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I. SOCIOLOGY
A. DEFIINITION
*the science of society, social institutions, and social relationships specifically the
systematic study of the development, structure, interaction, and collective
behavior of organized groups of human beings
*the scientific analysis of a social institution as a functioning whole and as it
relates to the rest of society
*the systematic study of social behavior and human groups; it focuses primarily
on the influence of social relationships and on how societies are established and
changed.
Example: Film shooting
Students Perspective camera angles, authenticity of the setting, work of
the sound crew
Sociologists Perspective the sociologist would see the people working
on the film the director, the stars, extras, and the crew as part of a
group. The sociologist would carefully examine the structure and
dynamics [set of forces that exist in a situation, especially a relationship,
and that affect how it changes or develops] of the group both the
apparent work relationship and the social relationship among group
members.
What role does the director play in the group? How are responsibilities
divided among the directors assistants? How does the crew decide where
a camera should be placed? Do the stars interact with other actors and
with the crew? How does the group deal with the outsiders (audiences)?

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B. MICROSOCIOLOGY and MACROSOCIOLOGY

Sociologists distinguish between the micro, or small-scale aspects of the social
enterprise and the macro, or large-scale, structural components. When we focus
on the micro elements, we examine behavior close-up and observe what
happens as people interact on a face-to-face basis.
Microsociology entails the detailed study of what people say, do and think
moment by moment as they go about their daily lives. It then deals with everyday
life.
Examples: a woman and a man initiating a conversion on a bus; several
youngsters playing basketball on an inner-city playground
Sociologists also turn an investigative eye upon the big picture and study social
groups and societies.
Macrosociology focuses upon large-scale and long-term social processes of
organizations, institutions, and broad social patterns, including the state, social
class, the family, the economy, culture, and society. At this level, sociologists
may direct their attention to the changes in the structure of a religious sect, the
impact of population dynamics and computer technologies on the workforce,
shifts in the racial and ethnic composition of a city, or the dynamics of intergroup
and conflict.
The microsociological and macrosociological levels are not independent of one
another. Macro structures, such as organizations or the hierarchy of social
classes, are composed of routine patterns of interaction on the micro level.
Macro structures provide the social contexts in which people encounter one
another at the micro level. Micro structures, such as friendship relations and work
groups, from out of these encounters provide a link from individuals to macro
structures. Micro structures also may cause change and evolution in macro
structures.

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Example: The macro structure of education and an organization

embedded in it, your high school, may have provided the social context
from which your group of best friends a micro structure emerged. Such
a group of students, through letter-writing campaigns, sit-ins, formation of
clubs, and other means, can cause a high school and education in general
macro structures to adapt and change.
In sum, complex webs of relationship between the micro and macro levels
contribute to an ever-changing and diverse social order.

C. PURE AND APPLIED SOCIOLOGY

Many early sociologists notably, Jane Addams, W. E. B. DuBois, and George
Herbert Mead were strong advocates for social reform. They wanted their
theories and findings to be relevant to policymakers and to peoples lives in
general. For instance, Mead was the treasurer of Hull House, where he applied
his theory to improving the lives of those who were powerless (especially
immigrants). He also served on committees dealing with Chicagos labor
problems and public education.
Applied Sociology is a branch of general sociology. Sociological methods are
applied to many areas in the study of society to look at society from every angle
and make observations about how we interact within society, how cultures affect
each other and the individual, global issues, and many other areas.
Applied sociology and "sociological practice" have come to refer to intervention
using sociological knowledge in an applied setting. Applied sociologists work in a
wide variety of settings including universities, government, and private practice,
using sociological methods to help communities solve everyday problems, such
as improving community policing and crime prevention, evaluating and improving
drug courts, assessing the needs of inner city neighborhoods, developing the

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capacity of an educational system, or promoting the development of housing and

related resources for aging populations.
Today, applied sociology is the use of the discipline of sociology with the specific
intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations. By
extension, Michael Burawoy, in his presidential address to the American
Sociological Association, endorsed what he called public sociology, encouraging
scholars to engage a broader audience in bringing about positive outcomes.
In effect, the applied sociologist reaches out to others and joins them in their
efforts to a better society. Often, the goal of such work is to assist in resolving a
social problem. For example, in the past 50 years, eight presidents of the United
States have established commissions to delve into major societal concerns
facing our nation. Sociologists are often asked to apply their expertise to studying
such issues as violence, pornography, crime, immigration, and population. In
Europe, both academic and government research departments are offering
increasing financial support for applied studies.
Applied and clinical sociology can be contrasted with basic sociology (also called
pure sociology), which seeks a more profound knowledge of the fundamental
aspects of social phenomena. This type of research is not necessarily meant to
generate specific applications, although such ideas may result once findings are
analyzed.
When Durkheim studied suicide rates, he was not primarily interested in
discovering a way to eliminate suicide. In this sense, his research was an
example of basic (pure) rather than applied sociology.
Pure sociology is a sociological paradigm [a set of ideas that are used for
understanding or explaining something, especially in a particular subject] a
strategy for explaining human behavior. Developed by Donald Black as an
alternative to individualistic and social-psychological theories, pure sociology was
initially used to explain variation in legal behavior.

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Pure sociology explains social life with its social geometry. Social life refers to
any instance of human behavior such as law, suicide, gossip, or art while the
social geometry of a behavior, also called its social structure, refers to the social
characteristics of those involved such as their degree of past interaction or their
level of wealth. To some extent this approach draws from aspects of earlier
sociological work, ranging from Durkheim's emphasis on social explanations for
individual behavior to later work in the variation of police (and other legal)
behavior.

D. THE ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISCIPLINE

i. Science and Sociology
In a general sense, sociology can be considered a science. Just like other
scientific disciplines, sociology involves the organized, systematic study of
phenomena (in this case, human behavior) in order to enhance understanding.
These social science disciplines have a common focus on the social behavior of
people, yet each has a particular orientation. Anthropologists usually study past
cultures and preindustrial societies that continue today, as well as the origins of
humans. Economists explore the ways in which people produce and exchange
goods and services, along with money and other resources. Historians are
concerned with the peoples and events of the past and their significance for us
today. Political scientists study international relations, the workings of
government, and the exercise of power and authority. Psychologists investigate
personality and individual behavior. So what do sociologists focus on? They
study the influence that society has on peoples attitudes and behavior and the
ways in which people interact and shape society. Because humans are social
animals, sociologists examine our social relationships scientifically. The range of
the relationships they investigate is vast, as the current list of sections in the
American Sociological Association suggests.

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ii. The Development of Sociology

People have always been curious about sociological matters how we get along
with others, what we do for a living, whom we select as our leaders. Philosophers
and religious authorities of ancient and medieval societies made countless
observations about human behavior. They did not test or verify those
observations scientifically; nevertheless, their observations often became the
foundation for moral codes. Several of these early social philosophers correctly
predicted that a systematic study of human behavior would emerge one day.
Beginning in the 19th century, European theorists made pioneering contributions
to the development of a science of human behavior.

iii. Early Thinkers

1. Auguste Comte The 19th century was an unsettling time in France. The
French monarchy had been deposed in the revolution of 1789, and Napoleon
had suffered defeat in his effort to conquer Europe. Amid this chaos,
philosophers considered how society might be improved. Auguste Comte,
credited with being the most influential of the philosophers of the early 1800s,
believed that a theoretical science of society and a systematic investigation of
behavior were needed to improve society. He coined the term sociology to apply
to the science of human behavior.
Writing in the 1800s, Comte feared that the excesses of the French Revolution
had permanently impaired Frances stability. Yet he hoped that the systematic
study of social behavior would eventually lead to more rational human
interactions. In Comtes hierarchy of the sciences, sociology was at the top. He
called it the queen, and its practitioners scientist- priests. This French theorist
did not simply give sociology its name; he presented a rather ambitious challenge
to the fledgling discipline.

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2. Herbert Spencer Another important early contributor to the discipline of

sociology was Herbert Spencer. A relatively prosperous Victorian Englishman,
Spencer did not feel compelled to correct or improve society; instead, he merely
hoped to understand it better. Drawing on Charles Darwins study On the Origin
of Species, Spencer applied the concept of evolution of the species to societies
in order to explain how they change, or evolve, over time. Similarly, he adapted
Darwins evolutionary view of the survival of the fittest by arguing that it is
natural that some people are rich while others are poor.
Spencers approach to societal change was extremely popular in his lifetime.
Unlike Comte, Spencer suggested that since societies are bound to change
eventually, one need not be highly critical of present social arrangements or work
actively for social change. This viewpoint appealed to many influential people in
England and the United States who had a vested interest in the status quo and
were suspicious of social thinkers who endorsed change.
3. David mile Durkheim mile Durkheim made many pioneering
contributions to sociology, including his important theoretical work on suicide.
The son of a rabbi, Durkheim was educated in both France and Germany. He
established an impressive academic reputation and was appointed one of the
first professors of sociology in France. Above all, Durkheim will be remembered
for his insistence that behavior must be understood within a larger social context,
not just in individualistic terms.
To give one example of this emphasis, Durkheim developed a fundamental
thesis to help explain all forms of society. Through intensive study of the Arunta,
an Australian tribe, he focused on the functions that religion performed and
underscored the role of group life in defining what we consider to be religion.
Durkheim concluded that like other forms of group behavior, religion reinforces a
groups solidarity.
Another of Durkheims main interests was the consequences of work in modern
societies. In his view, the growing division of labor in industrial societies, as
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workers became much more specialized in their tasks, led to what he called
anomie.
Anomie refers to the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of
individual behavior has become ineffective. Often, the state of anomie occurs
during a time of profound social change, when people have lost their sense of
purpose or direction. In a period of anomie, people are so confused and unable
to cope with the new social environment that they may resort to suicide.
Durkheim was concerned about the dangers that alienation, loneliness, and
isolation might pose for modern industrial societies. He shared Comtes belief
that sociology should provide direction for social change. As a result, he
advocated the creation of new social groups mediators between the individuals
family and the state that would provide a sense of belonging for members of
huge, impersonal societies. Unions would be an example of such groups.
Like many other sociologists, Durkheim did not limit his interests to one aspect of
social behavior. Later in this book we will consider his thinking on crime and
punishment, religion, and the workplace. Few sociologists have had such a
dramatic impact on so many different areas within the discipline.
4. Max Weber Another important early theorist was Max Weber. Born in
Germany, Weber studied legal and economic history, but gradually developed an
interest in sociology. Eventually, he became a professor at various German
universities. Weber taught his students that they should employ verstehen
(putting yourself into ones shoes), the German word for understanding or
insight, in their intellectual work. He pointed out that we cannot analyze our
social behavior by the same type of objective criteria we use to measure weight
or temperature. To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective
meanings people attach to their actions how they themselves view and explain
their behavior.
For example, suppose that a sociologist was studying the social ranking of
individuals in a fraternity, Weber would expect the researcher to employ
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verstehen to determine the significance of the fraternitys social hierarchy for its
members.
The researcher might examine the effects of athleticism or grades or social skills
or seniority on standing within the fraternity. He or she would seek to learn how
the fraternity members relate to other members of higher or lower status.
While investigating these questions, the researcher would take into account
peoples emotions, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. We also owe credit to Weber
for a key conceptual tool: the ideal type. An ideal type is a construct or model for
evaluating specific cases. In his works, Weber identified various characteristics of
bureaucracy as an ideal type. In presenting this model of bureaucracy, Weber
was not describing any particular organization, nor was he using the term ideal in
a way that suggested a positive evaluation. Instead, his purpose was to provide a
useful standard for measuring how bureaucratic an actual organization is.
5. Karl Marx Karl Marx shared with Durkheim and Weber a dual interest in
abstract philosophical issues and the concrete reality of everyday life. Unlike
them, however, Marx was so critical of existing institutions that a conventional
academic career was impossible. He spent most of his life in exile from his native
Germany.
In Marxs analysis, society was fundamentally divided between two classes that
clashed in pursuit of their own interests. When he examined the industrial
societies of his time, such as Germany, England, and the United States, he saw
the factory as the center of conflict between the exploiters or bourgeoisie (the
owners of the means of production) and the exploited or proletariat (the workers).
Marx viewed these relationships in systematic terms that is, he believed that a
system of economic, social, and political relationships maintained the power and
dominance of the owners over the workers. The masses of people with no
resources other than labor should unite to fight to overthrow capitalist society
Consequently, Marx, advocating class conflict, argued that the working class
should overthrow the existing class system. Marxs influence on contemporary
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thinking has been dramatic. His writings inspired those who would later lead
communist revolutions in Russia, China, Cuba, Vietnam, and elsewhere.
Marx emphasized the group identifications and associations that influence an
individuals place in society how membership in a particular gender
classification, age group, racial group, or economic class affects a persons
attitudes and behavior.

II. THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION

Sociology offers us a view of the world. A key element in the sociological
imagination is the ability to view ones own society as an outsider, rather than
from the limited perspective of personal experiences and cultural biases. The
sociological imagination then provides us a look at unfamiliar worlds and a
fresh look at familiar worlds. It is an approach to understanding human behavior
by placing it within its broader social context. It not only provides us a different
way of looking at life, including our own comfortable, taken-for-granted worlds,
but also is designed to provide an understanding of why people are the way they
are.
According to Charles Wright Mills, the sociological imagination is an
awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society. The
awareness allows people to comprehend the links between their immediate,
personal social settings and the remote, impersonal social world that surrounds
them and helps to shape them. It enables us to see our private experiences,
personal difficulties, and achievements as, in part, a reflection of the structural
arrangements of society and the times in which we live. What this means is that
peoples experiences the groups to which people belong and their particular
experiences within those groups underlie what people feel and what they do. If
the belonged to different groups or had different experiences in those groups,
their attitudes and behavior would be different too. In short, people dont do what
they do because of some sort of internal mechanism, such as instincts. Rather,
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external influences peoples experiences become internalized, become part

of an individuals thinking and motivations.
Mills pointed out that our personal troubles and public issues overlap and
interpenetrate to form the larger structure of social and historical life. The
sociological imagination allows us to see the relationship between our
personal experiences and broader social and historical events. To understand
our experiences in life, we must understand our historical time period and the
social forces that are sweeping the period in which we live.
Example 1: On abortion. Lisa and Grandmother
Another way of saying this is that we want to understand how our personal
troubles are connected to the broad conditions of our society. As with Lisa
and her grandmother, for example, attitudes toward abortion dont come
out of nowhere. These attitudes are related to conditions in society: in this
case, technology (birth control and surgical techniques), gender relations
(womens rights), and the law (abortion being legal or illegal). Change
these, and ideas about abortion will be different. As we apply the
sociological imagination in this text you will discover how forces greater
than yourself set the stage for the personal troubles that you experience.
Example 2: Job difficulties being experienced
PH: Employment Rate = 92.5% - 93.4%;
Unemployment Rate = 7.5% - 6.6%;
Underemployment Rate = 19.5% - 17.5%
Mills point is that in situations of this kind, we cannot simply look to the personal
character of individuals to explain changes in their employment circumstances.
Rather, we need to focus on our economic and political institutions for a definition
of the problem, for an understanding of its causes, and for a range of possible
solutions.
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In sum, the sociological imagination allows us to identify the links between our
personal lives and the larger social forces of life to see that what is happening
to us immediately is a minute point at which our personal lives and society
intersect. Where we tend to see events in our lives from a close-up perspective
the immediate things that are impinging on us the sociological imagination
invites us to change our focus to the social context, to see how it shapes.

III. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES/THEORIES

*Provide set of assumptions, interrelated concepts, and statements about how
various social phenomena are related to one another.

A. Symbolic Interactionism (Micro)

*emerged precisely because people evaluate their own conduct by
comparing themselves with others
*society is composed of symbols that people use to establish meanings,
develop their views of the world and thereby use these meanings to
communicate with one another
*through interaction, people acquire symbols and the meanings that allow
them to interpret situations, assess the advantages and disadvantages of
given actions, and then select one of them
*symbol is something that stands for something else that is, meaning;
hence, social interaction and society itself are possible because people
share meanings
*analyzes how our definitions of ourselves and others underlie our
behaviors; thus, we are different persons as we change our behaviors to

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match changing circumstances (i.e. nephew to aunt/uncle, child to

parents, boyfriend to girlfriend)
*symbols are vital for social life for 3 reasons:
i. Symbols lie at the root of the self-concept; we symbolize our own
selves, that is, we perceive ourselves in certain ways and act
accordingly.
ii. Without symbols, our social relations would be limited to the
animal level for we have no mechanism to perceive others in terms
of relationship. Symbols define for us what a certain relationship
entails.
i.e. Symbols attributed to parents, aunts, uncles, teachers,
friends, girlfriend/boyfriend, etc.
iii. Without symbols, we could not coordinate our actions with others
(i.e. there would be no books, no movies, no music, etc). Hence,
symbols make social life possible.
3 Core Assumptions:
i. We respond to things in our environment on the basis of their
meanings that is, the understanding that we have of them.
ii. Meanings are not inherent in things, but emerge from social
interaction.
iii. Shared cultural meanings are continually emerging and
changing because we are continually interacting.
Pioneering Sociologists
1. William James and John Dewey analyzed how people used symbols
to encapsulate their experiences.

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2. George Herbert Mead coined that the individual mind can exist only in
relation to other minds with shared meanings. The mind refers to an
individual's ability to use symbols to create meanings for the world around
him. Individuals use language and thought to accomplish this goal. Self
refers to an individual's ability to reflect on the way that he/she is
perceived by others. Finally, society is where all of these interactions are
taking place.
3. Joel M. Charon, in his work entitled Symbolic Interactionism: An
Introduction, An Interpretation, An Integration, developed the five central
ideas behind symbolic interactionism, to wit:
i. The human being must be understood as a social person. It is the
constant search for social interaction that leads us to do what we
do.
ii. The human being must be understood as a thinking being.
Human action is not only interaction among individuals but also
interaction within the individual.
iii. Humans do not sense their environment directly; instead,,
humans define the situation they are in.
iv. The cause of human action is the result of what is occurring in
our present situation. Cause unfolds in the present social
interaction, present thinking, and present definition.
v. Human beings are described as active beings in relation to their
environment.
4. Charles Horton Cooley coined (looking-glass self) that self develops
during social interaction and that through self, we have the ability to see
ourselves from the outside. It is our interpretation of how others see us,
ability to contemplate our existence and to project ourselves into various
situations in life.
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3 Elements of Looking-Glass Self:

i. We imagine how we look to others.
ii. We interpret the reactions of others.
iii. We develop a self-concept.
*Favorable reflection leads to positive self-concept; negative
reflection leads to negative self-concept.
5.

Herbert

Blumer

set

out

three

basic

premises

of

symbolic

interactionism, to wit:
i. Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they
ascribe to those things.
ii. The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the
social interaction that one has with others and the society.
iii. These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an
interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things
he/she encounters.

B. Structural Functionalism (Macro)

*also known as functional analysis and functionalism
*takes society as a system, a set of elements or components related to
one another such as but not limited to family, religion, economy, education
and state
*assumes that most, if not all, members of society agree on what is
desirable, worthwhile and moral, and what is undesirable, worthless and
evil
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*there is a consensus regarding core values, norms and beliefs which

therefore provides the foundation for social interaction, stability and
equilibrium
*whenever we examine a smaller part, we need to look for its functions to
see how it is related to the larger unit
Pioneering Sociologists
1. Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer used the organic analogy that
analyzed society as a kind of living organism. Just like a biological
organism that has interrelated tissues and organs that function together,
society in order to function smoothly has various parts that must work
together in harmony.
2. Emile Durkheim saw that society is composed of many parts, each
with its own functions so that when all the parts of society fulfill their
functions, the society is in a normal state, but if they dont fulfill their
functions, the society is in an abnormal or pathological state. Further, to
understand society, we need to look at both structure and function.
*Structure how the parts of a society are related to one another
*Function how each part contributes to societys equilibrium

3. Robert K. Merton dismissed the organic analogy but continued the

image of society as a whole composed of interrelated parts.
His Concept of Function
*Functions refer to the beneficial consequences of peoples actions
that help maintain the equilibrium of society.
Two Kinds (N.B. Remember our example concerning SLU):

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i. Manifest an action intended to help a systems

equilibrium
ii. Latent unintended consequences that help a system
adapt
*Dysfunctions

refer

to

consequences

that

undermine

the

equilibrium of the society.

*Latent Dysfunctions refer to consequences which are usually
unintended, have the opposite effect, and thus hurt or disturb the
system, or the equilibrium of the society.

C. Conflict Theory (Macro)

*society is composed of groups competing for scarce social and material
resources (i.e. wealth, prestige and power)
Pioneering Sociologists
1. Karl Marx conceptualized that the key to society is class struggle. In
each society, some small groups (bourgeoisie) control the means of
production and exploit all those who do not (proletariat).
*Bourgeoisie capitalists who own the means to produce wealth.
they also control politics, so that when the workers
rebel, they are able to call on the power of the State
to suppress them.
*Proletariat mass of workers exploited by the bourgeoisie.
2. Ralf Dahrendorf proposed that conflict is inherent in all relations that
have authority. Authority, or the power that people consider legitimate,
runs through all layers of society small groups, community, or entire
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society. People in authority try to enforce conformity, which in turn, creates

resentment and resistance, resulting to constant struggle.
3. Lewis Coser thought that conflict is essentially likely to develop among
people in close relationships because they are connected by a network of
responsibilities, power and rewards. Society persists because no one
conflict can become so great as to tear the society apart such that people
who are opponents in one conflict are allies in another and vice versa.
Moreover, conflict is essential for the society because it prevents the
social systems from becoming rigid and fixed by exerting pressure for
change and innovation.

D. Rational Choice Theory

*tries to explain why people make decisions or take actions that have
particular outcomes, how they do so and to predict the decisions they will
make given certain circumstances
*its application by sociologists is unique, because of the way sociologists
use rational choice theory to not only explain the calculations of costs and
rewards people make before they act, but also how these calculations are
made in the context of social interactions and how they contribute to a
stable social order
*seeks to explain human behavior in terms of the decisions that people
make in order to maximize their aims, on the assumption that people
make calculated decisions about their lives (about money, relationships or
actions) based on a given set of constraints or feasible options

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Functionalist
Macro

Conflict
Macro

Nature/View of
society

A set of interacting
parts/ Stable, well
integrated

A set of competing
interest groups/
Characterized by
tension and
struggle between
groups

Key Concepts

Manifest functions
Latent functions
Dysfunctions

Inequality
Capitalism
Stratification

Foundations
of social
interaction

Consensus of
shared beliefs and
values
Social order

Conflict, coercion,
and power

Advantages

An understanding
of social structure
and social stability

Uncovers historical
processes that lead
to social change

Disadvantages

Ineffective in
dealing with social
change

View of the
Individual

People are
socialized to
perform
societal functions

A weak
understanding of
social consensus
and social stability
People are shaped
by power,
coercion, and
authority

View of the
Social Order

Maintained
through
cooperation
and consensus
Predictable,
reinforcing

Level of
Analysis

Focus of study

View of Social
Change

Social conflict and

social change

Interactionist
Micro, as a way of
understanding the
larger macro
phenomena
A social reality that is
created and
recreated in social
interaction/ Active in
influencing and
affecting
everyday social
interaction
Symbols
Nonverbal
communication
Face-to-face
interaction
Shared meanings

Rational Choice
Micro

The dynamic
interplay between the
individual and society
An understanding of
human beings as
active agents in
social life
Has difficulty dealing
with social structure

Effect of
calculations in
social interactions
Promotion of
public good

People manipulate
symbols and create
their social worlds
through interaction

People are often

motivated by
money and the
possibility of
making a profit
Maintained
through looking at
calculation of
costs
Social change
arise as the result
of individual action
and interactions.

Maintained through
force
and coercion

Maintained by shared
understanding
of everyday behavior

Change takes
place all the time
and
may have positive
consequences

Reflected in peoples
social positions
and their
communications with
others

Social interaction
is affected by
rationality

Rational
Decision-making

Calculations of
costs

Individualistic

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IV. CULTURE
*social heritage of people those learned patterns for thinking, feeling, and
acting that are transmitted from one generation to the next, including the
embodiment of these patterns in material items
Society group of people who live within the same territory and share a
common culture.

Components of Culture
1. Norms
*social rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate behavior in
given situations
William Graham Sumner distinguished three types of norms namely:
a. FOLKWAYS have to do with the customary ways and ordinary
conventions by which we carry out our daily activities.
-

no moral significance attached

folkways are norms that stem from and organize casual

interaction, and that emerge out of repetition and routines

b. MORES are seen as vital to a societys well-being and survival.

-

there is moral significance attached

determine what is considered moral and ethical behavior

structure the difference between right and wrong

c. LAWS are rules that are enforced by a special political organization

composed of individuals who have the right to use force.
-

E.A. Hobel: The essentials of legal coercion are general

acceptance of the application of physical power, in threat or in
fact, by a privileged party, for a legitimate cause, in a legitimate
way, and at a legitimate time.

2. Values
*broad ideas regarding what is desirable, correct, and good that
most members of a society share
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*values provide us with criteria and conceptions by which we

evaluate people, objects, and events as to their relative worth,
merit, beauty, or morality

3. Symbols
*acts or objects that have come to be socially accepted as standing
for something else
*to represent other things through the shared understandings
people have

Characteristics of Culture
1. Learned Behavior
2. Culture is Abstract
3. Culture is a Pattern of Learned Behavior
4. Culture is the Product of Behavior
5. Culture Includes Attitudes, Values, and Knowledge
6. Culture also Includes Material Objects
7. Culture is Shared by the Members of Society
8. Culture is Super-organic
9. Culture is Pervasive
10. Culture is a Way of Life
11. Culture is a Human Product
12. Culture is Idealistic
13. Culture is Transmitted among Members of Society
14. Culture is Continually Changing
15. Culture is Variable
16. Culture is an Integrated System
17. Language is the Chief Vehicle of Culture

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