planning and allocation. Keeping up to date with technical knowledge. Liaison with suppliers,
sub-contractors and customers.
Documents: parts lists, service schedule, inspection schedules, operating handbooks. Numbering and coding
systems: methods of stockmg, issue of drawings, duplicating (BS 4212). packaging, posting.
Modification and design change procedures.
Drawing standards (BS 308, BS 9039)
Development of drawing skills using selected jobs.
Control of size, Shape and Company Standards
Dimensions and tolerances, symbolic representation of electronic components (BS 3939), colour codes,
Quality testing and inspection requirements.
Understand circuit diagrams and corresponding wiring and component layouts. Typical circuit components
values and the importance of positioning and screening of components and wires to avoid unnecessary stray
capacity and unwanted coupling.
Selection of Materials and Components
Typical shapes and sizes in which materials are readily available. e.g. sheets, plates, rods, tubing, laminates.
Understand use of different components, e.g. component rating and tolerances, the polarity of capacitors and
diodes, the wattage of resistors: appreciate need for the differences in non-inductive resistors, wire-wound resistors,
etc.
Awareness of properties of different insulating materials and their behaviour at high frequencies. Familiarity
with manufacturers data in relation to semi-conductor heat sinks: appreciation of problems associated with dissimilar metals in intimate contact: knowledge of safe range of working temperature and voltage for insulating
materials and active components.
440
PART 3
Ship Installations
Interpretation of drawings provided for electrical equipment installation and wiring. Assist in lining off at
ship or mock-up equipment and cable runs.
Fastenings
Nuts, rivets, self-tapping screws, lock and tab washers, etc. Cable trays and mouting electrical equipment;
patent fasteners and resilient mounts.
Simple Power Transmitting Devices
Appropriate emphasis on small gear trains, electro-mechanical devices, e.g. relays, selectors, electro-magnetic
clutches.
Tribology
Appreciation of factors to be taken into account in design of related electro-mechanical components.
Safety in Design
Refer to basic safety requirements of Electricity (Factories Act) Special Regulations, 1908 and 1944.
B. SHIPBUILDING PRACTICE
Trainees should receive training in the appropriate specialisation i.e. hull construction and outfit. mechanical
engineering or electrical engineering. A training programme should be produced using the following activities
as a guide.
Training Programme Guide
A trainee should receive instruction and practice in the firms methods of non-destructive testing In the
shops and on the berth. On completion of this period of training a trainee should be able to interpret
defects and recommend remedial action. Attention should be directed to the relevant ionising Radiations
(Sealed Sources) Regulations.
Production Planning and Control
The trainee should assist in the production control office and undertake selected projects which could include
the following:(a) Attend production planning meetings.
(b) Assist in producing charts for planning new contracts.
(c) Assist in collecting and collating data from shops or berth, for comparison with the plan.
(d) Assist with preparation of machine loading schedules.
(e) Materials handling and layout.
(f) Co-ordination of design changes.
(g) Supply and stock holding of raw materials.
(h) Control of production to ensure implementation of plan.
Investigation
(a) As a project, undertake or assist in investigating a failure in fabrications or erecting a hull unit.
(b) Carry out a follow-up exercise to determine whether an investigation report has resulted in effective
(c) Assist the safety officer in a study to identify the cause of accidents and the remedial action required.
C. COMMERCIAL MATTERS
Training Programme Guide
(a) Ship Construction
(i) SalesMarket research
Owner liaison
Estimates, proposals, specifications and contracts
Pricing
Public relations
Home and export
(ii) Repairs surveys
Estimates and contracts
Specifications
Work schedules
(b) Planning, Estimating and Costing
(i) Financial accounting-cash receipts and procedures: data processing.
(ii) Cost accounting - wages and salaries; material
costs; overheads including administration and
service costs; budgetary control.
(c) Purchasing
(i) Participate with design and project teamsdecision whether to buy, sub-contract or manu(ii) Suppliers' location and reliability.
(iii) Delivery dates and prices.
(iv) Quantities and stock level: quality; preferred
standards.
(v) Production buying.
(vi) Non-production buying.
(vii) Sub-contracts.
442
Training Examples
1. Assist in estimating for a contract.
2. Assist in a survey.
3. Collect and collate information, e.g. sales
promotion booklet, technical descriptive
publication, instructors handbook.
PART 3
Training
Training Examples
D. CONTROL TECHNIQUES
Training Programme Guide
(a Instrumentation
(i) Fluid
(ii) Electrical
(iii) Physical
(iv) Dimensions and shapes
(v) Transduction
(vi) Application
(vii) Safety aspects
Training Examples
1. Participate in simple method study exercise, e.g. documentation of stock handling.
2. Subsequently carry out a similar exercise
on operation in which the trainee is
involved.
3. Whether opportunity arises, work study
methods should be utilised when carrying
out investigations or assignments.
PART 3
Training
TABLE 3.3 (Continued)
E. COMMUNICAITON
Training Programme Guide
(a) Introduction of Terms
(i) Information
(ii) Communication
(iii) Transmission
(iv) Reception
(v) Feedback
Training Examples
1. Use projects relevant lo any stage of training as exercises in effective written or oral
communication.
2. Write instruction relating to a familiar
3. Collect information and write technical
abstract for works manager on such a
subject as machine tools, test equipment.
4. Collect information and write technical
abstract for a designer to cover specific
range of bought-out parts.
5. Examine an order or instruction and
provide answers to such questions as:
(a) What does it mean and who should
act on it?
(b) Is it correctly written, so that it an
achieve its objective?
(c) It is not achieving its objective:
(i) Why not?
(ii) is there provision to ensure that
originator knows?
(iii) Are there factors other than
communication involved?
6. Read and comment on company report
concerning, for example, a development
test or inspection procedure and identify
contribution of good and bad communiation.
7. Participate in format and informal discussions concerning, for example, the
training programme or company work
planning, taking turns as Chairman and
Secretary.
8. Consider and comment on means of
presenting various types of information,
e.g. profit and loss, targets and achievement, time lost, production criteria.
9. Prepare and present selected items of
induction training of junior trainees.
10. Conduct visitors around selected areas
after preparing an itinerary and summary
of information.
444
PART 3
Training
TABLE 3.3 (Continued)
OBJECTIVE TRAINING
EXAMPLE JOB DESCRIPTIONS AND TRAINING PROGRAMMES
Example job descriptions and objective training programmes are included as follows:(1) Example Job Description - Industrial Engineer.
(2) Example Objective Training Programme - Industrial Engineer.
(3) Example Job Description - Estimator.
(4) Example Objective Training Programme - Estimator.
(5) Example Job Description-Welding Technician.
(6) Example Objective Training Programme - Welding Technician.
(7) Example Job Description - Mechanical Engineering Draughtsman.
(8) Example Objective Training Programme - Mechanical Engineering Draughtsman.
APPENDIX D (1)
EXAMPLE JOB DESCRIPTION - INDUSTRIAL ENGINEER
JOB TITLE:
RESPONSIBLE TO:
DEPARTMENT:
LIAISES WITH:
MAIN ACTIVITIES:
Industrial Engineer
Senior Industrial Engineer
Industrial Engineering
Staff in contracts, accounts. production and service departments.
Production supervisors and shop stewards.
(a) Supplies management control information.
(b) Monitors staff and direct labour manpower requirements.
(c) Designs, implements and administers in-centre schemes and labour control
procedures.
(d) Leads team of assistant industrial engineers in method and project invcstigation.
(e) Deputises for Senior Industrial Engineer in his absence.
(f) Advises management on feasibility or suitability of capital equipment.
APPENDIX D (2)
EXAMPLE OBJECTIVE TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR INDUSTRIAL ENGINEER
The contribution made by general training to the skills and knowledge required for the job have been taken into
account. The job calls for additional specific skills and knowledge and the objective training programme illustratcs how these requirements may be met in a particular case.
PROGRAMME
A - SERVICE DEPARTMENTS
Training Specification
To obtain:(a) contact with persons with whom he will subsequently liaise.
(b) understanding of the contribution made by other service departments.
(c) knowledge of the relevance of his own function to the work of other service departments and of the need
for co-ordination.
Time allowed - 4 weeks approximately.
Training Method: The trainee will spend about 2 days in each service department.
445
Training
PART 3
Training Examples: On completion of the attachment to each department the trainee should have an appreciation
of the activities listed:1. Soles
2. Programme
3. D.O.Design
ofice
4. Puchasing
5. Production
Control
6. Quality
Control
7. Accounts
8. Personnel
- type of market
- sales contract estimating and pricing
- escalation and relevance to contract price
- product policy and range.
- application of network analysis
- manpower curves and requirements
- use of computer.
- preparation and distribution of drawings
- material requisition.
- inventory control
- make or buy decisions
- vendor appraisal and selection
- re-order systems
- economic batch quantities
- bulk buying.
- shop loading/sequencing
- store-keeping
- materials movement
- documentation
- quality assurance
- testing procedures.
- standard time, standard costs and cost controls
- budgetary control
- depreciation
- overhead allocation
- wage/salary structure
- analyses of expenditure on materials. labour and capital equipment
- computerisation.
- manpower analyses
- trade unions
- negotiating procedures
- disputes procedures.
B - PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT
Training Specification
To obtain a knowledge of:(a) manpower requirements.
(b) plant capabilities and layout problems.
(c) material handling.
Time allowed - 6 months approximately.
Training Method:
The trainee will work in all principal production areas, undertaking projects. He will be
responsible to the head in each area.
Training Examples: The following training examples should be undertaken in each area visited and short written
reports vetted by the head foreman:(a) Knowledge of total output of the area, with number employed.
(b) Knowledge of machine and lifting appliance capabilities.
(c) Knowledge and experience of material handling systems.
(d) Knowledge of area layout.
(e) Experience of production processes.
(f) Gradually assume responsibility for part of the production process.
C-WORK STUDY DEPARTMENT
Training Specification
To obtain(a) knowledge and experience of methods of analysing and recording work (e.g. process charts, networks).
(b) experience of standard time derivation.
(c) knowledge and experience of time study.
(d) knowledge and experience of activity sampling.
(e) knowledge and experience of learning curves.
(f) experience of the maintenance and issue of work standards.
Time allowed - 9 months approx.
446
PART 3
Training
The trainee will work in the Work Study Department under the guidance of a senior work
study engineer. At appropriate intervals the following courses will be attended:(i) Basic work study: method study techniques, work measurement, rating, activity sampling (2 weeks).
(ii) Skill training: timing and rating. selected techniques (1 week).
(iii) Industrial relations and negotiations (2 weeks).
(iv) Work study techniques: skills analysis, learning curves, report writing (1 week).
(v) Leadership styles and communication (1 week).
(vi) Cost/benefit analysis: costing studies, attitudes to change, case presentation at meetings (2 weeks).
Training Method:
Training Examples:
Method Study Section
(a) Investigate selected operations and recommend new method standards. Monitor implementation and
(b) From plant layout drawings develop optimum methods of performing selected operations.
(c) Investigate existing operations to reduce costs.
lime Study Section
(a) Use standard data to prepare synthetic times for methods developed.
(b) Carry out time studies.
(c) Assist in the investigation of complaints on time standards.
D-LAYOUTS AND METHODS
Training Specification
To obtain experience of:(a) planning new or modified workshop layouts.
(b) planning work flow.
Time allowed - 3 months approximately.
Training Method:
The trainee will be given planned experience in the Planning Office under the guidance of
selected planning engineers.
Training Examples:
(a) Assist in the investigation of a proposal to re-site the pipeworkers.
(b) Assist in the introduction of new equipment into a workshop.
(c) Examine existing plate shop layout and suggest modifications.
E - SYSTEMS DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
Training Specification
To obtain experience of company management control systems.
Time allowed - 2 months approx.
Training Method:
The trainee will work as a junior member of a project team, analysing, defining and develop
ing management control information. He will be given experience of various charting and
recording techniques.
APPENDIX D (3)
EXAMPLE JOB DESCRIPTION-ESTIMATOR
JOB TITLE:
RESPONSIBLE TO:
DEPARTMENT:
LIAISES WITH:
MAIN ACTIVITIES:
Training
PART 3
TABLE 3.3 Continued)
EXAMPLE OBJECTIVE TRAINING PROGRAMME - ESTIMATOR
The contribution made by general training to the skills and knowledge required for the job have been taken into
account. The job calls for additional specific skills and knowledge and the objective training programme illustrates how these requirements may be met in a particular case.
PROGRAMME
A-WORKSHOPS
Training Specification
To obtain:(a) knowledge of machine capabilities.
(b) experience on production of standard and non-standard units.
(c) experience of workshop problems relating to drawings and specifications.
(d) knowledge of the economic choice of materials.
(e) knowledge of manpower capabilities.
Time allowed -4 months approximately.
Training Method:
The trainee will work in each workshop and will become conversant with the operation of
each machine. The objective is not to instil a high degree of skill in machining but to provide
an appreciation, through personal experience, of the capabilities and limitations of each
workshop and a knowledge of the workshop problems.
Training Examples:
(a) Use various simple machines on production items.
(b) View manufacture of selected production items and establish and prepare a written report on capabilities of
machines and lifting quipment.
(c) Estimate quantity of material and manhours in selected production units.
(d) Establish material wastage and suggest cost savings.
B - ON SITE
Training Specification
To obtain:(a) knowledge of dry dock and wet berth facilities.
(b) knowledge of dock authority hire equipment.
(c) experience of repair work on site.
(d) experience of shipowner representatives and their requirements.
(e) an appreciation of manpower allocation.
(f) an understanding of difficulties involved in progressing work between workshops, sub-contractors and the
repair site.
Time allowed - 3 months approximately.
Training Method:
Training Examples:
(a) Assist with dry docking, berthing.
(b) Carry out routine work for the firm with the docks authority.
(c) Participate in a small repair contract and prepare reports on:(i) areas where costs could be improved.
(ii) the detailed manpower allocation (with assistance).
(iii) a comparison of ordered and delivery dates for sub-contract and workshop items.
(d) Carry out routine work with shipowners representative.
(e) Visit main sub-contractors to discuss delivery schedules.
(f ) Assist in allocating manpower on a repair job.
(g) Assist in checking completed repair work and attend any classification authority tests.
C - OFFICE PROCEDURE
Training Specification
To obtain:(a) experience of the procedures used in the purchase and cost office.
tb) skill in establishing the actual cost of jobs after completion.
Ic) knowledge of material costs and normal sub-contract unit costs.
(d) knowledge of the companys tendering procedures.
(C) knowledge of regular suppliers and the companys rating system.
(f) experience in preparing purchase orders, dealing with enquiries and preparing draft letters.
(g) experience in contacting representatives as a means of urging delivery.
Time allowed - 4 months approximately.
448
PART 3
Training
Training Method:
The trainee will work in both the purchase office and the cost office under the guidance of
the Purchasing Manager and Cost Controller respectively.
Training Examples:
(a) Undertake routine material and equipment ordering.
(b) From hourly records and material records produce the actual cost of a repair job.
(c) Assist in the preparation of a tender and prepare a report itemising constraints in negotiations.
(d) Prepare a programme of delivery dates for sub-contract items and follow a repair job. Report on areas for
improvement.
D - ESTIMATING OFFICE
Training Specification
To obtain:(a) knowledge of the build-up of estimates.
(b) knowledge of the effect of price and wages increases on contract profitability.
(c) experience in evaluating actual costs against estimate.
(d) experience of all elerical procedures within the office.
Time allowed - 3 months approximately.
Training Method:
The trainee will work in the Estimating Office under the Chief Estimator.
Training Examples:
(a) Using simple drawings and specifications prepare under guidance an estimate for a tender.
(b) Undertake all clerical duties and become familiar with the office procedures.
(c) Assist in the interpretation of specifications and drawings and prepare under guidance an on-site estimate of
a repair job.
(d) Prepare written reports on current material and contractors costs for office circulation.
(c) Assist the Works Manager in finalising estimates.
APPENDIX D (5)
EXAMPLE JOB DESCRIPTION -WELDING TECHNICIAN
JOB TITLE:
RESPONSIBLE TO:
RESPONSIBLE FOR:
DEPARTMENT:
LIAISES WITH:
MAIN ACTIVITIES:
Welding Technician
Assistant Welding Engineer
Functionally, 2 or 3 squads each consisting of a welder and a caulker.
Welding Engineering.
Drawing office, radiographer, works manager, ship managers, steel trades foremen,
sub-contractors, welding manager.
(a) Examines and reports on welds and welding procedures.
(b) Identifies faults of a non-weIding nature, e.g. laminated plates and structural
weaknesses and reports defects to the welding engineer.
(c) Organists non-destructive testing on ship structures and corrects the defects.
(d) Investigates and reports on welding problems and produces procedures.
(e) Undertakes welding defects at the request of subcontractors on contracted equip(f) Tests and assesses performance of new welding rods.
APPENDIX D (6)
EXAMPLE OBJECTIVE TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR A WELDING TECHNICIAN
The contribution made by general training to the skills and knowledge required for the job have been taken into
account. It is important that during this period the trainee achieves the companys standard of proficiency
specified for craft trainees in all aspects of welding. The job calls for additional specific skills and knowledge and
the objective training programme illustrates how these requirements may be met in a particuiar case.
449
PART 3
Training
RESPONSIBLE TO:
DEPARTMENT:
LIAISES WITH:
Design, construction and electrical drawing offices. production managers and foremen
of engineering and pipework departments, sub-contractors.
MAIN ACTIVITIES:
(a) Prepares machinery arrangement and floor plates, platforms and ladder drawings,
from specifications and sub-contractors drawings.
(b) Prepares piping system diagrams, geographical pipework arrangements, parts and
materials lists from specifications and sub-contractors requirements.
(c) Prepares stern gear drawings for shafting and stem tube from specification and in
consultation with the design and construction drawing offices.
(d) Prepares drawings of components for manufacture.
(e) Prepares drawings for auxiliary equipment seatings and shell penetrations.
(f) Prepares control room layout, remote control systems and instrumentation draw.
(g) Prepares arrangement drawings for (i) lifting, removal and maintenance of engine
room equipment,
(ii) engine room ventilation drawings and
(iii) engine store rooms and workshops.
(h) Attends sea trial and produce "as fitted drawings.
APPENDIX D (8)
EXAMPLE OBJECTIVE TRAINING - MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DRAUGHTSMAN
Account has been taken of the contribution made by General Training to the job skills and knowledge requirements. However, this job calls for additional specific skills and knowledge and the following Objective Training
programme illustrates how these requirements may be made in a particular case.
PROGRAMME
A - QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT
Training Specification
The trainee will work in the department and will be responsible to the departmental head.
The trainee must be actively concerned in the selected departments activities; he should not
be just art observer.
Training Examples:
(a) Check quality of in-coming materials and report.
(b) Assist departmental personnel with inspections on board ship when under construction.
(c) Assist decpartmental personnel and Classification Societys surveyors with inspections and tests of systems
on board ship when under construction.
(d) Record data as instructed when ship is undergoing basin and sea trials.
B - PRODUCTlON CONTROL DEPARTMENT
Training Specification
To obtain knowledge of:(a) production control procedures.
(b) procurement procedures.
(c) P.E.R.T. systems and operation.
Time allowed - 3 months approximately.
4
PART 3
TABLE 3.3 (Continued)
Training Method:
The trainee will work in the department and will be responsible to the departmental bead.
The trainee must be actively concerned in the departments activities; he should not be just
an observer.
Training Examples: Under supervision, plan and control the production of a pipe system; for example, firefighting system or bilge system.
C - SHIP DRAWING OFFICE
Training Specification
To obtain:(a) contact with persons with whom he will subsequently liaise.
(b) understanding of the contribution made by the Ship Drawing Office.
(c) knowledge of the relevance of his own function to the work of the Ship Drawing Office and the need for
co-ordination.
Time allowed - 8 weeks approximately.
Training Method:
The trainee will work in sections with which he will liaise in the future.
Training Examples:
(a) Ship steelwork
(b) Layout
(c) System provision
- construction items
materials
building process.
- space allocation for engine-room,
deck machinery.
- pipe runs
auxiliary machinery
tanks
ventilation.
- Classification Societies
owners requirements
British Standards
engine and machinery spares
refrigeration requirements.
451
PART 3
Management
3.6
Management
Engineering for skip production must to be managed just like any other worthwhile
activity. However, the approach to engineering can reduce the complexity of management
in the same way it simplifies planning and scheduling. This is possible because of the
following factors:
l
l
l
l
l
l
The additional functions can all be considered subsets of the first four, as shown by
the relationships indicated in parenthesis.
Planning is the who, what, where, and when decision phase of management. It
utiIizes tools such as work breakdown structures, task listings, sequencing, networking, and
critical path method, along with engineering and manufactuing skills to select an efficient
approach to designing, procuring material, and constructing a product.
Organizing consists of both the design of the organization and its staffing and
training. They have been discussed already.
Directing is the ordering by commands, instructing by example, or suggesting by
consultation, of the necessary actions to obtain the desired result. It is here that the art
of management is truly most applied. This art, as well as controlling people, is the
melding of the planning and organizin g, which in turn are tools or systems to determine if
the art was successful in accomplishing the plan.
452
PART 3
Management
Controlling is the analysis of operating results in comparison with the plan. If the
results do not conform, action must be taken to improve the future results so that the final
outcome will achieve or better the plan. Controlling also involves feedback of the results,
so they can be used by planning in the future. The control of any business endeavor
requires the following basic knowledge:
l
l
l
With this knowledge, managers can control the work if the following feedback is provided:
Is the work being done on schedule?
Is the performance better or worse than budgeted?
How can problems be corrected?
l Are any adverse trends developing?
l
l
Any management control system must address all the above questions.
There is an obvious logical sequence of these functions for every project, namely,
planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. Once initiated, the control function may
require continuous replanning, reorganizin g, and redirecting if results are not to plan.
As in any business, assuming an effective organization is in place, planning,
scheduling, and control are the keys to success. Without them, the basic concepts of the
modern integrated shipyard would be unworkable. It is therefore likely that in a modern
shipyard an integrated management information system will be used for these functions.
In such a case, it is necessary for engineering to prepare the information used by the
system. Even with such an integrated system it is probable that engineering prepares two
schedules which are unique to its function, and they are:
l
Drawing Schedule
This schedule should list all product engineering drawings which are required to
construct the ship. It should have an upper and lower row for each entry in which
scheduled and actual dates are listed, respectively. Columns should be provided for
dates for drawing start, completing, submittal to owner, classification and
regulatory bodies, and issue. The drawing schedule is used for a number of
purposes by the shipyard and others, such as an index of drawings, and as a
record of approval action. It should not be used to control or progress the project.
The drawing schedule could be an automatic fallout from the integrated planning,
scheduling, and control system, as all the information is in the common data base.
There are still many shipyards where the different departments plan, schedule, and
control independently! A major or key event schedule is used as the integrating document,
but it is difficult to keep up-to-date for changes in any of the independent systems. The
outcome is usually unreliable, confusing, and an open invitation to conflict between the
453
PART 3
Management
454
PART 3
Management
PART 3
REFERENCES
1. T.J. Peters and R. Waterman, In search of excellence (Harper and Row).
2. J. Naisbitt, Megatrends (Warner Books).
3. T. Lamb, The impact of N/C on shipyard management. SNAME Hampton Road
Section, 1974.
4. Improved design process.
MarAd 1979.
460
CLOSURE
Many shipbuilders state that the U.S. shipbuilding industry, to survive, must
emulate the best Japanese technology. It is suggested that it is not good enough for the
U.S. to try to catch up with the best competition by adopting their current technology. It
should be obvious that while the U.S. was catching up, the competition would be
improving. While it is often argued that it is possible to catch up at a faster rate than the
best can improve, it rarely happens. Figure C.l shows why. It is necessary for the U.S.
shipbuilding industry to leapfrog over the competition to beyond where the competition
expects to be five or ten years from now. Such a goal is attainable, and such achievements
have been accomplished in the aerospace field. Hargrove [l] showed that such
technological leaps have been made in the shipbuilding industry, and account for the
technology gap between the best and the rest. Figure C.2, based on his findings, shows
the quantum jump necessary for the U.S. shipbuilding industry to become competitive by
the end of this decade. It can be done if the country decides to do it.
While it would be foolish to suggest that this can be accomplished through the efforts
of engineering alone, engineering can play a significant role, along with innovative
management, production utilizing the best shipbuilding technology, and motivated people,
to achieve the desired goal. It will not be achieved by looking for improvements by
modifying current methods. It will only be accomplished by concentrating on the overall
objective, and then, without regard to the present ways, determining how to achieve it, and
initiating the necessary action.
The challenge is clear! To become a viable industry the U.S. shipbuilding companies
must:
ACHIEVE COMPETITIVE,
PROFITABLE,
HIGH-PRODUCTIVITY,
SHORT-BUILDING-CYCLE,
SHIPBUILDING
The only way to do this is to:
USE INNOVATIVE AND CREATIVE
ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
TO DEVELOP NEW
RATHER THAN IMPROVED
SHIPBUILDING
TECHNOLOGY
Figure C.3 shows the essential steps, as a series of levels in the goal pyramid that
must be reached to attain the goal. There are no shortcuts, and all the levels are
necessary. Omit any one or more of them and it will be impossible to attain the goal.
Education without a goal will only result in better educated people doing the same thing.
Implementation without education and training is doomed to fail. Once the goal is
determined, and the necessary education, achievement strategy, and training levels are
reached, it is obviously essential to reach the implementation level. If the new technology
is not actually used, all that will result is a better educated and trained shipbuilding staff
still performing shipbuilding in the old traditional way.
461
CLOSURE
463
CLOSURE
REFERENCES
465