Practical No.

1
AIM: Brief study of a communication system life.

Cellular communication.
Fixed radio access.
Paging.
Ham radio.
Satellite radio.

CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
All of these systems were based on frequency division multiple-access whereby a user
during a call was assigned a given frequency for transmission to a base station (uplink) and
a given frequency for reception from the base-station (down-link). The modulation
technique adopted was frequency modulation (FM) for the voice signal. The bandwidth
assigned to each user was around 30 kHz (depending on the country). Frequency division
multiple access (FDMA) and FM modulation were well known techniques/technology
available to system designers at the time.
Cellular systems divide a geographical region into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station .he goal in the design of cellular systems is to be able to
handle as many calls as possible (this is called capacity in cellular terminology) in a given
bandwidth with some reliability. There are several different ways to allow access to the
channel. These include the following.

Frequency division multiple-access(FDMA)

Time division multiple access(TDMA)
Time/frequency multiple-access
Random access
Code division multiple-access(CDMA)
Frequency-hop CDMA
Direct-sequence CDMA
Multi-carrier CDMA(FH or DS)

HAM RADIO
Amateur radio is a community of people that use radio transmitters and receivers to
communicate with other Amateur radio operators. The things that amateur radio operators
do with their radios are diverse as the people themselves.
Amateur radio operators are often called ham radio operators or simply hams.
It is the medium through which one or many communication is possible with wireless
technology.

It is a group of people who communicate with each other over wide frequency spectrum
using many difference types of wireless transmission modes.
Nowadays, there are 2.5 million ham radios operators in the world. The frequency
allocation to transmit about any band to GHz. It is 15 to 27 MHz long distance
communication and during night 1.6 to 15 MHz is used.

FIXED RADIO ACESS SYSTEM

(WLL, PACS, CORDLESS TELEPHONE)
WLL-Wireless local loop
Microwave wireless links can be used to create a wireless local loop.
Vast arrays of service and applications have been proposed and are in early stapes of
communication. These technique include the concept of local multipoint distribution
services(LMDS).
To gain perspective of enormous amount of bandwidth that is available for fixed wireless
services such as LMDS.
One of the most promising applications of LMDS is in a Local Exchange Carrier
Network.
Other methods are MMDS (Multipoint Multichannel Distributed System). It was
intended to compete with Cable TV, carrying analog channels over distance up to 45Km.
The most popular wireless local loop system use the industrial scientific, medical
frequencies around 2.5GHz the same as many wireless LANS. In this there is no license
required.

PACS-Personal Access Communication System.

PACS is able to support voice, data and video images for micro cell use.
In PASC channel bandwidth data rates no. of slots per frame and frame duration were
alter slightly and *14QPSK was used.
PACS may be connected to PBX or centre and may be served by C.O in residential
application. The PACS architecture consists of four main part.
1-Subscriber unit
2- Radio port
3-Radio port control unit
4- Access manager
Modulation- the RF signal is shaped using a raised cosine rolloff shaping filter.

Speech coding- WACS use 32kbps ADPCM for digital speech coding.
PACS Channels-PACS provides system broadcasting channels which are used
Primarily on the forward link to broadcast paging message. a synchronization channel
and the slow channels are used forward link to synchronize all subscriber unit.
Multiple access- PACS is a TDMA based technology that support either FDP or TDD.

CORDLESS TELEPHONY
Cordless telephone works only with one specific base station and used unlicensed
spectrum transmission power is very low for a range of 100m or less.
Telepoint-the theory behind Telepoint system was that they allowed the same phone to be
used in both private and public network. Telepoint total flow was that it could only be
used to make calls, not receiving them.
Standards-Two standards DECT Digital enhance cordless telephone and phs-personal
hyperlink sys. The standards are very similar. Both uses TDD and TDMA and offers data
rate of 64Kbps, one way . DECT is still used almost entirely for private cordless system.
PHS was the basis of very popular telephone number.
MOBILITY/CELLURE

P
A
G
G
I
N
G

C
E
L
L
U
L
A
R

4G cellphone
3G
cell
WCDM
A
BLUETOOTH
10k

100k

LAN
60
GhZ
1M

10M
100M
DATE RATE
bps
The Development of a variety of communication systems is shown as a function of
Data rates and user mobility/cell sizes
Satellite phone

A subscriber in Russia is calling her friend in San Francisco on her Global star satellite
phone. Her signal is handled by a passing satellite.
The satellite relays the call to a Gateway in its footprint.
The Gateway converts the signal to work with the local PSTN and passes on the call.
Depending on the distance between the callers, a Globlestar satellite call might pass
through several Gateways and PSTNS before locating the receiving phone. The PSTN
uses the calls routing information to connect to another Gateway that knows where the
receiving phone is located

Practical No. 2
AIM: Study of the enlisted switching techniques and their applications
(a) Circuit switching
(b)Packet switching
(c) Virtual circuit switching.
a) CIRCUIT SWITCHING:
In circuit switching an electrical path is established between the source and
destination before any data transfer takes place. The electrical path may be realized
by physical wires or coaxial cable or satellite links. It remains dedicated to the
communication pairs for the entire duration of which transmitter irrespective of
whether data is actually transferred or not. No other potential user can use that path
even if it is idle.
The connection is released any only when specifically signaled so by the
communication entities data transmission using a PSTN connection is a typical
example of circuit data transfer figure. 1. Illustrate the principle of the circuit
switching when the host computer H1 wants to transfer data with host computer H6.A
connection request is made to the switching node N1 which selects the suitable
neighboring node through which the desired connection may be established thus here
path is established between H1 to H6.
Circuit switching is effective application for where steady use of channel is made.
H6
N5
N6
N1

N7

N4
N3

H1

N2
Figure 1.Circuit Switching

3- Phases are 1) Connection establishment.

2) Data transmission.
3) Connection Release.
Tcs = Te + Tt +Tr
Te = Establish time
Tt = Transfer time
Tr = Release time
Te = (N-1) Tm
N = no. of switching
Tm= avg. route selection time in
each node.

b) PACKET SWITCHING:
It is often used in computer network where individual users have need of the channel
intermittently, while using the channel the application requires high B. W. but most of
time each user does not require channel at all. So we have the system like packet
switching for these purposes.
In the packet switching messages are split into a number of packets often fixed in
sizes & the packets are transmitted in store & forward fashion. Messages are split at
the host & reassembled at the destination host. Each packet transmission is
independent of others. The packet of a single message may travel via different routes
arrives at the destination with different delays. This may lead to the situation where
packets of the same message arrive out of sequence at the destination node. Every
packet needs to carry the complete address information viz. destination identifier,
source id, message id & packet id & actual user data. Typical packet format is shown
in fig.2
Dest.
ID

Header
Mess.
ID

Souce
ID

Packet
ID
T3

H4

H3

N
4
N
3

H1
N
1

T1

Used
Data

Control

N
2

T
5
T6

H2
T2
T3

T4

Figure: 2 Packet Switching

c) VIRTUAL CIRCUIT SWITCHING:

In the virtual circuit switching the route from the source to the destination is fixed for
all packets of a message. Since the packets are delivered to the network in sequence
& they follow the same route on a first come first served basis they arrives in
sequence at the destination.
The circuit so chosen is not dedicated to a particular connection as the same route &
the ckt May be used for transmit packets from different sources. Hence the term
virtual ckt is used to denote the connection.
In this the packets of message need not carry the full address information as the
packets follow the same route & delivered in sequence.
Thus virtual ckt switching is combination of both ckt switching is combination of
both ckt switching & packet switching.

COMPARISON:
Sr.
No.
1
2

Circuit Switching

Packet Switching

Virtual Switching

Call set up not required

Dedicated path not needed

Call setup required

Dedicated path needed

Call setup required

Dedicated physical
Path needed
Each packet of date
follow same route

Each
packet
follow
different route or may be
same
Packets are received Packets needs to be
in order
arranged
Band width is fixed
Band width is not fixed it is
changeable
Processing time is Processing time more due
less
to store & forward delay

4
5
6
7
8

Each packet follow same

route
Packets are in order

Bandwidth may be fixed or

changeable
Processing time is less
compare
to
packet
switching
Error in one bit then Packet which has error are Same as packet switching
transmit that msg.
retransmitted
Channel utilization is Efficient
utilization
of Less compare to packet
less
channel
switching

Practical No. 3
AIM: MATLAB IMPLEMENTATION
INTERCHAGE ALGORITHM

OF

THE

TIME

This program asks the input for different 4 channels each channel (8 data)
This algorithms start interchange time slot by means of cyclic prefix.

clc;
clear all;
close all;
a=[];
for i=1:1:3
a(i,:)=input(sprintf('Enter the eight data for channel %3d in one line Matrix:',i));
end
b=[a(1,:),a(2,:),a(3,:)];
subplot(4,1,1);stem(a(1,:));title('Channel 1');
subplot(4,1,2);stem(a(2,:));title('Channel 2');
subplot(4,1,3);stem(a(3,:));title('Channel 3');
c=[]; k=1; k1=1;
for i=1:1:8
for j=1:1:3
disp(sprintf('Slot given to Channel No : %d',(mod(j+k-1,3)+1)));
c(k1)=a(mod(j+k-1,3)+1,i);
k1=k1+1;
end
k=mod(k,2)+1;
end
subplot(4,1,4);stem(c);title('Channel 4');

MATLAB Command Prompt>>

Enter the eight data for channel 1 in one line Matrix:[1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1]
Enter the eight data for channel 2 in one line Matrix:[5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5]
Enter the eight data for channel 3 in one line Matrix:[10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10]
Slot given to Channel No : 2
Slot given to Channel No : 3
Slot given to Channel No : 1
Slot given to Channel No : 3
Slot given to Channel No : 1
Slot given to Channel No : 2
Slot given to Channel No : 2
Slot given to Channel No : 3
Slot given to Channel No : 1

SLOT

Slot given to Channel No : 3

Slot given to Channel No : 1
Slot given to Channel No : 2
Slot given to Channel No : 2
Slot given to Channel No : 3
Slot given to Channel No : 1
Slot given to Channel No : 3
Slot given to Channel No : 1
Slot given to Channel No : 2
Slot given to Channel No : 2
Slot given to Channel No : 3
Slot given to Channel No : 1
Slot given to Channel No : 3
Slot given to Channel No : 1
Slot given to Channel No : 2
MATLAB RESULT WINDOW:

Practical No.4
AIM: MATLAB Implementation of Time Division Multiplexing.
MULTIPLEXING(TDM).
Theory:
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital or (rarely) analog
multiplexing in which two or more signals or bit streams are transferred apparently
simultaneously as sub-channels in one communication channel, but are physically taking
turns on the channel. The time domain is divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed
length, one for each sub-channel. One TDM frame consists of one time slot per subchannel plus a synchronization channel and sometimes error correction channel before
the synchronization.
MATLAB CODE:
clc;
close all;
clear all;
x=0:.5:4*pi;

% signal taken upto 4pi

sig1=8*sin(x);

% generate 1st sinusoidal signal

l=length(sig1);
sig2=8*triang(l);

% Generate 2nd triangular Sigal

subplot(2,2,1);
plot(sig1);
title('Sinusoidal Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(2,2,2);

%sine wave

plot(sig2);

%triangular wave

title('Triangular Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(sig1);

%sampled sine wave

title('Sampled Sinusoidal Signal');

ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(sig2);

%sampled triangular wave

title('Sampled Triangular Signal');

ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
l1=length(sig1);
l2=length(sig2);
for i=1:l1
sig(1,i)=sig1(i);

% Making Both row vector to a matrix

sig(2,i)=sig2(i);
end
% TDM of both quantize signal
tdmsig=reshape(sig,1,2*l1);
stem(tdmsig);
title('TDM Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');

% Display of TDM Signal

demux=reshape(tdmsig,2,l1);

% Demultiplexing of TDM Signal

for i=1:l1
sig3(i)=demux(1,i);

% Converting The matrix into row vectors

sig4(i)=demux(2,i);
end
subplot(2,1,1)
plot(sig3);

% display of demultiplexed sine wave

title('Recovered Sinusoidal Signal');

ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(sig4);
title('Recovered Triangular Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');

% display of demultiplexed triangular wave

OUTPUT:
FIGURE 1

Sinusoidal Signal

10

6
Amplitude--->

Amplitude--->

5
0
-5
-10

10

15
Time--->

20

25

30

Sampled Sinusoidal Signal

10

15
Time--->

20

25

30

25

30

Sampled Triangular Signal

8
6
Amplitude--->

5
Amplitude--->

4
2

10

0
-5
-10

Triangular Signal

4
2

10

15
Time--->

20

25

30

10

15
Time--->

20

In this figure we have taken sine wave and triangular wave and then they both are
sampled.

FIGURE 2

TDM Signal

Amplitude--->

-2

-4

-6

-8

10

20

30
Time--->

40

50

60

In this figure sampled sine wave and sampled triangular wave are multiplexed.

FIGURE 3

Recovered Sinusoidal Signal

10

Amplitude--->

5
0
-5
-10

10

20

25

30

20

25

30

Recovered Triangular Signal

Amplitude--->

15
Time--->

6
4
2
0

10

15
Time--->

In this figure by demultiplexing we can get original information signals which are
sine wave and triangular wave.

Practical No. 5
AIM: To Study of Signaling System.
1.What is signaling ?
Signaling refers to the exchange of information between call components required to
provide and maintain service.
As users of the PSTN, we exchange signaling with network elements all the time.
Examples of signaling between a telephone user and the telephone network include :
dialing digits, providing dial tone accessing a voice mailbox, sending a call waiting tone,
dialing *66 (to retry a busy number), etc.
SS7 is a means by which elements of the telephone network exchange information.
Information is conveyed in the form of messages. Ss7 messages can convey information
such as :
Im forwarding to you a call placed from 212-555-1234 to 718-555-5678. Look for it on
trunk 067.
Someone just dialed 800-555-1212. Where do I route the call?
The called subscriber for the call on trunk 11 is busy. Release the call and play a busy
tone.
The route to xxx is congested. Please dont send any messages to xxx unless they are of
priority 2 or higher.
Im taking trunk 143 out of service for maintenance.
SS7 is characterized by high speed packet data and out of band signaling.
2. What is out of band signaling?
Out of band signaling is signaling that does not take place over the same path as the
conversation.
We are used to thinking of signaling as being in band. We hear dial tone, dial digits, and
hear ringing over the same channel on the same pair of wires. When the call completes,
we talk over the same path that was used for the signaling. Traditional telephony used to
work in this way as well. The signals to set up a call between one switch and another
always took place over the same trunk that would eventually carry the call. Signaling
took the form of a series of multifrequency (MF) tones, much like touch tone dialing
between switches.

Out of band signaling establishes a separate digital channel for the exchange of signaling
information. This channel is called a signaling link. Signaling links are used to carry all
the necessary signaling messages between nodes. Thus, when a call is placed, the dialed
digits, trunk selected, and other pertinent information are sent between switches using
their signaling links, rather than the trunks which will ultimately carry the conversation.
Today, signaling links carry information at a rate of 56 or 64 kbps. It is interesting to note
that while SS7 is used only for signaling between network elements, the ISDN D cannel
extends the concept of out of band signaling to the interface between the subscriber and
the switch. With ISDN service, signaling that must be conveyed between the user station
and the local switch is carried on a separate digital channel called the D channel. The
voice or data which comprise the call is carried on one or more B channel.
3. Signaling Network Architecture
If signaling is to be carried on a different path from the voice and data traffic it supports,
then what should that path look like ? The simplest design would be to allocate one the
paths between each interconnected pair of switches as the signaling link Subject to
capacity constraints, all signaling link. Subject to capacity constraints, all signaling traffic
between the two switches could transverse this link. This type of signaling is know as
associated signaling, and is shown below in figure.
Figure: 1. Associated Signaling
Switch 1

Switch 2

Voice trunk singling Link

Associated signaling works well as long as a switchs only signaling requirements are
between itself and other switches to which it has trunks. If call setup and management
was the only application of SS&, associated signaling would meet that need simply and
efficiently. In fact, much of the out-of-band signaling deployed in Europe today uses
associated mode.

4. Basic Signaling Architecture.

Figure 4 shows a small example of how the basic elements of an SS7 network are
developed to form two interconnected networks.

The following points should be noted:

1. STPs W and X perform identical functions. They are redundant. Together, the are
referred to as a mated pair of STPs. Similarly, STPs Y and Z form a mated pair.
2. Each SSP has two links (or sets of links), one o each STP of a mated pair. All SS7
signaling to the rest of the world is sent out redundant, messages sent over either
link. Because the STPs of a mated pair are redundant, messages sent over either (to
either STP) will be treated equivalently.
3. The STPs of a mated pair are joined by a link (of set of links).
4. Two mated pairs of STPs are interconnected by four links (or sets of links). These
links are referred to as a quad.
5. SCPs are usually (though not always) deployed in pairs. As with STPs, the SCPs of
a pair are intended to function identically. Pairs of SCPs are also referred to as
mated pairs of SCPs. Note that they are not directly joined by a pair of links.
6. Signaling architectures such as this, which provide indirect signaling paths between
network elements, are referred to as providing quasi-associated signaling.
7. SS7 Link Types
SS7 signaling links are characterized according to their use in the signaling
network. Virtually all links are identical in that they are 56Kbps of 64Kbps

bidirectional data links that support the same lower layers of the protocol; what is
different is their use within a signaling network. The defined link types are shown
in Figure 5 and defined as follows:

A-Links
A links interconnect an STP and either an SSP or an SCP, which are collectively
referred to as signaling end points (A stands for access). A link is used for the
sole purpose of delivering signaling to or from the signaling-end points (they
could just as well be referred to signaling beginning points). Examples of A links
are 2-8.3-7. And 5-12 in figure 5.
C-Links
C links are links that interconnect mated STPs. As will be seen later, they are used
to enhance the reliability of the signaling network in instances where on or several
links are unavailable. C stands for cross (7-6, 9-10, and 11-12 are C links). B
links, D links and B/D links interconnecting two mated pairs of STPs are referred
to as either B links. D links, or B/D links. Regardless of their name, their function

is to carry signaling messages beyond their initial point of entry to the signaling
network towards their intended destination. The B stands for bridge and
describes the quad of links interconnecting peer pairs of STPs. The D denotes
diagonal and describes the quad of links interconnecting mated Paris of STPs at
different hierarchical levels. Because there is no clear hierarchy associated with a
connection between nitworks, interconnecting links are referred to as either B,D,
or B/D links (7-11 and 7-12 are examples of B links, 8-9 and 7-10 are examples of
D linksl 10-10 and 9-14 are examples of interconnecting links and can be referred
go as B,D, or B/D links).
E-Links
While an SSP is connected to its home STp pair by a set of A links, enhanced
reliability can be provided by deploying an additional set of links to a second STP
pair. These links, called E (extended) links provide backup connectivity to the
SS& network in the event that the home STPs cannot be reached via the A links.
While all SS7 networks include A, B/D and C links, E links may or may not be
deployed at the discretion of the network provider. The decision of whether or not
to deploy E links can be made by comparing the cost of deployment with the
improvement in reliability. (1-11 and 1-12 are E links)
Addressed by a three-level number defined by its network, cluster and members. Each of
these numbers is an 8 bit number and can assume values from 0 to 255. This three level
address is known as the point code of the signaling point. A point code uniquely identifies
a signaling point within the American SS7 network and is used whenever it is necessary
to address that signaling point.
Network numbers are assigned on a nationwide basis by a neutral party. Regional Bell
operating companies (RBOCs), major independent telephone companies and
interexchange carriers (IXCs) already have network numbers assigned. Because network
are expected to meet certain size requirements in order to be assigned a network number.
Smaller networks can be assigned one or more cluster numbers within network numbers
1,2,3 and u. The smallest networks are assigned point codes within network number 5.
The cluster to which they are assigned is determined by the state in which they are
located. The network number 0 is not available for assignment and network number 255
is reserved for future use.

Glossary
A Links

Access Line

ACM

Address Complete Message

ANM

Bridge Links

B Links

Bridge Links

BIB

Backward Indicator Bit

BSN

Backward Sequence Number

D Links

Diagonal Links

DPC

Destination Point Code

E Link

Extended Link

F Link

Fully Indicator Bit

FISU

Fill In Signal Unit

FSN

Forward Sequence Number

IAM

Initial Address Message

ISDN

Integrated Service Digital Network

ISUP

ISDN User Part

Kbps

Kilobits Per Second

LSSU

Link Status Signal Unit

MF

Multifrequency

MSU

Message Signal Unit

MTP

Message Transfer Part

OMAP

Operations, Maintenance, And Administration Part

OPC

Originating Point Code

PSTN

Public Switched Telephone Network

RBOC

Regional Bell Operating Company

RCL

Release Message

REL

Release Message

RSP

Route Set Prohibited Test Message

RSR

Restricted Test Message

SCCP

Signaling Connection Control Part

SCP

Signal Control Point

SLS

Signaling Link Selection

SS7

Signaling System 7

SSP

Signal Switching Point

STP

Signal Transfer Point

SU

Signal Unit

TCAP

Transaction Capabilities Application Part

TFA

Transfer Allowed Message

TFP

Transfer Prohibited Message

TFR

Transfer Restricted Message

PRACTICAL : 6
AIM : WRITE NETWORK COMMANDS.
CISCO ROUTER SHOW COMMANDS:-

Requirement

Cisco command

View version information

show version

View current configuration (DRAM)

show running-config

View startup configuration (NVRAM)

show startup-config

Show IOS file and flash space

show flash

Shows all logs that the router has in its memory

show log

View the interface status of interface e0

show interface e0

Overview all interfaces on the router

show ip interfaces brief

View type of serial cable on s0

show controllers 0 (note the space

between the 's' and the '0')

Display a summary of connected cdp devices

show cdp neighbour

Display detailed information on all devices

show cdp entry *

Display current routing protocols

show ip protocols

Display IP routing table

show ip route

Display access lists, this includes the number of show access-lists

displayed matches
Check the router can see the ISDN switch

show isdn status

Check a Frame Relay PVC connections

show frame-relay pvc

show lmi traffic stats

show frame-relay lmi

Display the frame inverse ARP table

show frame-relay map

CISCO ROUTER BASIC OPERATIONS:-

Item

Needed

Enable

Enter privileged mode

Return to user mode from privileged

Disable

Exit Router

Logout or exit or quit

Recall last command

up arrow or <Ctrl-P>

Recall next command

down arrow or <Ctrl-N>

Suspend or abort

<Shift> and <Ctrl> and 6 then x

Refresh screen output

<Ctrl-R>

Complete Command

TAB

ROUTER MODES:Router>

User Mode

Router#

Privileged Mode

Router(config)#

Global Configuration Mode

Router(config-if)#

Interface Mode

Router(config-subif)#

Subinterface Mode

Router(config-line)#

Line Mode

Router(config-router)#

Router Configuration Mode

PRACTICAL : 7
AIM : MAKE A TOPOLOGY USING STATIC ROUTING.
Theory:
What is packet tracer 5.2 version?
-

New version to support CCNA security

Enhanced protocol support for CCNA discovery and CCNA exploration

Static Routing:
It is created, maintained, and updated by a network administrator, manually. A
static route to every network must be configured on every router for full connectivity.
This provides a granular level of control over routing, but quickly becomes impractical
on large networks.
Routers will not share static routes with each other, thus reducing CPU/RAM
overhead and saving bandwidth. However, static routing is not fault-tolerant, as any
change to the routing infrastructure (such as a link going down, or a new network added)
requires manual intervention. Routers operating in a purely static environment cannot
seamlessly choose a better route if a link becomes unavailable.
Static routes have an Administrative Distance (AD) of 1, and thus are always
preferred over dynamic routes, unless the default AD is changed. A static route with an
adjusted AD is called a floating static route, and is covered in greater detail in another
guide.
Advantages of Static Routing
-

Minimal CPU/Memory overhead

No bandwidth overhead (updates are not shared between routers)
Granular control on how traffic is routed

Disadvantages of Static Routing

-

Infrastructure changes must be manually adjusted

No dynamic fault tolerance if a link goes down I
mpractical on large network

Statical routing Topology:

PRACTICAL : 8
AIM : MAKE A TOPOLOGY FOR DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOL RIP,
IGRP,
AND OSPF.
Theory:
Dynamic Routing:
Dynamic routing protocols have evolved over several years to meet the demands
of changing network requirements. Although many organizations have migrated to more
recent routing protocols such as Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), many of the earlier routing protocols, such as
Routing Information Protocol (RIP), are still in use today.
What exactly are dynamic routing protocols?
Routing protocols are used to facilitate the exchange of routing information
between routers. Routing protocols allow routers to dynamically learn information about
remote networks and automatically add this information to their own routing tables.

Fig:Routers Dynamically Pass Updates

Routing protocols determine the best path to each network, which is then added to
the routing table. One of the primary benefits of using a dynamic routing protocol is that
routers exchange routing information whenever there is a topology change. This
exchange allows routers to automatically learn about new networks and also to find
alternate paths if there is a link failure to a current network. Compared to static routing,

dynamic routing protocols require less administrative overhead. However, the expense of
using dynamic routing protocols is dedicating part of a routers resources for protocol
operation, including CPU time and network link bandwidth. Despite the benefits of
dynamic routing, static routing still has its place. There are times when static routing is
more appropriate and other times when dynamic routing is the better choice. More often
than not, you will find a combination of both types of routing in any network that has a
moderate level of complexity.
Purpose of Dynamic Routing Protocols:
Discovering remote networks
Maintaining up-to-date routing information
Choosing the best path to destination networks
Having the ability to find a new best path if the current path is no longer available
Dynamic Versus Static Routing:

Routing Information Protocol

RIP is a standardized Distance Vector protocol, designed for use on smaller
networks. RIP was one of the first true Distance Vector routing protocols, and is
supported on a wide variety of systems.

RIP adheres to the following Distance Vector characteristics:

RIP sends out periodic routing updates (every 30 seconds)
RIP sends out the full routing table every periodic update
RIP uses a form of distance as its metric (in this case, hopcount)
RIP uses the Bellman-Ford Distance Vector algorithm to determine the
best

path to a particular destination

Other characteristics of RIP include:

RIP supports IP and IPX routing.
RIP utilizes UDP port 520
RIP routes have an administrative distance of 120.
RIP has a maximum hopcount of 15 hops.
Any network that is 16 hops away or more is considered unreachable to RIP, thus
the maximum diameter of the network is 15 hops. A metric of 16 hops in RIP is
considered a poison route or infinity metric.
TOPOLOGY OF RIP :

TOPOLOGY OF IGRP:

TOPOLOGY OF OSPF: