Paul Kagame

Paul Kagame (/kme/; born 23 October 1957) is

the sixth and current President of Rwanda having taken
oce in 2000 when his predecessor, Pasteur Bizimungu,
resigned. Kagame previously commanded the rebel force
that ended the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. He was considered Rwandas de facto leader when he served as Vice
President and Minister of Defence from 1994 to 2000.

As president, Kagame has prioritised national development, launching a programme to develop Rwanda as a
middle income country by 2020. As of 2013, the country is developing strongly on key indicators, including
health care and education; annual growth between 2004
and 2010 averaged 8% per year. Kagame has had mostly
good relations with the East African Community and the
United States; his relations with France were poor until
2009. Relations with the DRC remain tense despite the
2003 ceasere; human rights groups and a leaked United
Nations report allege Rwandan support for two insurgencies in the country, a charge Kagame denies. Several
countries suspended aid payments in 2012 following these
allegations. Kagame is popular in Rwanda and with some
foreign observers; human rights groups accuse him of political repression. He won an election in 2003, under a
new constitution adopted that year, and was elected for a
second term in 2010.

Kagame was born to a Tutsi family in southern Rwanda.

When he was two years old, the Rwandan Revolution
ended centuries of Tutsi political dominance; his family ed to Uganda, where he spent the rest of his childhood. In the 1980s, Kagame fought in Yoweri Museveni's rebel army, becoming a senior Ugandan army ofcer after Musevenis military victories carried him to
the Ugandan presidency. Kagame joined the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF), which invaded Rwanda in 1990;
leader Fred Rwigyema died early in the war and Kagame
took control. By 1993, the RPF controlled signicant territory in Rwanda and a ceasere was negotiated.
The assassination of Rwandan President Juvnal Habyarimana was the starting point of the genocide, in which 1 Early life
Hutu extremists killed an estimated 500,000 to one million Tutsi and moderate Hutu. Kagame resumed the civil
Kagame was born on 23 October 1957, the youngest of
war, and ended the genocide with a military victory.
six children,[1] in Tambwe, Ruanda-Urundi, a village loDuring his vice presidency, Kagame controlled the na- cated in the modern Southern Province of Rwanda.[2]
tional army and maintained law and order, while other of- His father, Deogratias, was a member of the Tutsi ethcials began rebuilding the country. Many RPF soldiers nic group, from which the royal family had been derived
carried out retribution killings; it is disputed whether since the eighteenth century or earlier.[3] Deogratias had
Kagame organised these, or was powerless to stop them. family ties to King Mutara III, but he chose to pursue
Hutu refugee camps formed in Zaire and other countries, an independent business career rather than maintain a
which were controlled by the genocidaires (participants close connection to the royal court.[1] Kagames mother,
in the genocide) and threatened Rwandas security. The Asteria Rutagambwa, was also a Tutsi, descended from
RPF indiscriminately attacked the camps in 1996, forc- the family of the last Rwandan queen, Rosalie Giing many refugees to return home, but insurgents contin- canda.[1] At the time of Kagames birth, Rwanda was
ued to attack Rwanda. The attack on the refugees camps a United Nations Trust Territory; long-time colonial
killed an estimated 200,000 people. According to the UN power Belgium still ruled the territory, but with a manMapping report the attacks could be tantamount to geno- date to oversee independence.[4][5] Rwandans were made
cide potentially making Paul Kagame a war criminal. As up of three distinct groups: the minority Tutsi were
part of the invasion, Kagame sponsored two controversial the traditional ruling class, and the Belgians had long
rebel wars in Zaire. The Rwandan- and Ugandan-backed promoted their supremacy,[6] while the majority Hutu
rebels won the rst war (199697), installing Laurent- were agriculturalists.[7] The third group, the Twa, were
Dsir Kabila as president in place of dictator Mobutu a forest-dwelling pygmy people who are descended from
and renaming the country as the Democratic Republic Rwandas earliest inhabitants and formed less than 1% of
of the Congo (DRC). The second war was launched in the population.[8]
1998 against Kabila, and later his son Joseph, following
the DRC governments expulsion of Rwandan and Ugan- Tension between Tutsi and Hutu had been escalating durdan military forces from the country. The war escalated ing the 1950s, and culminated in the 1959 Rwandan
into a continent-wide conict which lasted until a 2003 Revolution. Hutu activists began killing Tutsi, forcing more than 100,000 to seek refuge in neighbouring
peace deal and ceasere.
countries.[9][10] Kagames family abandoned their home,
1

2 MILITARY CAREER, 19791994

living for two years in the far northeast of Rwanda and

eventually crossing the border into Uganda. They moved
gradually north, and settled in the Nshungerezi refugee
camp in the Toro sub-region in 1962.[1] It was around this
time that, as young boys, Kagame and his future comrade,
Fred Rwigyema, rst met one another.[11]
Kagame began his primary education in a school near
the refugee camp, where he and other Rwandan refugees
learned English and began to integrate into Ugandan
culture.[12] At the age of nine he moved to the respected
Rwengoro Primary School, around 16 kilometres (10 mi)
away, graduating with the best grades in the district.[13]
He subsequently attended Ntare School, one of the best
schools in Uganda. It is also the alma mater of future
Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni.[13] The death of
Kagames father in the early 1970s, and the departure
of Rwigyema to an unknown location, led to a decline
in his academic performance and an increased tendency Kagame served under Yoweri Museveni in the Ugandan Bush
to ght those who belittled the Rwandan population.[14] War and later in the Ugandan national army
He was eventually suspended from Ntare and completed
his studies without distinction at Old Kampala Secondary
School.[15]
and he and his followers withdrew from the new govAfter nishing his schooling Kagame made two visits to
ernment in protest. In 1981, Museveni formed the
Rwanda, in 1977 and 1978. He was initially hosted by
rebel National Resistance Army (NRA); Kagame and
family members of his former classmates, but upon arRwigyema joined as founding soldiers, along with thirtyrival in Kigali he made contact with members of his own
eight Ugandans.[21][22] The armys goal was to over[16]
family.
He kept a low prole on these visits, believthrow Obotes government, in what became known as the
ing that his status as a well-connected Tutsi exile could
Ugandan Bush War.[22][23]
lead to arrest; on his second visit he entered the country
through Zaire rather than Uganda to avoid suspicion.[16] Kagame and Rwigyema joined the NRA primarily to
Kagame used his time in Rwanda to explore the country, ease conditions for Rwandan refugees persecuted by
familiarise himself with the political and social situation, Obote. They also had a long-term goal of returning
and make connections that would prove useful to him in with other Tutsi refugees to Rwanda; military experience would enable them to ght the Hutu-dominated
his later activities.[16]
Rwandan army.[24] In the NRA, Kagame specialised in
intelligence-gathering, and he rose to a position close to
Musevenis.[25] The NRA, based in the Luwero Triangle,
2 Military career, 19791994
fought the Ugandan army for the next ve years, even after Obote was deposed in a 1985 coup d'tat and the start
of peace talks.[26]
2.1 Ugandan Bush War
Main article: Ugandan Bush War
In 1978, Fred Rwigyema returned to western Uganda and
reunited with Kagame.[17] During his absence, Rwigyema
had joined the rebel army of Yoweri Museveni. Based in
Tanzania, it aimed to overthrow the Ugandan government
of Idi Amin.[17] Rwigyema returned to Tanzania and
fought in the 1979 war during which Musevenis army,
allied with the Tanzanian army and other Ugandan exiles, defeated Amin.[18] After Amins defeat, inspired by
Rwigyema, Kagame and other Rwandan refugees pledged
allegiance to Museveni, a cabinet member in the transition government.[19] Kagame travelled to Tanzania where
the Tanzanian government, which sought to protect the
new Ugandan regime, trained him as a spy.[20]

In 1986, the NRA captured Kampala with a force of

14,000 soldiers, including 500 Rwandans, and formed
a new government.[27] After Musevenis inauguration as
president he appointed Kagame and Rwigyema as senior ocers in the new Ugandan army; Kagame was the
head of military intelligence.[28][29] In addition to their
army duties, Kagame and Rwigyema began building a
covert network of Rwandan Tutsi refugees within the
armys ranks, intended as the nucleus for an attack on
Rwanda.[30] In 1989 Rwandas President Habyarimana
and many Ugandans in the army began to criticise Museveni over his appointment of Rwandan refugees to senior
positions,[31] and he demoted Kagame and Rwigyema.[32]

They remained de facto senior ocers, but the

change caused them to accelerate their plans to inFormer incumbent Milton Obote won the 1980 Ugan- vade Rwanda.[33] They joined an organisation called the
dan general election. Museveni disputed the result, Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a refugee association

2.3

Rwandan Genocide

which had been operating under various names since

1979.[34] Rwigyema became the RPF leader shortly after
joining and, while still working for the Ugandan army, he
and Kagame completed their invasion plans.[35]

2.2

Rwandan Civil War

Main article: Rwandan Civil War

In October 1990, Rwigyema led a force of over 4,000[36]

3
suspending peace talks temporarily and launching a major
attack, gaining a large swathe of land across the north of
the country.[47]
Peace negotiations resumed in Arusha, and the resulting
set of agreements, known as the Arusha Accords, were
signed in August 1993. The RPF were given positions
in a broad-based transitional government (BBTG) and in
the national army.[48][49] The United Nations Assistance
Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), a peacekeeping force,
arrived and the RPF were given a base in the national parliament building in Kigali to use during the establishment
of the BBTG.[50]

2.3 Rwandan Genocide

Main article: Rwandan Genocide

The Virunga Mountains, Kagames RPF base from 19901991

RPF rebels into Rwanda at the Kagitumba border post,

advancing 60 km (37 mi) south to the town of Gabiro.[37]
Paul Kagame was not present at the initial raids, as he
was attending a course at the Command and General Sta
College in Fort Leavenworth, United States. Rwigyema
was killed on the third day of the attack,[38] throwing the
RPF into confusion. France and Zaire deployed forces in
support of the Rwandan army, and by the end of October, the RPF had been pushed back into the far north east
corner of the country.[39]
Kagame returned to Africa and took command of the
RPF forces, which had been reduced to fewer than 2,000
troops.[40] Kagame and his soldiers moved west, through
Uganda, to the Virunga Mountains, a rugged high-altitude
area where the terrain worked in their favor.[41] From
there he re-armed and reorganised the army, and carried out fundraising and recruitment from the Tutsi
diaspora.[42] Kagame restarted combat in January 1991,
with an attack on the northern town of Ruhengeri. Beneting from the element of surprise, the RPF captured the
town and held it for a day before retreating back into the
forests.[43]

On 6 April 1994, Rwandan President Habyarimanas

plane was shot down near Kigali Airport, killing both
Habyarimana and the President of Burundi, Cyprien
Ntaryamira, as well as their entourage and three French
crew members.[51][52] The attackers remain unknown.
Historian Grard Prunier, in a book written shortly after the incident, concluded that it was most likely a coup
d'tat carried out by extreme Hutu members of Habyarimanas government, and was a planned part of the
genocide.[53] This theory was disputed in 2006 by French
judge Jean-Louis Bruguire, and in 2008 by Spanish
judge Fernando Andreu.[54] Both alleged that Kagame
and the RPF were responsible.[55] At the end of 2010
the French government ordered a more thorough judicial inquiry, which employed ballistics experts. That review concluded in 2012 that the shots had originated from
Camp Kanombe, an area controlled at the time by the
Rwandan army; this report rearmed the initial theory
that Hutu extremists assassinated Habyarimana.[56]

Following Habyarimanas death, a military committee

led by Colonel Thoneste Bagosora took immediate control of the country.[57] Under the committees direction,
the Hutu paramilitary group Interahamwe and the presidential guard began to kill Hutu and Tutsi opposition
politicians and other prominent Tutsi gures;[58] within
24 hours they had killed all moderate leaders, [59] including prime minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana.[60] The
killers then began targeting the entire Tutsi population,
as well as moderate Hutu,[61] beginning the Rwandan
Genocide.[62] Over the course of approximately 100 days,
[63]
Tutsi and politically
For the next year, the RPF waged a classic hit-and-run between 500,000 and 1,000,000
moderate
Hutu
were
killed
in
well-planned
attacks.[64]
style guerrilla war, capturing some border areas but not
making signicant gains in the war against the Rwandan On 7 April, Kagame warned the committee and UNarmy.[44] Following the June 1992 formation of a multi- AMIR that he would resume the civil war if the killing
party coalition government in Kigali, Kagame announced did not stop.[65] The next day, the Rwandan government
a ceasere and initiated negotiations with the Rwandan forces attacked the national parliament building from sevgovernment in Arusha, Tanzania.[45] In early 1993 groups eral directions, but the RPF troops stationed there sucof extremist Hutu formed and began campaigns of large- cessfully fought back;[66] Kagame began an attack from
scale violence against the Tutsi.[46] Kagame responded by the north on three fronts, seeking to link up quickly with

4 VICE PRESIDENT AND MINISTER OF DEFENCE

the troops isolated in Kigali.[67] An interim government

was set up but Kagame refused to talk to it, believing that
it was just a cover for Bagosoras rule.[68] Over the next
few days, the RPF advanced steadily south, capturing
Gabiro and large areas of countryside to the north and east
of Kigali.[69] They avoided attacking Kigali or Byumba at
this stage, but conducted manoeuvres designed to encircle
the cities and cut o supply routes.[70] The RPF allowed
Tutsi refugees from Uganda to settle behind the front line
in the RPF-controlled areas.[70]
Throughout April there were numerous attempts by UNAMIR to establish a ceasere, but Kagame insisted each
time that the RPF would not stop ghting unless the
killings stopped.[71] In late April the RPF secured the
whole of the Tanzanian border area and began to move
west from Kibungo, to the south of Kigali.[72] They
encountered little resistance, except around Kigali and
Ruhengeri.[68] By 16 May, they had cut the road between
Kigali and Gitarama, the temporary home of the interim
government, and by 13 June, they had taken Gitarama,
following an unsuccessful attempt by the Rwandan government forces to reopen the road. The interim government was forced to relocate to Gisenyi in the far north
west.[73] As well as ghting the war, Kagame was recruiting heavily to expand the army. The new recruits included Tutsi survivors of the genocide and refugees from
Burundi, but were less well trained and disciplined than
the earlier recruits.[74]
Having completed the encirclement of Kigali, Kagame
spent the latter half of June ghting to take the city.[75]
The government forces had superior manpower and
weapons, but the RPF steadily gained territory, as well as
conducting raids to rescue civilians from behind enemy
lines.[75] According to Romo Dallaire, the force commander of UNAMIR, this success was due to Kagame being a master of psychological warfare";[75] he exploited
the fact that the government forces were concentrating
on the genocide rather than the ght for Kigali, and capitalised on the governments loss of morale as it lost
territory.[75] The RPF nally defeated the Rwandan government forces in Kigali on 4 July,[76] and on 18 July took
Gisenyi and the rest of the north west, forcing the interim government into Zaire and ending the genocide.[77]
At the end of July 1994, Kagames forces held the whole
of Rwanda except for a zone in the south west, which had
been occupied by a French-led United Nations force as
part of Opration Turquoise.[78][79]

Marriage and children

On 10 June 1989 in Uganda, Kagame married Jeannette

Nyiramongi, a Tutsi exile living in Nairobi, Kenya. [80]
Kagame had asked his relatives to suggest a suitable marriage and they recommended Nyiramongi. Kagame travelled to Nairobi and introduced himself, persuading her
to visit him in Uganda. Nyiramongi was familiar with

Jeannette Kagame

the RPF, and its goal of returning refugees to Rwanda.

She held Kagame in high regard.[80] The couple have four
children.[81] Their rst child, a son they named Ivan Cyomoro Kagame, was born in 1990.[82] Since then a daughter, Ange Kagame, and sons Ian and Brian have been
born.[81]

4 Vice President and Minister of

Defence
The post-genocide Rwandan government took oce in
Kigali in July 1994.[83] It was based loosely on the Arusha
Accords, but Habyarimanas party was outlawed. The
positions it had been assigned were taken over by the
RPF.[84] The military wing of the RPF was renamed as
the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), and became the national army.[85] Paul Kagame assumed the dual roles of
Vice President of Rwanda and Minister of Defence while
Pasteur Bizimungu, a Hutu who had been a civil servant under Habyarimana before eeing to join the RPF,
was appointed president.[86][87] Bizimungu and his cabinet had some control over domestic aairs, but Kagame
remained commander-in-chief of the army and was the
de facto ruler of the country.[88][89]

4.1 Domestic situation

The infrastructure and economy of the country had suffered greatly during the genocide. Many buildings were
uninhabitable, and the former regime had carried with
them all currency and moveable assets when they ed
the country.[90] Human resources were also severely depleted, with over 40% of the population having been
killed or ed.[90] Many of the remainder were traumatised: most had lost relatives, witnessed killings or
participated in the genocide.[91] The army, controlled
by Kagame, maintained law and order while the government began the work of rebuilding the countrys

4.2

Refugee crisis and insurgency

5
120,000 suspects were arrested. The prisons were overcrowded and the courts could not process all the cases.
By 2006 only 10,000 of those arrested had been tried.[103]
The government introduced Gacaca, a village court system based on traditional Rwandan justice. The Gacaca
process allowed for faster processing of cases, but lacked
many safeguards and principles of international criminal
law.[104]

Vice President Kagame with United States Secretary of Defense

William Perry in July 1994

structures.[92][93]

The unity government suered a partial collapse in

1995. The continuing violence, along with appointing
of local government ocials who were almost exclusively RPF Tutsi, caused serious disagreement between
Kagame and senior Hutu government members, including prime minister Faustin Twagiramungu and interior
minister Seth Sendashonga.[105] Twagiramungu resigned
in August, and Kagame red Sendashonga and three others the next day.[105] Pasteur Bizimungu remained president but the makeup of the new government was predominantly RPF Tutsi loyal to Kagame.[106] Twagiramungu
and Sendashonga moved abroad to form a new opposition party shortly after leaving the government.[107]

Non-governmental organisations began to move back into

the country, but the international community did not provide signicant assistance to the new regime, and most
international aid was routed to the refugee camps which
had formed in Zaire following the exodus of Hutu from
Rwanda.[94] Kagame strove to portray the government as
inclusive and not Tutsi dominated. He directed removal 4.2 Refugee crisis and insurgency
of ethnicity from citizens national identity cards, and the
government began a policy of downplaying the distinc- Main article: Great Lakes refugee crisis
Following the RPF victory, approximately two million
tions between Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.[92]
During the genocide and in the months following the
RPF victory, RPF soldiers killed many people they accused of participating in or supporting the genocide.[95]
Many of these soldiers were recent Tutsi recruits from
within Rwanda, who had lost family or friends and
sought revenge.[95] The scale, scope, and source of ultimate responsibility of these killings is disputed. Human
Rights Watch, as well as scholars such as Prunier, allege that the death toll might be as high as 100,000,[96]
and that Kagame and the RPF elite either tolerated or
organised the killings.[97] In an interview with journalist Stephen Kinzer, Kagame acknowledged that killings
had occurred but stated that they were carried out by
rogue soldiers and had been impossible to control.[98] The
RPF killings gained international attention with the 1995
Kibeho massacre, in which soldiers opened re on a camp
for internally displaced persons in Butare Province.[99]
Australian soldiers serving as part of UNAMIR estimated
at least 4,000 people were killed,[100] while the Rwandan
government claimed that the death toll was 338.[101]

Refugee camp in Zaire, 1994

Hutu ed to refugee camps in neighbouring countries,

particularly Zaire, fearing RPF reprisals for the Rwandan Genocide.[108] The camps were set up by the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
but were eectively controlled by the army and government of the former Hutu regime, including many leaders of the genocide.[109] This regime was determined to
return to power in Rwanda and began rearming, killing
Tutsi residing in Zaire, and launching cross-border incursions in conjunction with the Interahamwe paramilitary
group.[110][111] By late 1996, the Hutu militants represented a serious threat to the new Rwandan regime, and
Kagame launched a counteroensive.[112]

Shortly after taking power, the Rwandan government began prosecuting crimes committed during the
genocide.[102] The International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda, operating under a United Nations mandate, was
set up in Arusha to judge the most senior leaders responsible for the genocide. In addition, the Rwandan government determined to prosecute all suspected perpetrators,
including the many ordinary citizens who had taken part
in the killings, in order to end the culture of impunity Kagame rst provided troops and military training[111]
that it blamed for the genocide. Between 1994 and 2000, to aid a rebellion against Zaire by the Banyamulenge,

6
a Tutsi group living near Bukavu in the Zairian South
Kivu province.[113] With Rwandan army support, the
Banyamulenge defeated local security forces and began
attacking the Hutu refugee camps in the area. At the
same time, Kagames forces joined with Zairian Tutsi
around Goma to attack two of the camps there.[113][111]
Most refugees from the attacked camps moved to the
large Mugunga camp. In November 1996 the Rwandan
army attacked Mugunga, causing an estimated 800,000
refugees to ee.[114] Many returned to Rwanda despite the
presence of the RPF; others ventured further west into
Zaire.[115]

4 VICE PRESIDENT AND MINISTER OF DEFENCE

Kagame and the Rwandan government retained strong inuence over Kabila following his inauguration, and the
RPA maintained a heavy presence in Kinshasa.[126] Congolese in the capital resented this, as did many in the
eastern Kivu provinces, where ethnic clashes increased
sharply.[127] In July 1998, Kabila red his Rwandan chiefof-sta, James Kabarebe, and ordered all RPA troops to
leave the country.[128] Kagame accused Kabila of supporting the ongoing insurgency against Rwanda from
North Kivu, the same accusation he had made about
Mobutu.[129] He responded to the expulsion of his soldiers
by backing a new rebel group, the Rally for Congolese
Democracy (RCD), and launching the Second Congo
War.[130] The rst action of the war was a blitzkrieg
by the RCD and RPA, led by Kabarebe. These forces
made quick gains, advancing in twelve days from the
Kivu provinces west to within 130 kilometres (81 mi) of
Kinshasa.[131] The capital was saved by the intervention
of Angola and Zimbabwe on Kabilas side.[132] Following
the failure of the blitzkrieg, the conict developed into a
long-term conventional war, which lasted until 2003 and
caused millions of deaths and massive damage.[124] According to a report by the International Rescue Committee (IRC), this conict led to the loss of between 3 million
and 7.6 million lives, many through starvation and disease
accompanying the social disruption of the war.[133]

Despite the disbanding of the camps, the defeated forces

of the former regime continued a cross-border insurgency
campaign into Rwanda from North Kivu.[116] The insurgents maintained a presence in Rwandas north western
provinces and were supported by the predominantly Hutu
population, many of whom had lived in the refugee camps
before they were attacked.[117] In addition to supporting
the wars in the Congo, Kagame began a propaganda campaign to bring the Hutu to his side.[118] He integrated former soldiers of the deposed genocidal regimes military
into the RPF-dominated national army and appointed senior Hutu to key local government positions in the areas hit by insurgency.[118] These tactics were eventually
successful; by 1999, the population in the north west
had stopped supporting the insurgency and the insurgents Although Kagames primary reason for the two wars in
were mostly defeated.[119]
the Congo was Rwandas security, he was alleged to gain
economic benet by exploiting the mineral wealth of the
eastern Congo.[134] The 2001 United Nations Report of
4.3 Congo Wars
the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural
Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic
Main articles: First Congo War and Second Congo War Republic of the Congo alleged that Kagame, along with
Ugandan President Museveni, were on the verge of beAlthough his primary reason for military action in Zaire coming the godfathers of the illegal exploitation of natwas the dismantling of the refugee camps, Kagame also ural resources and the continuation of the conict in the
[135]
The report also
began planning a war to remove long-time dictator Pres- Democratic Republic of the Congo.
[111]
ident Mobutu Sese Seko from power.
Mobutu had claimed that the Rwandan Ministry of Defence contained
supported the genocidaires based in the camps, and was a Congo Desk dedicated to collecting taxes from comalso accused of allowing attacks on Tutsi people within panies licensed to mine minerals around Kisangani, and
Zaire.[120] Together with Ugandan President Yoweri Mu- that substantial quantities of coltan and diamonds passed
seveni, Kagame supported the newly created Alliance of through Kigali before being resold on the international
[136]
International
Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (ADFL), market by sta on the Congo Desk.
an alliance of four rebel groups headed by Laurent-Dsir NGO Global Witness also conducted eld studies in early
Kabila, which began waging the First Congo War.[121] 2013. It concluded that minerals from North and South
The ADFL, helped by Rwandan and Ugandan troops, Kivu are exported illegally to Rwanda and then marketed
[137]
Kagame dismissed these allegations as
took control of North and South Kivu provinces in as Rwandan.
November 1996 and then advanced west, gaining terri- unsubstantiated and politically motivated; in a 2002 intory from the poorly organised and demotivated Zairian terview with newsletter Africa Condential, Kagame said
army with little ghting.[122] By May 1997, they con- that if solid evidence against Rwandan ocers was pre[138]
In 2010,
trolled almost the whole of Zaire except for the capi- sented, it would be dealt with very seriously.
tal Kinshasa; Mobutu ed and the ADFL took the cap- the United Nations released a report accusing the Rwanital without ghting.[123] The country was renamed as the dan army of committing wide scale human rights violaDemocratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Kabila tions and crimes against humanity in the Democratic Rebecame the new president.[124] The Rwandan Defence public of the Congo during the First and Second Congo
[139]
Forces and the ADFL were accused of carrying out mass Wars, charges denied by the Rwandan government.
atrocities during the First Congo War, with as many as
222,000 Rwandan Hutu refugees declared missing.[125]

5.3

Election campaigns

Presidency

adhere to a set of fundamental principles including equitable power sharing and democracy.[155] The commission
sought to ensure that the draft constitution was home5.1 Accession
grown, relevant to Rwandas specic needs, and reected
the views of the entire population; they sent questionIn the late 1990s, Kagame began to disagree pubnaires to civil groups across the country and rejected oflicly with Bizimungu and the Hutu-led government in
fers of help from the international community, except for
[140][141]
Rwanda.
Kagame accused Bizimungu of corrupnancial assistance.[156]
[142]
tion and poor management,
while Bizimungu felt that
he had no power over appointments to the cabinet and The draft constitution was released in 2003; it was apthat the National Assembly was acting purely as a puppet proved by the parliament, and was then put to a referenfor Kagame.[143] Bizimungu resigned from the presidency dum in May of that year.[157] The referendum was widely
in March 2000.[144] Historians do not agree on the pre- promoted by the government; ultimately, 95% of eligicise circumstances of Bizimungus departure; American ble adults registered to vote and the turnout on voting day
author Stephen Kinzer contends that one of the presi- was 87%.[158] The constitution was overwhelmingly acdents friends called Kagame with the startling news that cepted, with 93% voting in favour.[158] The constitution
the president was preparing to resign[145] while Prunier provided for a two-house parliament, an elected president
states that Bizimungu was forced to resign, having de- serving seven-year terms, and multi-party politics.[158]
nounced the National Assembly and attempted to sow The constitution also sought to prevent Hutu or Tutsi
discord within the RPF.[143] Following Bizimungus res- hegemony over political power.[158] Article 54 states that
ignation, the Supreme Court ruled that Kagame should political organizations are prohibited from basing thembecome acting president until a permanent successor was selves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex,
religion or any other division which may give rise to
chosen.[146]
discrimination.[159] According to Human Rights Watch,
Kagame had been de facto leader since 1994, but had fothis clause, along with later laws enacted by the parliacused more on military, foreign aairs and the countrys
ment, eectively make Rwanda a one-party state, as unsecurity than day-to-day governance. By 2000, the threat
der the guise of preventing another genocide, the govposed by cross-border rebels was much reduced and when
ernment displays a marked intolerance of the most basic
Bizimungu resigned, Kagame decided to seek the presiforms of dissent.[160]
[140]
dency himself.
The transitional constitution was still
in eect, which meant the president was elected by government ministers and the national assembly rather than
5.3 Election campaigns
by a direct election.[147]
The RPF selected two candidates, Kagame and RPF secretary general Charles Murigande; the ministers and parliament elected Kagame by eighty-one votes to three.[148]
Kagame was sworn in as president in April 2000.[149]
Several Hutu politicians, including the prime minister
Pierre-Clestin Rwigema, left the government at around
the same time as Bizimungu, leaving a cabinet dominated
by those close to Kagame.[145] Bizimungu started his
own party following his resignation, but this was quickly
banned for destabilising the country.[150] He was subsequently arrested[151] and convicted of corruption and
inciting ethnic violence. He was imprisoned until 2007,
when he was pardoned by Kagame.[152]

5.2

New constitution

Main article: Constitution of Rwanda

Between 1994 and 2003, Rwanda was governed by
a set of documents combining President Habyarimanas 1991 constitution, the Arusha Accords, and
some additional protocols introduced by the transitional
government.[153] As required by the accords, Kagame set
up a constitutional commission to draft a new permanent constitution.[154] The constitution was required to

5.3.1 Presidential election, 2003

Main article: Rwandan presidential election, 2003
Following the adoption of the new constitution in May
2003, the government set dates for the rst elections to
be held under the new law. The presidential poll was set
for 25 August 2003.[161] In May, the parliament voted to
ban the Republican Democratic Movement (MDR), following a parliamentary commission report accusing the
MDR of divisive ideology.[162] The MDR had been one
of the coalition parties in the transitional government of
national unity, and was the second largest party in the
country after the RPF.[163] Amnesty International criticised this move, claiming that the unfounded allegations
against the individuals mentioned in the report appear to
be part of a government-orchestrated crackdown on the
political opposition.[164]
The RPF selected Paul Kagame as its presidential candidate, to run for his rst full term following his threeyear transitional presidency.[165] His main challenger was
Faustin Twagiramungu, who had been prime minister
from 1994 to 1995, when he resigned and moved to
Brussels after a disagreement with Kagame. Twagiramungu had intended to run as the candidate for the

5 PRESIDENCY
they wanted security rst of all. Even people who didn't
know the RPF program in detail saw us as the party that
would guarantee that.[175] Kagame was sworn in on 12
September to begin his seven-year term.[176]
5.3.2 Presidential election, 2010
Main article: Rwandan presidential election, 2010
Kagames rst term expired and new elections were

President Kagame in March 2003

MDR, but instead sought the presidency as an independent following the partys banishment.[166] Twagiramungu returned to the country in June 2003 and began campaigning in August.[166][167] Two other candidates also ran: Alvera Mukabaramba, a medical doctor
and former MDR member running for the newly formed
Party for Progress and Concord (PPC), and Jean Nepomuscene Nayinzira, an independent and former member of parliament who cited belief in God as a central part of his campaign.[168] Mukabaramba pulled out
one day before the election, accusing Twagiramungu
of ethnic propaganda and advising her supporters to
vote for Kagame.[169] The election went ahead on 25
August with Kagame, Twagiramungu and Nayinzira as
candidates.[170]
Kagame declared victory in the election on 26 August,
after partial results showed he had an almost insurmountable lead,[170] and his win was later conrmed by
the National Electoral Commission.[171] The nal results
showed that Kagame received 95.1% of the vote, Twagiramungu 3.6%, and Nayinzira 1.3%; the voter turnout
was 96.6%.[171] The campaign, election day, and aftermath were largely peaceful, although an observer from
the European Union (EU) raised concerns that opposition
supporters may have been intimidated by the RPF.[172]
Twagiramungu rejected the result of the election and also
questioned the margin of victory, saying Almost 100
per cent? Thats not possible.[172] Twagiramungu led
a petition at the Supreme Court to nullify the result, but
was unsuccessful.[173] The EU observer also questioned
the result, citing numerous irregularities, but praised
the election overall, describing it as a positive step.[174]
Kagame himself, in an interview with journalist Stephen
Kinzer, acknowledged that the opposition had been weak,
but he believed the result was genuine. He told Kinzer

Kagame in 2010

held in 2010.[177] Having served one term as elected

president, Kagame was entitled to serve for one further
term.[178] The election campaign began publicly in January 2010 when Victoire Ingabire, a Hutu who had been
living abroad for some years, returned to Rwanda and announced her candidacy for the presidency.[179] This failed
as she was arrested and accused of threatening state security. Ingabire caused some controversy in the country following her arrival, with comments relating to the
genocide.[180] The government accused her of breaking
the countrys strict laws regarding genocide denial, and
she was arrested in April 2010.[180] She was released on
bail, but was prohibited from running in the election.[179]
In October 2012 she was sentenced to fteen years imprisonment by the High Court of Kigali, which is heavily
criticized by Amnesty International.
In May, President Kagame was ocially endorsed as
the RPFs candidate for the election at the partys national congress.[181] Kagame then became the rst candidate to be accepted when he presented his electoral papers in July.[179] Three other candidates registered successfully for the election; they were Jean Damascene
Ntawukuriryayo of the Social Democratic Party,[182]

5.4

Domestic policy

Prosper Higiro of the Liberal Party,[183] and Alvera Mukabaramba of the Party for Progress and Concord.[184]
Two other contenders failed to get ocial documents
through and did not get accepted into the race. Human
Rights Watch described Kagames three opponents as
broadly supportive of the RPF, and claimed that most
Rwandans would not describe them as real opposition,
while those who criticised the RPF were barred from the
election.[185]

Singapore and Thailand.[194] Following these consultations, and shortly after assuming the presidency, Kagame
launched an ambitious programme of national development called Vision 2020.[194] The major purposes of the
programme were to unite the Rwandan people and to
transform Rwanda from a highly impoverished into a
middle income country.[193] The programme consists of a
list of goals which the government aims to achieve before
the year 2020.[194] These include reconstruction, infrasIn the run-up to the election, there was some violence tructure and transport improvements, good governance,
improving agriculture production, private sector developand several incidents involving prominent opposition and
[193]
media gures. In February, there was a grenade attack ment, and health and education improvements.
in Kigali which killed two people. Rwandan prosecu- In 2011, the Ministry of Finance and Economic Plantors blamed Kayumba Nyamwasa, a dissident General ning issued a report indicating the progress of the Vision
who had become a critic of Kagame.[186] Nywamwasa 2020 goals.[195] The report examined the stated goals of
ed to Johannesburg, South Africa, and in June he sur- the programme and rated each one with a status of onvived a shooting in the city. Nyamwasa alleged that track, on-watch or o-track. Of 44 goals, it found
it was an assassination attempt, a charge Rwanda de- that 66% were on-track, 11% were on-watch, and 22%
nied. Days later, journalist Jean-Lonard Rugambage, were o-track.[195] The major areas identied as owho claimed to have uncovered the regimes responsibil- track were population, poverty and the environment.[195]
ity in the attempted murder, was shot dead.[187] In July, An independent review of Vision 2020, carried out in
the vice president of the Democratic Green Party, Andr 2012 by academics based in Belgium, rated progress as
Kagwa Rwisereka, was beheaded in Butare. There is no quite encouraging, mentioning development in the educoncrete evidence linking Kagame with the attacks, but cation and health sectors, as well as Kagames fostering of
it was sucient for the United Nations to demand an a favourable business environment.[196] The review also
investigation.[188]
raised concerns about the policy of maximum growth at
Kagame was declared the winner of the election, accord- any cost, suggesting that this was leading to a situation
the rich prospered while the rural poor saw little
ing to results released by the National Electoral Commis- in which[196]
benet.
[189]
sion on 11 August.
Kagame received 93.08% of the
vote, with second placed Ntawukuriryayo polling 5.15%.
The turnout was 97.51% of registered voters.[190] Opposition and human rights groups later said that the election was tainted by repression, murder, and lack of credible competition. Kagame responded by saying I see
no problems, but there are some people who choose to
see problems where there are not.[191] The election was
largely peaceful, although there was a further grenade attack in Kigali hours after the election commission announced Kagames victory, injuring about 20 people.
Media reports indicated the attack may have been politically motivated and connected to earlier attacks in the
same area.[192]
5.3.3

In November 2013, Kagame told This Is Africa Our

thinking is based on people. In national budgets, we focus
on education, health, we look at technology, skills, innovation, creativity. We are always thinking about people,
people, people.[197]
5.4.2 Economy

Constitutional referendum, 2015

Main article: Rwandan constitutional referendum, 2015

5.4
5.4.1

Domestic policy
Vision 2020

Kagame watching the Kwita Izina mountain gorilla naming ceremony in 2010.

In the late 1990s, Kagame began actively planning methods to achieve national development. He launched a na- Main article: Economy of Rwanda
tional consultation process[193] and also sought the advice of experts from emerging nations including China, Rwandas economy has grown rapidly under Kagames

10
presidency, with per-capita gross domestic product
(purchasing power parity) estimated at $1,592 in
2013,[198] compared with $567 in 2000.[199] Annual growth between 2004 and 2010 averaged 8%
per year.[200] Kagames economic policy is based on
liberalising the economy, privatising state owned industries, reducing red tape for businesses,[200] and transforming the country from an agricultural to a knowledgebased economy.[201] Kagame has stated that he believes Rwanda can emulate the economic development
of Singapore since 1960,[202] and achieving middle income country status is one of the central goals of the
Vision 2020 programme.[193] Kagames economic policy has been praised by many foreign donors and investors, including Bill Clinton and Starbucks chairman
Howard Schultz.[203][204] The DRC government and human rights groups have accused Rwanda of illegally exploiting Congolese minerals,[205] which the London Daily
Telegraph describes as an important part in the success
of Rwandas economy.[203]
Rwanda is a country of few natural resources,[206] and
the economy is heavily dependent on subsistence agriculture, with an estimated 90% of the working population engaged in farming.[207] Under Kagames presidency,
the service sector has grown strongly. In 2010, it became the countrys largest sector by economic output,
contributing 43.6% of the countrys GDP.[207] Key tertiary contributors include banking and nance, wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, transport,
storage, communication, insurance, real estate, business
services, and public administration, including education
and health.[208] Information and communications technology (ICT) is a Vision 2020 priority, with a goal of
transforming Rwanda into an ICT hub for Africa.[201] To
this end, the government has completed a 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) bre-optic telecommunications network,
intended to provide broadband services and facilitate
electronic commerce.[209] Tourism is one of the fastestgrowing economic resources and became the countrys
leading foreign exchange earner in 2011.[210] In spite of
the genocides legacy, Kagames achievement of peace
and security means the country is increasingly perceived
internationally as a safe destination;[211] in the rst half
of 2011, 16% of foreign visitors arrived from outside
Africa.[212] The countrys mountain gorillas attract thousands of visitors per year, who are prepared to pay high
prices for permits.[213]
Rwanda ranks highly in several categories of the World
Banks ease of doing business index. In 2005, after the
country was ranked 158th on the ease of doing business
index, Kagame set up a special unit to analyze the economy and provide solutions to easing business.[214] As a result, the country topped the list of reformers in 2009.[200]
In 2012, the countrys overall ease of doing business
index ranking was 52nd out of 185 countries worldwide, and third out of 46 in Sub-Saharan Africa.[215]
It was eighth on the 2012 rankings for ease of starting

5 PRESIDENCY
a business;[216] the Rwanda Development Board asserts
that a business can be authorised and registered in 24
hours.[200] The business environment and economy also
benet from relatively low corruption in the country; in
2010, Transparency International ranked Rwanda as the
eighth cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa
and sixty-sixth cleanest out of 178 in the world.[217]

5.4.3 Education and health

Kagame has made education for youth in Rwanda a high
priority for his administration, allocating 17% of the
annual budget to the sector.[218] The Rwandan government provides free education in state-run schools for
twelve years: six years in primary and six in secondary
school.[219] The nal three years of free education were
introduced in 2012 following a pledge by Kagame during his 2010 re-election campaign.[220] Kagame credits
his government with improvements in the tertiary education sector; the number of universities has risen from 1 in
1994 to 29 in 2010,[221] and the tertiary gross enrolment
ratio increased from 4% in 2008 to 7% in 2011.[222] From
1994 until 2009, secondary education was oered in either French or English;[223] since 2009, due to the countrys increasing ties with the East African Community and
the Commonwealth of Nations, English has been the sole
language of instruction in public schools from primary
school grade 4 onward.[224] The countrys literacy rate,
dened as those aged 15 or over who can read and write,
was 71% in 2009, up from 38% in 1978 and 58% in
1991.[225]
Rwandas health prole is dominated by communicable diseases,[226] including malaria, pneumonia, and
HIV/AIDS. Prevalence and mortality rates have sharply
declined in the past decade[227] but the short supply or
unavailability of certain medicines continues to challenge
disease management.[228] Kagames government is seeking to improve this situation as one of the Vision 2020
priorities. It has increased funding, with the health budget up from 3.2% of national expenditure in 1996 to 9.7%
in 2008.[228] It also set up training institutes, including
the Kigali Health Institute (KHI),[229] and in 2008 effected laws making health insurance mandatory for all
individuals;[230] by 2010, over 90% of the population was
covered.[231] These policies have contributed to a steady
increase in quality of healthcare and improvement in key
indicators during Kagames presidency. In 2010, 91 children died before their fth birthday for every 1000 live
births, down from 163 under ve deaths for every 1000
live births in 1990.[232] Prevalence of some diseases is declining, including the elimination of maternal and neonatal tetanus[233] and a sharp reduction in malaria morbidity,
mortality rate, and specic lethality.[226] In response to
shortages in qualied medical personnel, in 2011 the
Rwandan government launched an eight-year US$151.8
million initiative to train medical professionals.[234]

5.5

5.5
5.5.1

Foreign policy

Foreign policy
Democratic Republic of the Congo

Kagame (right) with Congolese President Joseph Kabila (left) at a

peace summit with Thabo Mbeki, and George W. Bush in September 2002.

11
engaging with the international community.[244] The new
government provided impetus for renewed peace negotiations, and in July 2002 a peace agreement was reached between Rwanda, Congo, and the other major participants,
in which all foreign troops would withdraw and RCDGoma would enter a power-sharing transitional government with Joseph Kabila as interim president until elections could be held.[245] By the end of 2002, all uniformed
Rwandan troops had left Congolese territory.[246]
Despite the agreement and subsequent ceasere, relations
between Kagame and the Congolese government have remained tense. A 2003 United Nations report alleged that
Rwanda was using demobilised soldiers to continue its illegal exploitation of Congolese minerals.[246] Meanwhile,
Kagame blamed Kabila for failing to suppress Hutu rebels
in North and South Kivu provinces.[247] Two major insurgencies have occurred in the eastern provinces: the
rst, from 2005 to 2009, was led by Congolese Tutsi
Laurent Nkunda,[248] while the second, carried out by
the March 23 Movement (M23) under leader Bosco Ntaganda, began in 2012;[249] Ntaganda gave himself up to
the International Criminal Court in early 2013, and peace
talks have taken place, but as of May 2013 the conict is
at risk of resuming.[250] Human Rights Watch alleges that
both insurgencies were supported by Rwanda, a charge
Kagame denies.[251] A leaked United Nations report in
2012 also alleges Rwandan support for M23; this report
cites Kagames defence minister James Kabarebe as being eectively the commander of the movement.[252]

The Second Congo War, which began in 1998, was

still raging when Kagame assumed the presidency in
2000. Namibia, Angola, Zimbabwe, and Chad had
committed troops to the Congolese government side,[124]
while Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi were supporting
rebel groups.[235] The rebel group Rally for Congolese
Democracy (RCD) had split in 1999 into two factions:
the RCD-Goma, supported by Rwanda, and the RCD- 5.5.2 Uganda and East African Community
Kisangani, which was allied to Uganda.[236] Uganda also
supported the Movement for the Liberation of the Congo
(MLC), a rebel group from the north.[236] All these rebel
groups were at war with Kabilas government in Kinshasa, but were also increasingly hostile to each other.[236]
Various peace meetings had been held, culminating in
the July 1999 Lusaka Ceasere Agreement which was
signed by Kabila, Kagame and all the other foreign
governments.[237] The rebel groups were not party to the
agreement, and ghting continued.[237] The RPA continued to be heavily involved in the Congo War during 2000,
ghting battles against the Ugandan army in Kisangani
and against Kabilas army in Kasai and Katanga.[238][239] Kagame with the other four East African Community Heads of
States in April 2009

In January 2001, Kabila was shot dead inside his

palace.[240] The Congolese government claimed Kabila
had been killed by a rogue bodyguard, who was himself killed at the scene.[241] According to a report published in French newspaper Le Monde, Kabila was killed
by the kadogo, an army of child soldiers he was known
to have assembled during the First Congo War. The
kadogo had suered badly during the battles in Kasai
and Katanga, were poorly paid, and had become alienated by Kabila.[241] Kabilas son Joseph was appointed
president and immediately began asserting his authority by dismissing his fathers cabinet and senior army
commanders,[242][243] assembling a new government, and

Kagame spent most of his childhood and young adult

years living in Uganda, and has a personal relationship
with President Yoweri Museveni dating back to the late
1970s;[19] they fought together in the Ugandan Bush War,
and Kagame was appointed head of military intelligence
in Musevenis national army following the NRA victory
in 1986.[28] When the RPF soldiers abandoned the Ugandan army and invaded Rwanda in 1990, Museveni did
not explicitly support them, but according to Prunier it is
likely that he had prior knowledge of the plan.[253] Museveni also allowed the RPF safe passage through Ugandan territory to the Virunga mountains after their early

12

5 PRESIDENCY

defeats in the war,[41] and revealed in a 1998 heads of

state meeting that Uganda had helped the RPF materially
during the Rwandan Civil War.[254] Following the RPF
victory, the two countries enjoyed a close political and
trade relationship.[255]

lowing the end of the genocide and the withdrawal of

Opration Turquoise.[269] Diplomatic relations were nally reestablished in January 1995, but remained tense
as Rwanda accused France of aiding the genocidaires,
while France defended its interventions.[270][271][272] In
2006, French judge Jean-Louis Bruguire released a report on the assassination of President Habyarimana which
concluded that Kagame had ordered the shooting of the
plane. Bruguire subsequently issued arrest warrants for
nine of Kagames close aides.[273] Kagame denied the
charges and immediately broke o diplomatic relations
with France.[274] Relations began to thaw in 2008,[275]
and diplomacy was resumed in late 2009.[276] In 2010,
Nicolas Sarkozy became the rst French president to
visit Rwanda since the genocide, admitting for the rst
time that France made grave errors of judgment.[277]
Kagame reciprocated with an ocial visit to Paris in
2011.[278]

Rwanda and Uganda were allies during the First Congo

War against Zaire, with both countries being instrumental in the setting up of the AFDL and committing troops
to the war.[256] The two nations joined forces again at the
beginning of the Second Congo War, but relations soured
in late 1998 as Museveni and Kagame had very dierent
priorities in ghting the war.[257] In early 1999, the RCD
rebel group split into two, with Rwanda and Uganda supporting opposing factions,[257] and in August the Rwandan and Ugandan armies battled each other with heavy
artillery in the Congolese city of Kisangani.[238] The two
sides fought again in Kisangani in May and June 2000,
causing the deaths of 120 soldiers and around 640 Congolese civilians.[258] Relations slowly thawed in the 2000s,
and by 2011 the two countries enjoyed a close friendship 5.5.4 United States, United Kingdom and the Comonce more.[259]
monwealth
In 2007, Rwanda joined the East African Community,
an intergovernmental organisation for the East Africa region comprising Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi, and
Rwanda. The countrys accession required the signing of
various agreements with the other members, including a
defence intelligence sharing pact, a customs union, and
measures to combat drug tracking.[260] The countries
of the Community established a common market in 2011,
and plan further integration, including moves toward political federation and a possible single currency.[261][262]

5.5.3

France

France maintained close ties with President Habyarimana

during his years in power, as part of its Franafrique
policy.[263] When the RPF launched the Rwandan Civil
War in 1990, Habyarimana was immediately granted assistance from the President of France, Franois Mitterrand.[264] France sent 600 paratroopers, who eectively
ran the governments response to the invasion and were
instrumental in regaining almost all territory the RPF
had gained in the rst days of the war.[265] France maintained this military presence throughout the war, engaging Kagames RPF forces again in February 1993 during
the oensive that doubled RPF territory.[266] In the later
stages of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, France launched
Opration Turquoise, a United Nations mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for protection of
displaced persons, refugees, and civilians in danger; many
Rwandans interpreted it as a mission to protect Hutu from
the RPF, including some who had participated in the
genocide.[267] The French remained hostile to the RPF,
and their presence temporarily stalled Kagames advance
in south western Rwanda.[268]

Paul Kagame with United States President Barack Obama and

First Lady Michelle Obama

Since the end of the Rwandan Genocide in 1994, Rwanda

has enjoyed a close relationship with the English speaking world, in particular the United States (US) and United
Kingdom (UK). The two countries have been highly supportive of the RPF programme of stabilisation and rebuilding, with the UK donating large sums each year in
budget support,[279] and the US providing military aid[279]
as well as supporting development projects.[280] As president, Kagame has been critical of the Wests lack of
response to the genocide, and the UK and US have responded by admitting guilt over the issue: Bill Clinton,
who was President of the United States during the genocide, has described his failure to act against the killings
as a personal failure.[279] During the 2000s, Clinton
and UK prime minister Tony Blair praised the countrys
progress under Kagame, citing it as a model recipient for
international development funds, and Clinton referred to
France continued to shun the new RPF government fol- Kagame as one of the greatest leaders of our time.[279]

13
Both Clinton and Blair have maintained support for the
country beyond the end of their terms of oce, Clinton
via the Clinton Global Initiative and Blair through his role
as an unpaid advisor to the Rwandan government.[281]
As part of his policy of maintaining close relations with
English speaking countries, Kagame sought membership
of the Commonwealth of Nations, which was granted in
2009.[282] Rwanda was only the second country, after
Mozambique, to join the Commonwealth having never
had colonial links to the British Empire.[282] Kagame attended the subsequent Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Perth, Australia, addressing the Business
Forum.[283] Rwanda also successfully applied for a rotating seat on the United Nations Security Council in 2012,
taking over the presidency of that organisation in April
2013.[284]
Kagames relations with the US and UK have come under strain in the early 2010s, following allegations that
Rwanda is supporting the M23 rebel movement in Eastern Congo.[279] The UK suspended its budgetary aid programme in 2012, freezing a 21 million donation.[285]
The US has also frozen some of its military aid programme for Rwanda, although it stopped short of suspending aid altogether.[286]
5.5.5

tries on an equal footing. In a 2009 article, Kagame

wrote that the primary purpose of aid should ultimately
be to work itself out, and should therefore focus on selfsuciency and building private sector development.[294]
Kagame cited an example of donor countries providing
free fertilisers to farmers; he believes this to be wrong
because it undercuts local fertiliser businesses, preventing them from growing and becoming competitive.[294] In
2012, Kagame launched the Agaciro Development Fund,
following proposals made at a national dialogue session
in 2011.[295] Agaciro is a solidarity fund whose goal is
to provide development nance sourced within Rwanda,
supplementing aid already received from overseas.[296]
The fund invites contributions from Rwandan citizens,
within the country and in the diaspora, as well as private companies and friends of Rwanda.[295] The fund
will allocate its funds based on consultations with the
populace,[295] as well as nancing projects contributing
to the Vision 2020 programme.[297]

6 Personality and public image

China and moves toward self-suciency

China has been investing in Rwandan infrastructure since

1971, with early projects including hospitals in Kibungo
and Masaka.[287] Under Kagames presidency, trade between the two countries has grown rapidly. The volume
of trade increased ve-fold between 2005 and 2009,[288]
and it doubled again in the following three years, being worth US$160 million in 2012.[289] Projects completed include the renovation of the Kigali road network,
funded using a Chinese government loan and undertaken
by China Road and Bridge Corporation;[290] the Kigali
City Tower, which was built by China Civil Engineering
Construction;[291] and a pay television service operated
by Star Media.[292]
Kagame has been vocal in his praise of China and its
model for relations with Africa, saying in a 2009 interview that the Chinese bring what Africa needs: investment and money for governments and companies.[293]
This is in contrast to Western countries, whom Kagame
accuses of focussing too heavily on giving aid to the continent rather than building a trading relationship; he also
believes that they keep African products out of the world
marketplace by the use of high taris.[293] China does not
involve itself in the domestic aairs of the countries with
Kagame visited the 2014 ITU Plenipotentiary conference in Buwhich it trades,[293] hence has not followed the West in
san, South Korea.
criticising Kagames alleged involvement in the war in the
Congo.
Most observers describe Kagames personality as one of
Kagames ultimate goal in international relations is to seriousness and intelligence.[203] Richard Grant, writing
shift Rwanda from a country dependent on donor aid and in Londons Daily Telegraph, described Kagame as radiloans towards self-suciency, trading with other coun- ating a quality of intense seriousness that is both impres-

14
sive and intimidating. Romo Dallaire, commander of
the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda during the Rwandan Genocide, described Kagame as having a studious air that didn't quite disguise his hawk-like
intensity.[298] Kagame has a highly dominant personality, which he uses to enforce his rule and to ensure that his
vision for the country is followed.[203] American journalist Stephen Kinzer, who wrote the biography A Thousand
Hills in collaboration with Kagame himself, describes
him as one of the most intriguing leaders in Africa.[299]
Kinzer credits Kagame with leadership skills that have
fostered Rwandas rebirth following the genocide,[299] but
also cites a personality of chronic impatience, barely
suppressed anger, and impulsive scorn for critics.[300] In
his interview with Grant, Kagame claimed he sleeps for
only four hours per night, devoting the remainder of his
day to work, exercise, family, and reading academic texts
and foreign newspapers.[203]

8 NOTES
a leaked United Nations report alleging Rwandas support
for the rebel M23 movement in Congo.[252] In 2012, the
United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands and several
other countries suspended programmes of budget support
to Rwanda, with many redirecting their aid to projectbased assistance.[310]
Kagame promotes the Internet as a means of communication between leadership and ordinary people. In addition to his personal website, which contains a personal
blog, he has accounts on Flickr, YouTube, Facebook and
Twitter.[311] In 2011, he argued with British journalist Ian
Birrell on Twitter following a tweet by Birrell about media freedom in Rwanda.[312]
Kagame has received many honours and accolades during
his presidency. These include honorary degrees from the
American University of the Pacic,[313] Oklahoma Christian University,[314] and the University of Glasgow,[315]
the Andrew Young Medal for Capitalism and Social
Progress by Georgia State University,[316] and a Clinton
Global Citizen Award.[317] Kagame has also received the
highest awards bestowed by the countries of Liberia and
Benin, the Distinction of the Grand Cordon in the Most
Venerable Order of the Knighthood of Pioneers,[318] and
the Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit[319] respectively. In September 2010, the British magazine New
Statesman named Kagame one of its 50 most inuential
gures for that year, placing him in 49th place.[320] The
Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations
football tournament has been named the Kagame Interclub Cup since 2002, due to Kagames sponsorship of the
event.[321]

In Rwanda, Kagames RPF is seen as a Tutsi-dominated

party, and in the years following the 1994 genocide, it
was deeply unpopular with the Hutu, who constitute 85%
of the population.[115] Approximately two million Hutu
lived as refugees in neighbouring countries until 1996,
when Kagame forced them to return home.[115] Many
Hutu also supported the late 1990s cross-border insurgency against Kagame by defeated forces of the former
regime.[116] By 1999, when the RPF had weakened the
insurgents and the north west became peaceful, the Hutu
population became broadly supportive of Kagame.[119]
Since becoming president in 2000, Kagame has won two
disputed[301] presidential elections with over 90% of the
vote each time. Despite criticisms over opposition repression during these elections, and accusations that the g- Emmanuel Ndahiro, a close condant of Kagame and
ures were inated,[172] Kagame does receive genuine sup- former chief of the National Intelligence and Security
[322]
has been named in the Panama Papers.[323]
port from the population, who credit him with ensuring Services,
continued peace, stability, and economic growth.[302]
Kagames image amongst international observers is varied. Human rights organisations, including Amnesty
International and Freedom House, claim that Kagame
hamstrings his opposition by restricting candidacies in
elections to government-friendly parties, suppressing
demonstrations, and arresting opposition leaders and
journalists.[303][304] Human Rights Watch and Freedom
House have accused Kagame of using strict laws criminalising divisionism (ethnic hatred) and genocide ideology to silence his critics, to the point that Rwanda is a de
facto one-party state.[160][304] It has praised some aspects
of Kagames rule, such as the progress made in the delivery of justice and the abolition of the death penalty.[305]
Other progressive initiatives include supporting a UN
declaration on LGBT rights,[306][307] as well as the worlds
highest representation of women in parliament.[308][309]
Kagames image amongst foreign leaders was very positive until the late 2000s. He was credited with ending
the genocide, bringing peace and security to Rwanda,
and achieving development. Since 2010, the international
community has increasingly criticised Kagame following

7 See also
History of Rwanda
Politics of Rwanda

8 Notes
[1] Waugh 2004, p. 8.
[2] Oce of the President (I) 2011.
[3] Chrtien 2003, p. 160.
[4] United Nations (II).
[5] United Nations (III).
[6] Appiah & Gates 2010, p. 450.
[7] Prunier 1999, pp. 1112.
[8] Mamdani 2002, p. 61.

15

[9] Gourevitch 2000, pp. 5859.

[47] Prunier 1999, pp. 174177.

[10] Prunier 1999, p. 51.

[48] Prunier 1999, pp. 190191.

[11] Kinzer 2008, p. 12.

[49] Prunier 1999, p. 187.

[12] Waugh 2004, p. 10.

[50] Dallaire 2005, pp. 126131.

[13] Kinzer 2008, p. 13.

[51] National Assembly of France 1998.

[14] Kinzer 2008, p. 14.

[52] BBC News (I) 2010.

[15] Kinzer 2008, p. 15.

[53] Prunier 1999, pp. 222223.

[16] Waugh 2004, pp. 1618.

[54] Wilkinson 2008.

[17] Kinzer 2008, p. 19.

[55] Bruguire 2006, p. 1.

[18] State House, Republic of Uganda.

[56] BBC News (XX) 2012.

[19] Kinzer 2008, p. 20.

[57] Dallaire 2005, p. 224.

[20] Kinzer 2008, pp. 3839.

[58] Prunier 1999, p. 230.

[21] Associated Press (I) 1981.

[59] Dallaire 2005, p. 232.

[22] Kinzer 2008, p. 39.

[60] Dallaire 2005, p. 245.

[23] Nganda 2009.

[61] Rombouts 2004, p. 182.

[24] Kinzer 2008, p. 40.

[62] The New York Times 1994.

[25] Kinzer 2008, pp. 4445.

[63] Henley 2007.

[26] Library of Congress 2010.

[64] Dallaire 2005, p. 386.

[27] Kinzer 2008, p. 47.

[65] Dallaire 2005, p. 247.

[28] Kinzer 2008, pp. 5051.

[66] Dallaire 2005, pp. 264265.

[29] Simpson (I) 2000.

[67] Dallaire 2005, p. 269.

[30] Kinzer 2008, pp. 5152.

[68] Prunier 1999, p. 268.

[31] Mamdani 2002, p. 175.

[32] Kinzer 2008, p. 53.
[33] Kinzer 2008, pp. 5354.
[34] Kinzer 2008, pp. 4850.
[35] Kinzer 2008, p. 54.
[36] Melvern 2006, p. 14.
[37] Prunier 1999, pp. 9495.
[38] Prunier 1999, pp. 9596.
[39] Prunier 1999, p. 96.
[40] Melvern 2000, pp. 2730.
[41] Prunier 1999, pp. 114115.

[69] Dallaire 2005, p. 288.

[70] Dallaire 2005, p. 299.
[71] Dallaire 2005, p. 300.
[72] Dallaire 2005, pp. 326327.
[73] Dallaire 2005, p. 410.
[74] Prunier 1999, p. 270.
[75] Dallaire 2005, p. 421.
[76] Dallaire 2005, p. 459.
[77] Prunier 1999, pp. 298299.
[78] Dallaire 2005, pp. 474475.

[42] Prunier 1999, pp. 117118.

[79] http://www.veritasrwandaforum.org/dosier/resol_auto_
esp_06022008.pdf

[43] Prunier 1999, p. 120.

[80] Kinzer 2008, pp. 5962.

[44] Prunier 1999, p. 135.

[81] Namanya 2009.

[45] Prunier 1999, p. 150.

[82] Obeki 2012.

[46] Prunier 1999, pp. 173174.

[83] Prunier 1999, p. 299.

16

8 NOTES

[84] Prunier 1999, pp. 299300.

[122] Prunier 2009, pp. 128133.

[85] Wallis 2007, p. ix.

[123] Prunier 2009, p. 136.

[86] Prunier 1999, p. 90.

[124] BBC News (II).

[87] Prunier 1999, p. 300.

[125] CDI: The Center for Defense Information, The Defense

Monitor, The World At War: January 1, 1998.

[88] Waugh 2004, pp. 120121.

[89] Prunier 1999, p. 369.
[90] Kinzer 2008, p. 181.
[91] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
[92] Bonner 1994.
[93] Kinzer 2008, p. 187.
[94] Prunier 1999, pp. 327328.
[95] Kinzer 2008, p. 189.
[96] Prunier 1999, p. 360.
[97] Human Rights Watch (I) 1999.
[98] Kinzer 2008, p. 191.
[99] Lorch 1995.

[126] Prunier 2009, p. 174.

[127] Prunier 2009, p. 177.
[128] Prunier 2009, pp. 178179.
[129] Kinzer 2008, pp. 210211.
[130] Prunier 2009, pp. 182183.
[131] Prunier 2009, p. 184.
[132] Prunier 2009, p. 186.
[133] Associated Press (II) 2010.
[134] Kinzer 2008, pp. 211212.
[135] United Nations (IV) 2001, 211.
[136] United Nations (IV) 2001, 126129.

[100] Australian War Memorial.

[137] Global Witness 2013, p. 6.

[101] Prunier 2009, p. 42.

[138] Smith & Wallis 2002.

[102] The New York Times 1996.

[139] McGreal 2010.

[103] Waldorf 2009, p. 19.

[140] Kinzer 2008, p. 220.

[104] Kinzer 2008, p. 258.

[141] Kinzer 2008, pp. 240241.

[105] Prunier 1999, pp. 367368.

[142] Kinzer 2008, pp. 221222.

[106] Kinzer 2008, p. 192.

[143] Prunier 2009, p. 241.

[107] Prunier 1999, p. 368.

[144] BBC News (III) 2000.

[108] Prunier 1999, p. 312.

[145] Kinzer 2008, p. 224.

[109] Prunier 1999, pp. 313314.

[146] IRIN (I) 2000.

[110] Prunier 1999, pp. 381382.

[147] United Nations (V).

[111] Pomfret 1997.

[148] BBC News (IV) 2000.

[112] Prunier 1999, p. 382.

[149] BBC News (V) 2000.

[113] Prunier 1999, pp. 384385.

[150] Kinzer 2008, p. 225.

[114] Prunier 2009, p. 118.

[151] IRIN (V) 2002.

[115] Prunier 2009, pp. 122123.

[152] BBC News (VI) 2007.

[116] Kinzer 2008, p. 209.

[153] Gasamagera 2007, pp. 12.

[117] Kinzer 2008, p. 216.

[154] Gasamagera 2007, p. 3.

[118] Kinzer 2008, pp. 215218.

[155] Gasamagera 2007, p. 4.

[119] Brittain 1999.

[156] Gasamagera 2007, pp. 56.

[120] Byman et al. 2001, p. 18.

[157] BBC News (VII) 2003.

[121] Prunier 2009, pp. 113116.

[158] Economist 2003.

17

[159] CJCR 2003, article 54.

[160] Roth 2009.
[161] BBC News (VIII) 2003.
[162] IRIN (II) 2003.
[163] BBC News (IX) 2003.
[164] Amnesty International (I) 2003.
[165] Kinzer 2008, p. 228.
[166] IRIN (III) 2003.
[167] BBC News (X) 2003.

[197] Exclusive interview: Paul Kagame. This Is Africa. 18

November 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
[198] IMF (II) 2013.
[199] IMF (I) 2013.
[200] Murdock 2010.
[201] Kanyesigye 2012.
[202] Musoni 2013.
[203] Grant 2010.
[204] Adams 2009.

[168] Walker 2003.

[205] Reuters (III) 2012.

[169] TVNZ 2003.

[206] Department of State 2012.

[170] Beaver County Times 2003.

[207] CIA.

[171] Nunley.

[208] Nantaba 2010.

[172] Reuters (I) 2003.

[209] Reuters (IV) 2011.

[173] IRIN (IV) 2003.

[210] Birakwate 2012.

[174] CPJ 2004.

[211] Nielsen & Spenceley 2010, p. 6.

[175] Kinzer 2008, p. 229.

[212] RDB 2011.

[176] Victoria Advocate 2003.

[213] Nielsen & Spenceley 2010, p. 2.

[177] CJCR 2003, articles 100101.

[214] http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/04/
kigali-plan-rwandan-city-afford-new-homes-offices

[178] Ross 2010.

[179] Kagire & Straziuso 2010.
[180] New Times (I) 2010.
[181] Musoni 2010.
[182] Rwandinfo 2010.
[183] New Times (II) 2010.
[184] Kanyesigye 2010.
[185] Human Rights Watch (II) 2010.

[215] World Bank (IV) 2012.

[216] World Bank (III) 2012.
[217] Transparency International 2010.
[218] World Review 2013.
[219] UNDP 2012.
[220] Rwirahira 2012.
[221] Kagame 2011.

[186] Great Lakes Voice 2010.

[222] World Bank (I).

[187] Al Jazeera (I) 2010.

[223] McGreal 2009.

[188] Beaumont 2010.

[224] VSO 2012, p. 3.

[189] BBC News (XI) 2010.

[225] World Bank (II).

[190] National Electoral Commission 2010.

[226] WHO (I) 2009, p. 5.

[191] Al Jazeera (II) 2010.

[227] WHO (I) 2009, pp. 47.

[192] Al Jazeera (III) 2010.

[228] WHO (I) 2009, p. 10.

[193] MINECOFIN (I).

[229] KHI 2012.

[194] Kinzer 2008, pp. 226227.

[230] WHO (II) 2008.

[195] MINECOFIN (II) 2011, p. 2.

[231] McNeil 2010.

[196] Ansoms & Rostagno 2012.

[232] UNICEF 2012.

18

8 NOTES

[233] WHO (I) 2009, p. 4.

[271] Hranjski 1999.

[234] Rwanda Human Resources for Health Program 2011.

[272] Australian Associated Press 2004.

[235] Prunier 2009, pp. 193198.

[273] BBC News (XII) 2006.

[236] Prunier 2009, p. 221.

[274] BBC News (XIII) 2006.

[237] Prunier 2009, pp. 224225.

[275] Kwibuka 2008.

[238] Prunier 2009, p. 225.

[276] Reuters (II) 2009.

[239] Prunier 2009, p. 234.

[277] Sundaram 2010.

[240] Sherwell & Long 2001.

[278] BBC News (XIV) 2011.

[241] Observer 2001.

[279] Smith 2012.

[242] Prunier 2009, p. 258.

[280] ForeignAssistance.gov 2013.

[243] Prunier 2009, p. 263.

[281] Wintour 2008.

[244] Prunier 2009, p. 257.

[282] Panz 2009.

[245] Prunier 2009, p. 272.

[283] Oce of the President (II) 2011.

[246] Armbruster 2003.

[284] Munyaneza 2013.

[247] Al Jazeera (IV) 2007.

[285] BBC News (XVII) 2012.

[248] Prunier 1999, p. 297.

[286] McGreal 2012.

[249] BBC News (XXI) 2012.

[287] Mizero 2012, p. 1.

[250] Muhumuza 2013.

[288] Musoni 2011.

[251] Jones & Smith 2012.

[289] Gasore 2013.

[252] BBC News (XV) 2012.

[290] China Road and Bridge Corporation 2007.

[253] Prunier 1999, pp. 9798.

[291] Asiimwe 2010.

[254] Mamdani 2002, p. 183.

[292] Butera 2011.

[255] Simpson (II) 2000.

[293] BBC News (XVI) 2009.

[256] Reyntjens 2009, p. 48.

[294] Kagame 2009.

[257] Prunier 2009, p. 220.

[295] Agaciro Development Fund (I), p. 2.

[258] Prunier 2009, p. 242.

[296] Oce_of_the_President (III) 2012.

[259] Heuler 2011.

[297] Agaciro Development Fund (II).

[260] Osike 2007.

[298] Dallaire 2005, p. 66.

[261] East African Community.

[299] Kinzer 2008, p. 3.

[262] Lavelle 2008.

[300] Kinzer 2008, p. 5.

[263] Prunier 1999, p. 89.

[264] Prunier 1999, pp. 100101.

[301] https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/08/02/
rwanda-silencing-dissent-ahead-elections

[265] Kinzer 2008, p. 78.

[302] Clark 2010.

[266] Dallaire 2005, p. 62.

[303] Amnesty International (II) 2010.

[267] Fassbender 2011, p. 27.

[304] Freedom House 2011.

[268] McGreal 2007.

[305] HRW & Wells 2008, I. Summary.

[269] French 1994.

[306] https://www.amnesty.org/es/library/asset/IOR40/024/
2008/en/269de167-d107-11dd-984e-fdc7ffcd27a6/
ior400242008en.pdf/

[270] Smith 1995.

19

[307] http://geneva.usmission.gov/2011/03/22/lgbtrights/
[308] http://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/jul/01/
lessons-rwanda-female-run-institutions-mps
[309] http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SG.GEN.PARL.ZS
[310] Ford 2012.
[311] Chothia 2010.
[312] BBC News (XVIII) 2011.
[313] University of the Pacic 2010.
[314] Oklahoma Christian University.
[315] University of Glasgow 2007.
[316] Columbia University.
[317] Nambi 2009.
[318] New Times (III) 2009.
[319] New Times (IV) 2010.
[320] New Statesman 2010.
[321] PanaPress 2002.
[322] The Power Players: Emmanuel Ndahiro. ICIJ. Retrieved April 3, 2016.
[323] Lily Kuo (April 4, 2016). Africa loses more money to illicit nancial ows than it receives in foreign aid. Quartz.

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10

External links

Ocial website
Appearances on C-SPAN
Paul Kagame on Charlie Rose
Paul Kagame at the Internet Movie Database
Works by or about Paul Kagame in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)
Paul Kagame collected news and commentary.
The New York Times.

26

11

11
11.1

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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Paul Kagame Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kagame?oldid=739941370 Contributors: SimonP, Paul Barlow, Zocky, Ugen64,
Charles Matthews, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Morwen, Bloodshedder, AnonMoos, Jason M, Moshems, Dimadick, Vincent Gray, Commonchaos, Saforrest, Tzf, Alerante, Centrx, Jacoplane, Wizzy, HangingCurve, Everyking, Michael Devore, Sesel, Gyrofrog, Pgan002, Quadell,
The Singing Badger, Beland, PFHLai, Narzos, Dostal, Johncapistrano, Rama, Digamma~enwiki, Bender235, Mr. Billion, Livajo, El C,
Kwamikagami, Kross, Xed, NetBot, Func, Acntx, SpeedyGonsales, Darwinek, Trevj, Pearle, Aesha, Espoo, Mrzaius, Fritzpoll, MattWade,
BanyanTree, Bnguyen, Pethr, PullUpYourSocks, Zntrip, Philthecow, Rocastelo, Tabletop, TreveX, Bjeversole, Descendall, Soonercary,
BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Djrobgordon, Russavia, Chobot, Bgwhite, Mokeni, YurikBot, Wavelength, Bamboo, Ventolin, Anonymous
editor, Nicke L, Afelton, Marcus Cyron, Dhwani1989, Grafen, Badagnani, Sleeker, Number 57, Ezeu, Tony1, Jpeob, UW, Bdell555,
Trilemma, Homagetocatalonia, Evaristodifeltre, Nikkimaria, Donald Albury, JoanneB, Elfalem, SReynhout, POY~enwiki, Paul Erik,
Brentt, Entheta, The Minister of War, SmackBot, Korossyl, Stie, Eskimbot, Kintetsubualo, Ian Rose, Chris the speller, Ottawakismet,
RayAYang, Sadads, Aridd, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Noeticsage, HPSCHD, Mistico, Savidan, Marc-Andr Abrock, Bigtictac, Ged
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Yaris678, Badseed, Cydebot, Cambrant, Jack O'Lantern, Gogo Dodo, DumbBOT, DBaba, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Yorkshiresky, Amathenge, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Qwyrxian, TonyTheTiger, Mojo Hand, Meinz, Therequiembellishere, Michael A. White, Nick
Number, Raditzu, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, David Shankbone, Fcgier, Arx Fortis, Deective, Sapphire, Bullshark44, .anacondabot, Geniac, Bencherlite, FaerieInGrey, Connormah, Scanlan, Buckshot06, Waacstats, Siboniyo, Elinruby, Cocytus, Coradon, Viking10, Mschel,
Btgeorge, Kostisl, J.delanoy, DrKay, KazakhPol, Lizrael, Ian.thomson, TEMH, Dispenser, Mahewa, Mpore, Flatterworld, Olegwiki, KylieTastic, Aimable59, Black Kite, TallNapoleon, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Sparkzy, NPrice, Dchall1, Rei-bot, Ask123, Aymatth2, PDFbot, Mvblair, Lamro, Falcon8765, Wikipedian64, Goalyguy11, Enkyo2, SieBot, Calliopejen1, A.shteiman, Flyer22 Reborn, Monegasque,
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Ismael JR, Internationalstudent, Eeekster, Redthoreau, Another Believer, 7, MelonBot, DumZiBoT, Little Mountain 5, Zoporic, Good
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AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Truth or consequences-2, Citation bot, Xqbot, Renaissancee, RobertKa, 661kts, GrouchoBot, Guoguo914,
Cpwwefan08, Stratogan, Sayerslle, Tokiohotelover, Lubumba, PM800, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, Tobby72, Climent Sostres, EJBH,
RedBot, Sweetmutiima, Full-date unlinking bot, Waceaquinas, Jauhienij, Orenburg1, Jonkerz, Rwema, Underlying lk, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, Kobac, Bento00, Patcheko, John of Reading, GA bot, Ihateyou23456789, Dewritech, Htanna, Moswento, Tommy2010, Dcirovic,
Sheeana, Mighty.Yggdrasil, Kagiga, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Davykamanzi, Stemoc, Bigcountry1974, Everard Proudfoot, H3llBot,
Rwandanziza2, Arwema, Kigeli, GermanJoe, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Miller.eric.84, Maniragaba, Marinna, Asalrifai, Imanzi, Tpantin,
Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Sematz, Nkurunziza, Mbarute, MrBill3, Importemps, Van Gulik, Corlier, Polmandc, FreeCongo, BattyBot, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, 23 editor, Bjhodge8, Cwobeel, OscarK878, Caleb Dorey, Malcom9830, VIAFbot, Wywin, Epicgenius, Dr
Dinosaur IV, VoxelBot, Retrolord, MarieWPJ, BillDillSill, Ashleyleia, Andrewobeki, Karapat200, TBSheets, AddWittyNameHere, Harrell.steven, Elie Gashagaza, Monkbot, Prof. Mc, Arquelao10, Trackteur, TranquilHope, Jacksy013, JDStep123, Blz66, Mohahlaula, India
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