Depp 209
Depp 209
Depp 209
Sociology of Education
Module DEP209
Published by:
2010
Layout :
S. Mushore
Cover Design:
T. Ndhlovu
Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading
Authors:
D. Mawere
M.Ed (Sociology) (UZ)
B.Ed (History and Sociology) (UZ)
Certificate in Education (UZ)
Content reviewer:
M.T. Mukabeta
Master of Education (Leeds)
Bachelor of Education (Honours) (Bristol)
PGCE in Open and Distance Learning (Open
University UK)
Editor:
B. Mutambanengwe
Master of Education (MEAPPS) (ZOU)
Bachelor of Education (Home Economics) (UZ)
Secondary Teachers Certificate (GTC)
To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge
and the requirement to adjust and
change with changing technolog y,
places on us a need to learn
continually throughout life. As all
people need an education of one form
or another, it has been found that
conventional education institutions
cannot cope with the demand for
education of this magnitude. It has,
however, been discovered that distance
education and open learning, now also
exploiting e-learning technology, itself
an offshoot of e-commerce, has
become the most effective way of
transmitting these appropriate skills
and knowledge required for national
and international development.
Since attainment of independence in
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has
spearheaded the development of
distance education and open learning
at tertiary level, resulting in the
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999.
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently
the only university in Zimbabwe
entirely dedicated to teaching by
distance education and open learning.
We are determined to maintain our
leading position by both satisfying our
clients and maintaining high
academic standards. To achieve the
leading position, we have adopted the
course team approach to producing
the varied learning materials that will
holistically shape you, the learner to
_____________________
Dr. Primrose Kurasha
Vice Chancellor
Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.
Conclusion
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six
hours is too little for lectures and it is not
necessary, in view of the provision of fully selfcontained learning materials in the package, to
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials
Contents
Overview _________________________________________________ 1
Unit One: Introduction to the Sociology of Education
1 . 1 _______ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 3
1 . 2 _______ Unit Objectives ___________________________________________________ 4
1 . 3 _______ Definition of Sociology ____________________________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.1 McGees (1975) views Sociology ________________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.2 Meighan s view Sociology (1983) ______________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.3 Cotgrove (1980) views ________________________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.4 Ezewus (1983) Marxist definition of Sociology ____________________ 5
__________ 1.3.5 Observations from the four definitions ___________________________ 5
__________ Activity 1.1 ______________________________________________________ 5
1 . 4 _______ Definition of Sociology of Education _________________________________ 6
__________ 1.4.1 Sociology of Education is a sub-discipline of Sociology _____________ 6
__________ 1.4.2 Ottaways definition of Sociology of Education (1953) ______________ 6
__________ 1.4.3 Observations from the above definitions of Sociology ________________
__________ of Education are that: ______________________________________________ 6
1 . 5 _______ Purpose of Sociology of Education __________________________________ 6
__________ Activity 1.2 ______________________________________________________ 8
1 . 6 _______ Emergence of Sociology of Education ________________________________ 8
__________ 1.6.1 Origins of Sociology _________________________________________ 8
1 . 7 _______ Origins of Sociology of Education ___________________________________ 9
__________ 1.7.1 Structural Functionalism's _____________________________________ 9
__________ 1.7.2 Conflict Theory _____________________________________________ 1 1
__________ Activity 1.3 _____________________________________________________ 1 2
__________ 1.7.3 Interpretive Theory __________________________________________ 1 2
__________ Activity 1.4 _____________________________________________________ 1 2
1 . 8 _______ The Nature of Sociological Inquiry _________________________________ 1 2
__________ Activity 1.5 _____________________________________________________ 1 4
1 . 9 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 1 4
1 . 1 0 ______ References ______________________________________________________ 1 6
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Module Overview
Sociology of Education
Module DEP209
The aims and objectives of the Module are to be realised through coverage of
the content in five units. Unit One sets the scene of the whole module by
providing you with a conceptual framework through clarifying concepts such
as Sociology and Sociology of Education. The origins of Sociology and
Sociology of Education are also traced in this Unit. Thoughts on the nature of
sociological inquiry are also given in order to socialise you into the disciplines
thinking framework.
Unit Two introduces you to the perspectives that are used as tools of analysing
sociological issues. The perspectives are Structural functionalism, Marxism
(conflict), Femininism and Interactionism. You will discover that none of these
sociological perspectives, on its own, can give a sufficient and comprehensive
explanation to a sociological phenomenon. You are expected to apply these
perspectives to what goes on in education in general and schools in particular.
In Unit Three we discuss in detail some of the principles of Sociology of
Education. The discussion focuses on culture and socialisation, social
stratification, social control and deviance and social change. This is done to
enable you to relate each of the principles to what goes on in school in general
and the classroom situation in particular. By and large these principles help
you to describe and explain education and schooling from a sociological
perspective.
In Unit Four we focus on the roles and functions of the school, the teacher
and the community. The intention here is to discuss the relationship between
the school and the community and show how teachers execute their duties in
the two respective organisations.
In Unit Five we examine how contemporary social problems are constructed,
their effect on society and consequently on the school system. The social
problems examined include poverty, gender, child abuse and disability. Your
awareness of these social problems is meant to enable you to be in a position
to suggest interventions that may go some way in solving them.
We wish you well in this highly rewarding learning experience.
Unit One
1.1 Introduction
Sociology of Education
Module DEP209
Unit 1
terms of how they behave to each other. The third task is that, explaining of
behaviour takes account of the meanings that individuals attach to external
stimuli. An example that could be given here is a situation where you, as a
student, get a 20% score in an assignment. That score is open to a number of
interpretations. You could view it as inability. If you view it that way, it may
lead you to give up or resign to continued failure thereafter. You could view
the mark as a result of the tutor not looking at you favourably. You could also
interpret it as your failure to prepare or apply yourself fully to the task.
Fundamentally, it is not effectively possible for an outsider to comprehensively
understand the nature of interaction within a particular social context. Neither
can an outsider understand the nature and scope of behaviour exhibited to
one another by participants nor meanings attached to behaviour actions.
1.3.4 Ezewus (1983) Marxist definition of Sociology
Ezewus Marxist definition of Sociology comes from within a historical context
as the study of changes in social relationships or of social interaction, based
on tension, contradictions and conflicts between incompatible social groups
within the material world.
The Marxist definition of Sociology above stresses the lack of fit between
different social groups (social classes) and the potential for conflict. In fact,
the conflict by and large is between the rich and the poor.
1.3.5 Observations from the four definitions
Observations from the above definitions reveal that Sociology is a systematic
study (social science) that deals primarily with social groups in relation to:
Activity 1.1
?
Zimbabwe Open University
Sociology of Education
Module DEP209
Unit 1
preparing their children to become adults. The advent of colonialism and the
consequent establishment of school changed the way children were being
socialised (brought up). Trained professionals (teachers) took over the
responsibility of socialising children particularly from the age of six years.
Sociology of Education as a sub-discipline of Sociology attempts to look
closely at the relationship between Education and society, bearing in mind the
culture of a given society (group of people sharing a culture). Sociology of
Education looks at how a groups way of life (culture) sub-cultural groups,
peoples attitudes and ideology (the way they perceive the world) impact on
the education of a pupil. The training of people for different occupations, and
curriculum (knowledge processing) are also a concern of the discipline of
Sociology of Education (Peresuh and Nhundu, 1999).
Sociology of Education is concerned with how children are taught in schools
(instruction), the origin of instruction and how this instruction impacts on society.
It is also concerned with social, political and economic systems within which
the school operates (the structural view). You should note that the school
does not operate as an island as it interacts with other schools as part of the
nations education system, as well as with other institutions throughout the
world (the macro view of sociological analysis).
The social environment of the child is an area of interest to Sociology of
Education. Of particular interest is whether the childs performance in class is
decided by the familys attitude towards education or is a result of material
possessions of the family as well as other factors such as race, gender, ethnicity
and disability. These issues will be analyzed in more detail in the units ahead.
The contribution of Sociology of Education is not confined to the school or
formal educational institutions only. It includes the concerns of various ethnic
groups that make up society. For example, there is a Marxist concern that
schools and related institutions have been creating an unequal society along
the lines of race, class, gender, ethnicity and disability. Out of this concern,
issues of social inequality, uneven development, poverty, and child abuse have
emerged as topical Sociology of Education issues. These issues will be looked
at more closely in the units ahead.
Sociology of Education
Module DEP209
Activity 1.2
1.
2.
Unit 1
The third revolution was in politics. France was the leader in this regard. The
1789 French Political Revolution was based on the principle of human rights,
equality, liberty and fraternity (brotherhood). An ideology evolved by the
capitalist class to justify the need for replacing the kings (nobility) as leaders
of nation states as opposed to Kingdoms. Sociology, the science of society,
as coined by Auguste Comte, emerged as a discipline, to explain causes of
inequality in society. However, Sociology of Education as a discipline remained
obscure because there was no agreement about its scope and function at the
age of revolution.
In his claims that the social system develops from a simple form to a complex
one, Spencer drew upon Charles Darwins insights.
Zimbabwe Open University
Sociology of Education
Module DEP209
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Unit 1
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Activity 1.3
Activity 1.4
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Unit 1
Knowing is part of our daily function. We see that the sun rises from the East
and sets in the West. We get to know this through observation. However,
Mulkey (1993: 26) says the process of everyday knowing limits our awareness
because we: are inaccurate; over generalise, observe selectively, are illogical,
get personally involved in what we observe and close the door to further
inquiry.
For us to know, in Sociology of Education therefore, we should know
scientifically. This is possible when there is conscious observation,
representative observation, logical and empirical observation, emotionally
neutral observation and open-ended observation.
The process of noticing things that go on around us is very much unconscious.
We attend to some things and disregard others because we cannot see
everything at once. For example, if you are sitting next to another teacher in
the staff room today, do you think tomorrow you would be able to recall what
the teacher was wearing? You can only remember in a much better way,
however, if you are asked ahead of time to observe deliberately what the
teacher was wearing. The first situation is unconscious observation, whilst the
second scenario is conscious observation.
1.
The first step in the research process is curiosity. You ask yourself what
it is that really interests you. Maybe you want to know whether children
who come from poor home backgrounds perform better than those
who come from rich families. Common sense might tell us that they
perform poorly. This then makes you want to carry out research.
2.
The second step is to find out what others have found out about the
performance of both groups of pupils. You conduct what is called, a
review of the literature, to find out how others have carried out research
perhaps in the same area in other places.
3.
The third step is to derive from theory the idea, the testable and verifiable
hypothesis, about the relationship between childrens home backgrounds
and performance.
4.
5.
The fifth step is to decide on the sample, that is, who will be observed?
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6.
7.
8.
The eighth step is to report the results of the analysis that tested whether
children from a poor home background do perform better than those
from a rich background.
Activity 1.5
1.9 Summary
We hope that in this Unit we have introduced you to the concepts, Sociology
and Sociology of Education. Sociology has been explained as a science of
society. Sociology of Education has been explained as the application of
Sociology as a discipline to the study of education as one of the institutions of
society. The purposes of Sociology of Education have been pointed out as
looking closely at the relationship between education and society, the training
of people for different occupations, how children are taught in schools, and
the social environment of the child in so far as it impacts on performance of
children.
The origins of Sociology of Education have been traced to the three revolutions
that were experienced in Western Europe culminating in the emergence of
Sociology (a science of society). Sociology of Education owes its formation
to the Structural Functionalist Theory with its emphasis on the structures
obtaining in society and how these impact on education. It also owes its
formation to the Conflict Theory and its analysis of the inequality that obtains
in society and how it affects access to schooling. The Interpretive Theory and
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Unit 1
its micro level analysis of what goes on in the classroom and in schools, gives
Sociology of Education more breadth and scope. The nature of Sociological
inquiry has been discussed as a step-by-step or systematic process that
observes the nature of scientific inquiry. Emphasis in this regard is on conscious
and systematic observation. Unit 2 focuses on sociological perspectives and
their implications for what goes on in education and schools.
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1.10References
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Unit Two
Perspectives in Sociology of
Education
2.1 Introduction
Sociology of Education
Module DEP209
2.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
define a sociological perspective
describe the four perspectives in Sociology of Education
(that is, the structural functionalist, the conflict, feminist and
interactionist perspectives)
compare and contrast the four perspectives
evaluate the contributions of the four perspectives to
education
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Unit 2
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Unit 2
Activity 2.1
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For Parsons, schools instil the value of achievement by rewarding those who
achieve through examination success. Schools also instil the value of equality
of opportunity by offering everyone an equal chance to succeed. These values
are important in that they ensure that the best people fill the most important
positions and that people of all levels accept their position, as they know
everyone had the opportunity to succeed in school.
Parsons argues that schools also perform the function of role allocation. As
pupils are tested and evaluated in schools, their talents and capacities are
matched to the jobs they are best suited. Schools therefore sift, sort and
discriminate the able from the unable. Therefore, there should be a match
between childrens talents and jobs for which they are situated. The same
standards are applied to all students regardless of characteristics such as
race, sex, family background class or origin (Parsons, in Haralambos and
Holborn 1990). Hernstein, in Bilton et al (1987: 39) puts it clearly when he
says:
If virtually everyone is smart enough to be a ditch digger and only half the
people are smart enough to be engineers, the society is in effect husbanding
its resources by holding engineers in greater esteem and paying them more.
2.4.4 Criticism of the Functionalist Perspective
From the ideas of Durkheim and Parsons that have been discussed so far you
should note that:
The perspective is of great importance but has very little practical use
in schools
It gives too much importance to values and norms
It does not pay enough attention to social conflicts that characterise
schools and society.
Activity 2.2
1.
2.
3.
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Unit 2
In order to shed more light on the basic elements of the Marxist Perspective
there is need to look at Karl Marxs ideas about society and education.
2.5.2 Karl Marxs Theory and Education
Karl Marxs view of how we come to know about the world is dialectical
in that he sees us in constant interaction with the material world; we
change that world but in turn are changed by it (Robinson, 1981).
Truth is revealed by praxis or political action, where our ideas are put
to test in the world.
Mans relationship with the means of production is the driving force for
Marxs theory. Means of production has to do with the control man
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has over his labour, its inputs, outputs and the necessary technologies
needed to complete given tasks.
Marx argues that in a class society, for example, Capitalist Society, a workers
real condition is one of alienation. The worker is alienated from the product of
his/her labour and from himself or herself. In other words, what the worker
produces is appropriated by the employer. The worker has no control over
what he/she produces. In view of this, Mclellan (1973) in Robinson (1981)
says that the worker only feels at ease when performing the animal functions
of eating, drinking and reproducing.
In other words, for those who own the means of production to make money,
the relations of production must be more or less equal; the worker must be
paid less than the value of the product he or she produces. This is how the
owners of the means of production (employers) make a profit. Marx called
the owners of the means of production bourgeoisie (capitalists or ruling
class) and the workers proletariat (working class).
The means of production and the relations of production form what Marx
termed the Economic Infrastructure (the base of society). The economic
relations, to Marx, mean the foundation of society. Economic relations of
society also shape every other part of society. The relationship is a two way
one. The other parts of society serve to legitimate and maintain the economic
infrastructure. These other parts of society are known as the superstructure.
Like a house built on its foundation the superstructure is built on the base.
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Unit 2
Economic Base
(Infrastructure)
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26
Unit 2
pupils do because they are below. By the same token at the work
place the boss says and the worker does. In school pupils also learn
hierarchical structures. The head, deputy head, senior teacher. At work
the hierarchy is Managing Director, Director, Manager, Foreman.
The bottom line of what Bowles and Gintis are saying is that the
socialisation of children, particularly from the lower class in the school,
is preparation for them to fit into the work place culture where they
have to work observing the hierarchy of the work situations.
Activity 2.3
1.
2.
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Unit 2
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to demand for changes in the curriculum, more so if the curriculum has subjects
whose content is characterized by gender stereotypes. The explicit call from
the radical feminists, therefore, is that if the curriculum, school textbooks and
curriculum materials are gender typed there is need to change them. In other
words there is need to embark on deconstruction of gender stereotypes that
characterize the school curriculum.
2.6.4 Criticism of Radical Feminism
Radical Feminists fail to understand that the gender relationships which
exist within the family group in capitalist societies, for example, are
created by and are specific to the economic imperative of this economic
system.
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Unit 2
(2)
(3)
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Activity 2.4
? 1.2.
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Unit 2
These include:
1.
We imagine how we appear to others.
2.
We imagine what their judgement of that appearance must be.
3.
We develop some self-feeling, such as pride or mortification, as a result
of our imagining others judgement.
Cooley had a special interest in the way self-concepts developed in children.
He observed that children from an early age are concerned with their effects
upon others. Children are always trying to exert control over people around
them. With maturity children become more sophisticated. They try harder to
hide their desires for approval of affection. The most important self-feelings
are pride and shame but it is the desire to avoid shame that shapes peoples
behaviour (Cooley in Abrahamson 1990).
Symbolic Interactionism is a body of theory that emphasises the organisation
of everyday social life around events and actions that act as symbols to which
actors orient themselves. Interactionists frequently study this through
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Sociology of Education
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Unit 2
The key question is - Why might teachers type certain groups of pupils?
Which groups might they be?
Sociology of Education
Module DEP209
Activity 2.5
1.
2.
2.8 Summary
In this unit we have shown that the three perspectives, which are, the
Functionalist perspective, the Marxist Conflict Perspective and the Feminist
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Unit 2
Perspective are macro perspectives. Society is the unit of analysis in the three
perspectives. They analyse what goes on in society as a whole as well as
what goes on in the organ of society called education. The Functionalist
Perspective focuses on the structures of society and the functions of these
structures for society. The Marxist Perspective on the other hand focuses on
the conflict that is a result of contradictions of wealth and poverty in the society.
How these contradictions bring out inequality in society and how the school is
used as a tool by those in power to socialise the young to accept the status
quo through introducing them into an ideology of false consciousness. The
Feminist Perspective brings to the fore the inequalities that exist between men
and women and what society could do, through the school, to deconstruct
gender stereotypes brought about mainly by patriarchy. Last but not least the
Interactionist Perspective gives depth and breath as it adopts a microsociological approach in which the small group is the unit of analysis. Everyday
activities being the building blocks of society. It focuses on the interpretation
of actions, giving meaning to these as well as the interaction that goes on
between teachers and pupils with learning being the outcome of the
interactions.
In the next unit focus will be on some sociological principles and how they
impact on education and schooling.
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2.9 References
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Unit Three
Principles in Sociology of
Education
3.1 Introduction
n Unit 2 we introduced you to the four perspectives that are used in Sociology
of Education as tools of analysis. In this unit, we introduce you to some of
the principles of Sociology of Education.
The principles of Sociology of Education include the following:
Stratification
Social Change
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Unit 3
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In other words, norms are rules and regulations by which society guides
the behaviour of its members. Norms therefore, are clear guidelines,
which tell us what we should, or ought to, or must do as well as what
we should not, ought not to or must not do. Deviation from norms is
punished by sanctions. Traffic lights are norms that regulate the
behaviour of drivers of motor vehicles. Cannibalism and incest are not
allowed in African society. Norms are often classified according to the
degree of compulsion, which could be folkways, mores and laws.
Norms are acquired by internalisation and socialisation.
Folkways - are the usual, habitual, customary, normal ways we do
things. For example, we bath, brush our teeth, groom our hair, wear
shoes, wave greetings to friends and sleep in beds.
Mores are ways of doing things which must be followed. They relate
to ideas of right and wrong for example murder, theft, rape, treason
and child molestation bring strong disapproval and severe punishment
in most societies.
Laws are rules that are enforced by those in power. Laws are a
result of conscious thought, deliberate planning and formal declaration.
Values - Vander Zanden (1990:33) defines values as broad ideas
regarding what is desirable, correct and good that most members of
society share. In other words, how things ought to be. Norms provide
us with the criteria and conceptions by which we evaluate people,
objects and events as to their relative worth, merit, beauty and morality.
Examples of values are achievement and success, work and activity,
efficiency, material comfort, progress, patriotism and democracy,
freedom and cleanliness.
Symbols Symbols refer to anything that carries a particular meaning
recognized by people sharing a given culture. Symbols include body
language, flags, paintings, badges and uniforms. Reference here is made
to all social symbols.
Language is a system of symbols enabling members of society to
communicate with one another. It can also be viewed as a socially
constructed system of sound patterns (words and sentences) with
specific and arbitrary meanings. It is the cornerstone of every culture,
the chief vehicle by which people communicate, not only ideas, but
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Activity 3.1
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family, the school, peers and the mass media in the socialization of the school
child will be discussed.
Socialization Generally, the term socialization is a process by which an
infant transforms from being a biological little animal without speech and selfcontrol into a person or social being with language, beliefs, values and norms
as well as self-control. Hurd (1980: 95) views socialization as the process of
growing up into a human being, a process which necessitates contact with
other people. On the other hand, McNeil and Townley (1986:90) say,
socialization is about how the individual learns to behave in a socially
acceptable way. Vander Zanden (1990: 62) defines socialization as a process
of social interaction by which people acquire the knowledge, attitudes, values
and behaviours essential for effective participation in society.
The three definitions above show us that socialization is not an event but a
learning process that starts at birth and ends with death. In the socialization
process, people learn the patterns of their culture. The process takes place
mainly in childhood but continues throughout life.
Theoretical Perspectives on Socialization
We are going to briefly discuss the Functionalist, the Marxist and the
Interactionist perspectives on socialization.
Functionalist Perspective
Functionalists see socialization as a process that happens to the
individual. Emphasis is functional rather than interactional. Functionalists
have tended to stress the influence of social structures on forming and
controlling individual behaviour. Talcott Parsons (1959) in particular,
has described individual social action largely in terms of performance
of roles determined by the needs of society. The functioning of society
requires that people perform such roles as industrial worker, clerk,
teacher or company director, among others.
Talcott Parsons in Haralambos and Holborn (1995) points out that the
family socializes the young into the particularistic standards of the home.
However, the school socializes the child into universalistic standards
(cultural practices that enable a child to fit well into society). Parsons
views a school as a major socializing agency developing in individuals
the following:
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Unit 3
Activity 3.2
Marxist Perspective
Marxists like Functionalists, tend to see socialism as a process that happens
to the individual. They stress the function the family plays in passing on the
main ideas and values of a society to the individual. Marxists however, question
whether what children learn is always in their own interest. In a slave family,
for example, a child may be brought up to accept a position as a slave. The
slave child comes to take as normal, a social position of exploitation. Therefore,
a priest who tells the poor and deprived to accept their lot is seen as socializing
them to come to terms with exploitation.
What is important to note from the Marxists is that class experience (slave or
working class) at work or in the community can provide sources of
socialization which conflict with the message of conformity from the slave
master or the employer respectively.
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Activity 3.3
Unit 3
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As teachers interact with girls and boys in the classroom, they may label girls
as less able than boys. Girls may develop a negative self-concept and become
demotivated which will cause them to perform poorly. Girls are made to feel
invisible at school. School sports are also based on gender with boys doing
more aggressive sports whilst girls dance. Teachers therefore may be
responsible for the reinforcement of primary gender socialization, discrimination
against girls in school and thus gender inequalities in education.
Activity 3.4
Unit 3
Activity 3.5
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Stratification refers to the rules regulating who should have what of the
desirable things in life (wealth, power and prestige) and under what
conditions (Mulkey, 1993).
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Activity 3.6
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The second type structural mobility refers to the changes in peoples social
statuses as a consequence of changes in the economic structure of the society
whether certain kinds of jobs are needed by the society (Mulkey, 1993).
Most people however, even in open society remain in the social class of their
parents.
3.4.3 Theories on Stratification
Functionalist and conflict theories of stratification will be discussed in this
section of the unit.
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1)
2)
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3)
Those positions that are most complex and important and require the
most talent and training that is education, are the most highly rewarded.
Davis and Moore (1945) argue for effective role allocation and performance
in which roles are filled by people best able to perform them. Necessary
training for the role should be provided. Furthermore, the roles should be
performed conscientiously.
Davis and Moore cited in Haralambos and Holborn (1995) also view social
stratification as a mechanism for ensuring effective role allocation and
performance. This can only be possible through:
Unit 3
at the work place are rewarded based on ability or credentials). One criticism
that we can level against the theory is that it ignores inequalities based on
inherited wealth. The theory assumes that highest contributors to society are
rewarded the most.
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Activity 3.8
Unit 3
Foul language
Keeping bad company
Habitual failure to keep appointments
Heavy drinking
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Activity 3.9
Unit 3
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Activity 3.10
Unit 3
not react positively to external forces, they attach meanings to events before
deciding how to respond.
A focus on Howard S. Beckers labelling theory on deviance helps you to
have insights into deviance and deviant behaviour.
Howard S. Becker and the Labelling Theory
The Labelling Theory has been the hallmark of interactionist perspectives on
deviance for more than thirty years. Becker in Haralambos and Holborn
(1990:610) argues that social groups create deviance by making the rules
whose interaction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular
people and labelling them as outsiders. In other words, the Labelling Theory
which assumes that labelling someone as deviant will reinforce their deviant
behaviour, is important as it starts from the assumption that no act is intrinsically
criminal (or normal).
Interactions like Becker therefore, argue that the deviant is one to whom the
label has been successfully applied and deviant behaviour as behaviour so
labelled. The argument continues when he says that there is no such thing as a
deviant act, an act only becomes deviant when others perceive it as such.
Therefore, Becker in Haralambos and Holborn (1990: 611) argues that
Deviance is not a quality that lies in behaviour itself, but in the interaction
between the person who commits an act and those who respond to it. It
follows from this argument that deviance is produced by a process of
interaction between the potential deviant and the agents of social control.
To Becker, if individuals are labelled as criminal, mentally ill or homosexual,
such labels largely override these peoples status as parent, worker, neighbour
and friend. Since a persons self-concept is largely derived from the responses
of others, they will tend to see themselves in terms of the label. This may
produce a self-fulfilling prophecy (which we discussed in the unit of Sociological
Perspectives) whereby the deviant identification becomes the controlling one.
Activity 3.11
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Activity 3.12
Unit 3
Major social processes through which social change occurs include discovery,
invention and diffusion. Think of the discoveries that have been made in modern
society and how these have revolutionised the way people behave. The same
could be said of the inventions like the aeroplane, electricity, telephone, cell
phone and the Internet. Important agents of social change are technology,
changing demographics (populations structure and pattern), the natural
environment, and the revolution and war.
3.6.2 Theoretical perspectives on social change
Evolutionary, functionalist and conflict theories of social change will be
discussed in this section of the unit.
Evolutionary Theory
Classical Evolutionary Theory of Social Change was based on the
assumption that all societies develop from simple, small scale
beginnings into more complex industrial and post-industrial societies.
The development was unilinear, that is, there was one line of development
from simple to complex or from a primitive to an advanced state. It
was assumed that the changes inherent in this development were all
progress. It was also assumed that the rate of social change was slow,
gradual and piecemeal.
The theory emerged at a time when Charles Darwin was publishing his
theories on the origin of species, that biological species evolved from
the simple to the complex, and that there was survival of the fittest.
Evolutionary theorists applied these ideas to societies a concept that
fitted very well with the colonial era when Britain and other colonizing
countries were heavily involved in bringing their superior advanced
form of society to more primitive societies, in exchange for their raw
materials and trade goods. Social change in accordance with Charles
Darwin approach to biological development, was Evolutionary not
Revolutionary. It should be noted that social change process (from
primitive to complex modern society) as portrayed above, will take
centuries to complete. We should also note that evolutionary theory
described change, rather than explained it.
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2)
Each institution performs a specific function for the good of the whole,
thus, there are four crucial functions that every institution must perform
to maintain the social fabric. These include:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Unit 3
Marxism argued that the potential for change, in the above modes of
production, was built into the basic structures of society, the relationship
between social classes which Marx saw as being intrinsic to the social relations
of production. According to Marx, eventually a society reaches a point where
its own organization creates a barrier to further economic growth and at that
point, crisis precipitates a revolutionary transformation of the society. Examples
have been given above as from slavery to feudalism to capitalism and finally
to socialism.
Marxists believed that social order was maintained through socialization,
education and ideology as alluded to in Unit 2. Therefore, control is maintained
to suit the vested interests of powerful groups and as the interests of these
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groups change, so does society. Change is therefore, ongoing until crisis point
is reached and transformation occurs. While Marx focused on class conflict
specifically, modern conflict theories have broadened their explanation of change
to social conflict generally.
The Conflict Theory is useful in explaining significant events in history and
ongoing changing patterns of race and gender relations. However, it struggles
to adequately explain the dramatic impact of technological development on
society or the changes to family organization.
Activity 3.13
3.7 Summary
The unit focused on some of the principles of Sociology of Education. These
were culture and socialization, stratification, social control and deviance as
well as social change. The meaning and importance of these principles, to you
as a teacher, have been brought out and explained. Each of the principles has
a role to play in Sociology of Education in general and in teaching and learning
in particular. Unit 4 focuses on School and Society.
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3.8 References
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Unit Four
4.1 Introduction
n this unit we discuss the role and function of the school. The teacher and
the communitys roles are also discussed. You should be aware that society
consists of many interconnected social systems one of which is the school
system. We refer to society as the macrosystem or level because the level
subsumes a number of other systems. The school system is referred to as
belonging to the micro-level because it is only an aspect of the wider social
system (society). Within the school is the teacher who plays a key role in
ensuring that the goals of the school are realized. The teacher also has a role
to play in the community surrounding the school. The community in which the
school is situated has a role to play in the school. It is our intention in this unit
to discuss the relationship between the school and the community and how
the teacher executes his/her duties in both organisations.
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The sub systems or parts of the school as a social system include the following:
Boundaries
A school system must have boundaries. If there are boundaries you
can identify what parts are in the system and those outside. The buildings
and the people who are members are parts of the school system hence
its boundaries. Non-members are not part of the school system.
Interdependence of Parts
Parts of the school system are interdependent. What happens to one
part in the school system affects the other parts. If pupil enrolment
decreases for example, all parts of the system (number of staff
programmes, standards, the budget) are affected.
Needs
The school as a social system has needs or requirements if it has to
survive. No pupils means no school. It also needs funds for its
programmes, salaries for its teachers and other personnel. It has to
have control over its members at an acceptable level.
Equilibrium
Equilibrium as a characteristic of the school as a school system, refers
to a particular time when the school has adequate funds and adequate
number of pupils. If this equilibrium is threatened, for example, if the
number of pupils and staff increases very rapidly, then the school system
will be obliged to adapt itself to its new set of circumstances.
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School Goals
The goals include the development in each individual of the knowledge,
interests, ideals, habits and powers where he/she will find his/her place and
use that place to shape both him/herself and society toward ever nobler ends,
(Ballantine, 1993). The school values could include good citizenship, or fitting
into society and individuality or making ones own way through acceptable
means.
Individual Goals
These could be varied as follows:
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Activity 4.1
1.
2.
3.
School functions from individual pupils are that the school provides an
opportunity to get together with peers and engage in sports and other activities.
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Activity 4.2
(B)
(C)
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(E)
(F)
Unit 4
Activity 4.3
Size of the Class: the bigger the class the less participation the teacher
gets from each pupil.
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Autocratic Teacher
An autocratic teacher demands conformity to rules. A break of the rules results
in a pupil being severely punished. This type of a teacher dictates all the steps
of attaining goals of the class. This teachers classroom has low pupil-to-pupil
interaction. The classroom atmosphere is usually tense. In other words, there
is teacher-centred or teacher dominated interaction in the autocratic teachers
classrooms.
Democratic Teacher
A democratic teacher tends to be warm in his/her interaction with pupils. The
teacher shares planning and decision making in the class with pupils. Childcentred approaches are employed in the teaching. These could include project
and discovery methods.
The Laissez Faire Teacher
This teacher employs what is referred to as a free reign approach. In this style
children are given the freedom to do what they want. There is no strict
adherence to rules. Pupils lack direction and no meaningful learning may take
place.
Observation
Whilst Goslin comes up with five dimensions of the teachers behaviour
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determining the nature and quality of the interaction between him/her and the
pupil, it should be noted that situations demand or dictate what style to use.
The bottom line is that the school, as a social system, cannot be understood
only from a structural functionalist perspective but from the interactionist
point of view as well.
Activity 4.4
1.
2.
there can be a clash between what school teaches and what parents
consider that schools should teach
there can be conflict over what parents think teachers should do and
what teachers actually do. An example is that of expecting a teacher to
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Activity 4.5
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The idea of role originally comes from the theatre. In the theatre an actors
role is controlled by the producer or director. It is very clear. In the school
classroom nobody tells the teacher what to do. The teachers role is not
clear-cut.
Functionalist Perspective of Role
From a functionalist perspective, the term role is viewed as one of the most
important ways is which an individual activity is socially regulated. Roles create
regular patterns of behaviour and therefore a measure of predictability, which
not only expects individuals to function effectively because they know what to
expect of others, but also makes it possible for the sociologist to make
generalizations about society. Collectively a group of interlocking roles creates
a social institution. The school as an institution, for example, can be seen as
the combination of many roles including head, senior teacher, teacher and
pupil.
Roles, in the functionalist conception are created by society as a whole. They
are relatively rigid, largely universally agreed upon and role incumbents simply
take their designed roles on, and attempt to fulfil them as best as they can.
Interactionist Perspective of Role
In the interactionist perspective, the systematic use of the term role was
made by a philosopher, George Herbert Mead in his 1934 book Mind, Self
and Society. A role in this view is not fixed or prescribed but something that
is constantly negotiated between individuals in a tentative and creative way.
Meads main interest was the way in which children learn how to become
part of society by imaginative role taking. According to Mead (1934) children
imitate the roles of the people around them and try them to see how well they
fit. This is always done in an interactive way. It is not meaningful to think of a
role for one person alone, only for that person as an individual who is both
co-operating and competing with others. Each individual tries actively to define
the situation (understand his/her role) within it, choose a role that is
advantageous or appealing, play that role and persuade others to support the
role.
The Role of the Teacher in the Classroom
The teacher as an individual brings into the classroom his or her views of the
job, his or her prejudices, his or her personal fears and inadequacies, his/her
humanity and affection, (Karl Mannheim and Stewart in Morrish 1972: 234).
The children he/she teaches differ in physique, appearance, intelligence,
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Activity 4.6
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The third task is that of being a parent substitute. In this case the teacher
is seen as a baby-minder particularly in the infant classrooms. Even in
the junior grades the teacher is viewed as carrying out this task.
The fifth task is that of being a confidante. In this case the teacher is
expected to have a warm and close relationship with pupils. Such a
relationship will allow pupils to come for discussion on matters
challenging them.
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Activity 4.7
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Activity 4.8
1.
2.
The children who are in the school come from the community. The
community socializes children in certain skills, habits, feelings, values
and perceptions.
Parents pay school fees and levies which go some way in ensuring that
the needs of the school are met.
Experts from the community also come into the school to share their
expertise with teachers and children. Examples include nurses on health
issues, sages (old people) on the history of the community and sports
experts with different sporting skills all come in and assist.
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The community can raise funds to purchase things like buses, cars,
computers for the school. These resources are meant to benefit the
school in general and the pupils in particular.
The community can provide manual labour for the building of school
structures.
Activity 4.9
1.
2.
4.9 Summary
In this unit we have shown that to understand how schools work as social
systems, we may not rely on a single sociological perspective, but all
sociological perspectives available. You can focus on the structure and functions
of the school in the analysis process. You can also focus on the interaction that
obtains in the classroom and the school. Alternatively, sources of conflict in
the school can inform you about how the school operates as a social system.
The teacher plays a central role in the classroom, in the school and in the
community. However, the multiple roles set may lead the teacher to experience
role conflict. The community has also been shown to have an inextricably
interwoven relationship with the school. Both institutions are reciprocal in
their functions and one cannot do without the other. The bottom line is that
there should be good, if not excellent, rapport between the school and the
community.
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4.10References
Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. and Turner, B.S. (1988) (Eds) Dictionary of
Sociology London: Penguin.
Ballantine, J. (1993) The Sociology of Education: A Systematic Analysis,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.
Good, C.V. (1978) Dictionary of Education, London: Longman.
Hargreaves, D.H. (1975) Interpersonal Relations and Education. London:
Longman.
Hoyle, E. (1969) Human Development and Education. London: Longman,
Routledge and Kegan Paul (RKP).
Maclver, R. and Page, C. (1959) Society: An Introductory Analysis, London:
Macmillan.
Mead, G.H. (1934) M. Ind, Self and Society Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Morrish, I. (1972) The Sociology of Education An Introduction, London:
Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Parsons, T. (1959) The School Class as a Social System: Some of the
Functions in American Society Harvard Educational Review (1959)
29: 297-319.
Role of the Teacher: Retrieved 01/09/2004 from Http://
www.rennaisance.com.p/c deisma 95. html.
Sianni, G. and Ugwuegbu, D.C.E. (1980) Educational Psychology in a
Changing World. London: Goerge Allen and Unwin.
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Unit Five
5.1 Introduction
overty, gender, child abuse and disability are some of the contemporary
social problems that have an impact on what goes on in schools. In this
unit we examine how each of these social problems impact on the school
system. Each of the social problems is examined separately for purposes of
emphasis. Otherwise there are situations in which two or more of them combine
negatively to affect childrens access to education as well as how the children
are treated in the school by other children and teachers. We hope that if you
become aware of these social problems you will be in a position to come up
with interventions that may go some way in solving these social problems.
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The definition of relative poverty can only be understood within the broader
socio-economic context of the society in which the poor live. Relative poverty
measures whether or not an individual is poor in relation to those around him/
her. The poor, in any given society therefore, are in part defined by their
opposite group, that is, the rich. The poor from this explanation of poverty
therefore are, those with significantly less access to income and wealth than
those with more access to the same.
5.3.2 Explanation of poverty and the poor
These include cultural and structural explanations of poverty.
The Cultural Deprivation Explanations
These pinpoint that the cause of poverty is a result of the poor themselves.
The poor are seen as individuals who have been either badly socialized such
that they possess deviant values or are part of a deviant sub-culture (Sociology
Online/Anthony Siddens Third Way, 2005).
This explanation of poverty argues that the poors sub-culture may be so
pervasive that deviant attitudes are reproduced from one generation to another
by parents who act as deviant role models to their children. In this way the
poor are said to be part of a sub-culture, which is somewhat antagonistic to
the mainstream culture of society. Out of this explanation came the term culture
of poverty.
The term culture of poverty was introduced by anthropologist, Oscar Lewis.
He intended to render the poor as legitimate, interesting subjects whose lives
were battered by poverty and to reveal that poverty itself, generated a way of
life that constituted a unique culture of poverty. This was a liberal, innovative
perspective since the poor had previously been construed as lacking culture
(Readers Companion to U.S. Womens History Culture of Poverty, 20/
06/2005).
Structural Explanation of Poverty
The Structural or Material explanations of poverty are of greater sociological
importance because they seek to demonstrate the wider social determinants
of poverty. Such explanations will variably consider the economic, or the
political, or the social structures and institutions of society as being the causes
and reasons for poverty and the poor.
In some senses these explanations may be referred to as society blaming
explanations.
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The Neo-Marxists, for example, would suspect that the structures and
institutions of the capitalist economy necessarily entail poverty and the
immersion of millions across the globe.
The Feminists might argue that the structures and institutions of patriarchy
necessarily entail poverty and in particular the feminization of poverty
As womens roles in society often leave them with care giving
responsibilities with low pay careers and no job and poor economic
circumstances, poverty is often high among single female parents and
elderly widows.
Activity 5.1
Unit 5
Gordon and Chimedza (1993) attribute this to two factors, that is, material
poverty at home and teachers attitudes and expectations in the schools.
Material poverty at home is a major factor contributing to lack of access
and poor performance by pupils in the lowest socio-economic stratum in
Zimbabwean society. Apart from tuition fees, other costs attached to education
of poor children include cost of uniforms and writing materials among others.
A less obvious cost is the loss of the child as an economically active member
of the family unit. In the case of girls there is loss of domestic labour.
The Economic activities the children get into from an early age include
agriculture, herding of livestock, street vending or even begging. Girls are
often called upon to look after young, elderly or sick relatives as their families
are unable to afford the services of professional carers. Many poor families
cannot afford these additional costs of education and thus may be unable or
unwilling to send their children, particularly daughters, to school.
Over and above the cost of education, the extreme poverty of some families
means that they are unable to aid their children educationally in other ways.
Most very poor parents are themselves uneducated and are therefore, usually
unable to help their children with homework or academic problems that may
arise. Poor families cannot afford toys, games, books and other resources,
which may be helpful to their childrens cognitive development. Because of
the poverty at home, poor children are very often inadequately nourished
which affects their ability to learn and to concentrate during lessons. Also,
they may live in overcrowded or squalid conditions and without electricity,
which means that it is very difficult for them to do homework (Gordon and
Chimedza, 1993).
For all the above reasons, once in the school, poor children usually continue
to be disadvantaged by the poverty at home.
Factors in the School
Disproportionately large numbers of poor children are in the lower academic
stems and are labelled or defined as underachievers or slow learners (Gordon
and Chimedza, 1993). Whilst this could be attributed to factors relating to the
home/background of the poor pupils, teacher attitudes and expectations, may
also play a large part in the under achievement of poor pupils.
A self-fulfilling prophecy may operate for poor pupils. This is possible when
teachers apply negative labels to, and have very low expectations of poor
pupils. When these labels and expectations are communicated to the pupils
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Activity 5.2
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Gender Role Socialization: The main argument here is that boys and
girls learn gender roles from parents, peers and teachers (for more
details about gender role socialization revisit the unit on culture and
socialization). From the gender role socialization argument, it can be
said that appropriate gender roles are learned through socialization rather
than genetically given.
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gifted is another intervention that has been put in place to do away with
gender disparities in education. Swedish International Development Aid
(SIDA) and Camfed are two institutions that have played a key role in
awarding scholarships and bursaries to girls. Given that scholarship
programmes cover a combination of costs such as tuition, textbooks,
uniforms and boarding facilities, it should be noted that if the number of
beneficiaries were to be increase especially amongst girls coming from
poor home backgrounds, gender disparities in education would be
reduced.
The Secretarys Report for the Ministry of Education and Culture (1993)
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states that deliberate moves were initiated at the provincial level to encourage
female teachers to apply for promotion to heads and deputy heads. However,
it is only at the level of head and deputy head where promotion of female
teachers has been done significantly. A cursory look at the number of females
promoted to the level of departmental directors and above, shows that very
little has been done at this level.
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Activity 5.3
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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child declared that failure
to honour any of the childs rights is a form of child abuse. Some of the childrens
rights are freedom of expression, protection from torture and maltreatment,
protection from exploitation, child labour, protection form sexual abuse, right
to good health, education and recreation. In other words, child abuse is a
violation of any childrens rights.
In Zimbabwe child abuse takes the following forms treating step-children
cruelly, beating children, child labour, denying a child access to medicine,
education or food, child marriage and child rape (Participation, Development,
Power and Democracy (1997)). In the family, marital discord, domestic
violence, unemployment and poverty are all factors that can precipitate abuse.
5.5.2 Types of child abuse
The four major types of child abuse are:
Physical abuse
Sexual abuse
Emotional abuse
Neglect
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This type of abuse can come from adults or from other children who include
teachers, siblings, parents and bullies at school among others.
A childs physical needs might be neglected by the parents inability to provide
adequate nourishment, to attend to medical needs, or to provide an adequate
living environment (Hayes and Emshoff, 1993). The parents may ignore or
reject the child, which, apart from the emotional consequences for the child,
may result in inadequate supervision and or failure to ensure the childs safety.
Neglect involves families that are significantly disadvantaged having a multitude
of problems to deal with.
Sexual Abuse
Any sexual act between an adult and a child such as
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Such acts are usually committed by parents, teachers, strategists, baby sitters
and day-care providers. Sexual abuse is never the childs fault.
Evidence available shows that sexual abuse is still prevalent in school. The
Secretarys reports from the Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture (19901993) all show that schools are bedevilled by incidents of improper association
between teachers and girl pupils. In 1992, reported offences of this nature
numbered 110 from January to July.
Neglect
Neglect has to do with failure to provide for the childs physical, educational;
or emotional needs. Physical neglect includes:
Educational neglect has to do with failure to enrol a child of school going age
to school.
Emotional (psychological) neglect has to do with lack of emotional support
and love. It includes;
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Activity 5.4
Unit 5
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During School Open Days, special talks with parents on albinism should be
arranged. Teachers, therefore, have a role to play in attitude change to albinism
since they are the advocates for change.
Activity 5.5
5.7 Summary
The Zimbabwe government has made considerable attempts to afford all
children equal educational opportunities particularly in the primary school.
However, equality of educational opportunity for the poor, for girls, for the
disabled has remained elusive. Child abuse militates against childrens learning
in schools as well. In this unit we have discussed some of the reasons why
contemporary social problems negatively impact on the schooling of children.
The poor continue to have less access to education. The girls continue to
receive unequal treatment in schools. The disabled continue to be discriminated
against. Some interventions to address these contemporary problems have
been suggested.
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5.8 References
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