Dossier Arqueologia
Dossier Arqueologia
Dossier Arqueologia
were crushed and lost in the onslaught of early excavators. Thankfully, those days are gone.
Todays excavations are meticulous, and every bit and artifact is plotted and recorded.
Excavations require permits and approval, and graves are disturbed as little as possible (see
Archaeologists like to dig up graves, below). In the present, archaeologists are collecting and
analyzing scientific data to uncover trends in human behavior, human ecology, and more. Human
remains are only uncovered when its legal to do so, and if doing so will help us answer specific
questions about the culture being studied.
reason to think that a random archaeologist knows more about the pharaohs than the average
hobbyist.
Environmental Archaeology
Richardson Gill carried out extensive work in environmental archaeology in order to study
the impact of climatic changes on the Mayan society. According to his theory, a
continuous series of droughts were responsible for the numerous societal changes and
subsequent decline of the ancient civilization.
Environmental archaeology deals with the study of interrelationship between the ancient
people and their natural environment. It involves three sub-disciplines of archaeology,
viz., zooarchaeology that deals with the study of ancient animal remains, geoarchaeology
that deals with the study of soil, sediments, rocks, natural deposits, etc., and
archaeobotany that studies ancient plant remains. Environmental archaeology answers
questions relating to the kind of natural habitat that the ancient people were surrounded
by, the plants and animals living in that age, varieties of wild and cultivated crops,
animals that were hunted and those which were domesticated, species of plants and
animals that are now extinct, climatic changes that took place over a period of time, and
the effects that the changes in natural environment had on the lives of the people and on
their subsequent disappearance. Environmental archaeology encompasses field studies
along with laboratory experiments.
Ethnoarchaeology
Dr. Malti Nagar carried out an ethnoarchaeological study at a chalcolithic site of Ahar in
Rajasthan, India. She found striking resemblances between the dotted designs on the
clothes of the local tribal women and on the designs on the ancient ceramics recovered
from the site. This shows how artistic sensibilities travel from one time period to the
other.
Ethnoarchaeology is the science that deals with the ethnographic investigation of living
communities in order to acquire knowledge of the past. It involves the application of
anthropological methods to a large extent. By using ethnoarchaeological techniques,
archaeologists, in a way, attempt to link the past with the present. They try to understand
how the ancient people in a given region may have lived, keeping as their basis, the
tangible and intangible culture of the modern communities. One can get valuable insights
into ancient social structures, religious and cultural beliefs, technology, etc., by applying
the principles of ethnoarchaeology. But, the link between modern and ancient societies is
of course still very ambiguous. This is because, even if two societies share some common
traits, they may be distinct from each other in many aspects, which tend to change by
default over a period of time. Nevertheless, studying advanced techniques of modern
communities may help to a certain extent to provide an insight into the rudimentary
techniques, which may have been used by the ancients.
Landscape Archaeology
A comprehensive study of a historical landscape with respect to the rise and decline of
urbanism was done in the early 1950s by Bernard-Philippe Groslier in the Angkor region of
Cambodia. He uncovered numerous evidences to show that overexploitation of landscape
was the main factor responsible for the decline of urban centers in the area.
Landscape archaeology is a broad division in archaeology that deals with the study of the
various changes that take place in different landscapes, both naturally as well as due to
human intervention. On the basis of this, landscapes have been classified into natural
and cultural landscapes, for archaeological purposes. The study of how landscapes and
natural habitats are interlinked with human behavior and cultural changes is actually very
extensive. There are a variety of changes that landscapes may undergo over a period of
time. These include natural changes with respect to topography, climate, soil, natural
calamities such as floods, landslides, tsunamis, rivers changing their courses, and so on,
and human induced changes such as agriculture, industrial and construction activities,
clearing of forest areas, etc. Interestingly, the methods in landscape archaeology are also
used in order to to analyze inequalities that may have prevailed in a social structure at a
given period of time.
Household Archaeology
Dr. Penelope Allison of the University of Leicester had been excavating the household
remains at Pompeii. Evidences revealed a number of surgical instruments from many
houses, which shows that first aid was available at the household level.
Household archaeology is a comparatively recent development in archaeology that
happened between the late 1970s and early 1980s. It involves a small-scale excavation
within a given area on an archaeological site. It considers every single household as a
unit that not only portrays the social, cultural, economic, and political sensibilities of the
people of a particular household/family, but also throws light on the affiliations of the
society on the whole. Household archaeology is also helpful in studying aspects of secular
art and architecture, food habits of the people, their religious beliefs, and so on. Gender
classification in the social order is an interesting aspect that can be studied by this kind of
archaeological method. Variety of evidences are taken into consideration in the study of
household archaeology, which include vegetal and faunal remains, pottery, processes of
site formation, etc.
Underwater Archaeology
Franck Goddio and his team managed to reveal the supposed lost palace of Cleopatra,
which was believed to be submerged under the sea some 1600 years ago. This
excavation was carried out off the shores of the city of Alexandria in Egypt.
Aviation Archaeology
In 2005, Hungarian archaeologists used methods of geophysical survey in order to locate
a lost plane that crashed in Budapest during World War II. Remains recovered from this
excavation included the plane's engine block, a part of one of its wings, a part where the
ammunition was kept, etc.
Aviation archaeology deals with finding historical remains of aircraft, air-borne weaponry,
abandoned air bases or runways, and the like. In short, it deals with everything that has
to do with the history of aviation. Sometimes, remains from aircraft crashes are found
under the sea, which are eventually recovered, recorded and studied. It is due to this
reason that many people consider aviation archaeology as a branch of marine
archaeology, but this may only be true to a limited extent. This is because there are also
a number of aviation archaeological remains found on land, in which case, it becomes a
separate division in itself. Crash sites differ largely in magnitude and remains. The
remains range from military remains to civil remnants. Instances of ancient air bases
found by aviation archaeologists have also been recorded. As far as the actual
professional practice of aviation archaeology is concerned, there may be some legal
constraints, which can be overcome through adequate paperwork and permissions.
Battlefield Archaeology
From 1985 - 89, Douglas Scott and Melissa Connor carried out the first ever large-scale
excavation on a battlefield site of Little Bighorn in Montana, USA. They gathered in the
form of evidences, bullets, bullet shells, cartridge cases, skeletal remains, etc.
Battlefield archaeology, also known as military archaeology, is one of the most intriguing
types of archaeologies. It deals with digging up battlefields of the past and recovering
evidences relating to military activities, which may have been responsible for subsequent
changes in the social, political and economic spheres of the society. Archaeological
evidences recovered from battlefields have the capability to alter those historical
viewpoints which have been widely accepted and acknowledged. Evidences on such sites
include remains of implements of war, skeletal remains, and various artifacts related to
military history. These so-called war sites give valuable evidences to events, which took
place not only during a given war, but also before and after it, because not only actual
battlefields but even military camp sites provide valuable evidences. Also, just as all
other sites tell us about how and when people lived, war sites tell us how and when they
died. All in all, battlefield archaeology is an engrossing case-study of how written
historical accounts can undergo changes when actual material remains relating to the
recorded events are uncovered.
Commercial Archaeology
In the 1940s, Sir Mortimer Wheeler excavated at Arikamedu, near Pondicherry, South
India. Evidently, this site was a fishing village and an important foreign trading port
during 1st century B.C. Artifacts recovered include Roman coins, statues, beads,
glassware and pottery.
Commercial archaeology is actually a sub-discipline of archaeology, which deals with
everything that is related to commerce and trade. This includes evidences with respect to
the commodities that were traded and bartered, numismatic finds, ancient forms of
transportation that were used for commercial purposes, and so on. The study of ancient
trade routes and sea ports, harbors and marketplaces, is also included in commercial
archaeology. This is a very gripping study, as it answers questions such as which
countries had trade relations and in what commodities, what were the media of exchange
between them, how the commodities were transported, who and what all was involved,
how they coordinated, etc. Many a time, at commercial sites, ancient inscriptions are
found, which are obviously very valuable resources that are used for recording economic
histories.
Industrial Archaeology
The Sunny Corner Mining site, located in New South Wales, Australia, is an interesting site
pertaining to industrial archaeology, which belongs to the late 19th and the early 20th
century. This was supposedly one of the richest sites for silver mining in Australia, and
has numerous remains of mining and smelting processes.
Industrial archaeology is another kind of archaeology, which studies the material remains
of industrial by-products and artifacts. It does not deal with the movement of goods from
one place to another. On the contrary, it deals with the production of goods and the
various processes involved in the same. Evidences from industrial sites tell us about the
industries that existed during a given period in history, things that were manufactured
then, the tools that were used at that time, and attempt to answer queries like what
people did other than agriculture (which primarily was the main occupation in many
regions), what, where and how did they manufacture, what raw materials were used and
where did they get them from, how advanced was their technology, why did they
manufacture what they did, and so on. Evidences recovered from such sites generally
Salvage Archaeology
The Turkish State Water Department proposed to build a number of dams on the
Euphrates and Tigris rivers in 1986. The extent of this project also covered nearly half a
mile of Zeugma, an ancient Anatolian trading center. Rescue excavations on the site
uncovered numerous structures, mosaics, stone sculptures, etc.
Salvage archaeology, also known as rescue archaeology, is a name given to an
archaeological excavation which needs to be carried out in an emergency and with
utmost urgency on threatened sites. Salvage archaeological operations are carried out on
sites that are on the verge of being destroyed by new road constructions, dams,
buildings, or any other kind of infrastructure development. The duty of the archaeologist
then, is to locate as many sites as possible in an assigned area, explore them, and
excavate them if deemed necessary, and ultimately record in detail all the finds that have
been procured. Generally, in case of salvage archaeology, time is a constraint, and so
detailed excavation is difficult to carry out. Therefore, archaeologists tend to record
whatever is found on the surface at the time of exploration. But, if it is realized during the
exploration that the site holds a prominent place in history, then detailed excavation can
be carried out and can thus alter the construction plans in some way or the other.
Experimental Archaeology
A classic example of practical application of the methods of experimental archaeology,
which was also aired on television worldwide, was a series known as Living in the Past.
Here, they attempted to recreate an entire settlement belonging to the Iron Age of 2nd
century B.C., in order to bring to life the life-ways of the ancient people.
Experimental archaeology is a kind of archaeological study in which archaeologists try to
figure out how the archaeological deposits were formed. In the course of this quest, they
experiment with various processes, which they think people might have applied in the
past in order to make or manufacture all those things which make the archaeological
deposit. This experimentation of remaking or replicating things using the methods of the
past is the core of the entire concept of experimental archaeology. Archaeological finds
ranging from pottery to structures are actually replicated using historical methods, which
helps to understand the past technologies as well as the resources available to them.
Flint knapping or the replication of prehistoric stone tools is an interesting activity
practiced in experimental archaeology. This has helped, to a large extent, in
understanding the prehistoric habitat and the rudimentary techniques that were used by
prehistoric man to make his much-needed tools. It has to be noted, however, that
experimental archaeology is related to a large extent to the imaginations of the
archaeologists, with regards to the period in question. Because, most of the things,
especially structures, are seldom found intact; the replication mostly depends on the
perception of the archaeologist.
Forensic Archaeology
Law enforcement agencies went on to employ forensic archaeologists in order to
investigate the genocide that took place in Rwanda in 1994. They proved to be of great
help in locating the graves and in finding valuable evidences to be presented in the court
of law.
Forensic archaeology is a newly developed stream and a very interesting one. It pertains
to the use of archaeological techniques in finding evidences on crime scenes. Forensic
archaeologists are generally employed by the security services in order to investigate
crimes and catch the culprits. Duties of archaeologists in this field of archaeology include
collecting evidences like human burials, artifacts, footprints, tool-marks, etc., and trying
to figure out the situation in which a particular crime might have happened; and to
ascertain the influences on the remains of external factors that may have disturbed the
crime scene. They also try to find whether all the remains are in situ, and if not, how and
when they landed up where they currently lie. The findings of forensic archaeologists
prove to be very effective in the court of law, and help the police to a great extent in the
investigation of the occurred crime.
8/1/2015
WhatToolsdoArchaeologistsUse
For people interested in archaeology, the information about what tools do archaeologists use would prove
to be helpful. Archaeology is all about discovering facts about past human culture to gain insight into the
practices they followed; their architecture and culture in general...
Advertisement
1/2
8/1/2015
way.
Tools Used by Specialists
The archaeological tools mentioned below are mostly used in a laboratory environment. The information
about what tools do archaeologists use in laboratories is presented below.
Flotation Device: The flotation device is used to separate smaller and larger artifacts by the method
of light and heavy fraction. Soil samples which contain artifacts are kept in metal baskets and
washed by gentle streams of water. Light artifacts (for example, seeds) float at the top, while the
heavier objects sink down.
Equipment for Analysis: Simple tools like calipers and cotton gloves are needed to carry out the
analysis of artifact fragments. Gloves serve the purpose of preventing cross-contamination.
Nested Graduated Screens: Nested graduated screen are used for size-grading. In the process of
size-grading, the percentage of artifacts falling in different size-ranges are found out. Nested
graduated screens used for this purpose have small mesh openings at the bottom and larger ones
at the top.
Weighing and Measuring: The artifacts obtained in excavations are carefully analyzed by weighing
and measuring them. Different types of scales are used for finding out correct measurements.
Archaeology is a vast discipline that uses artifacts as a means of delving into the history of past human
civilizations. It would be useful to find out why is archaeology important along with the information of
tools presented above. The various tools used in excavations and laboratories are of great importance in
finding out details of artifacts.
By Shashank Nakate
Last Updated: September 21, 2011
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Maya or
Myth?
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2. People living in different Maya cities all spoke the same language.
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10. The first Maya settlements are about 1,000 years old.
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11. The Maya built stone columns called stelae to ward off evil spirits.
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12. In some parts of the Maya civilization, a sacred cenote was a sinkhole used for sacrifices.
13. The Maya deposited the bones of hunted animals in sacred caves.
T|F
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14. The ancient Maya practiced bloodletting because they thought it cleansed their bodies.
15. Players in the Maya ball game couldnt touch the ball with their hands or feet.
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Ancient
Artifacts
Part 1: Match each artifact with the fact about Maya culture that best describes it.
Write the letter that matches on the line.
ARTIFACT:
MAYA FACT:
2. metate ____
3. arrowhead ____
4. scepter ____
6
7
10
4
8
Part 2: Make inferences about how the ancient Maya used the artifacts
above. On the back of this page, sort the items into the categories below.
Daily Life
Adornment
Ritual/Ceremony
Recreation
STUDENT REPRODUCIBLE
Name:
(Page 1)
HERES HOW IT WORKED: Numbers 1 through 4 were written using a row of dots.
The number 5 was written as a horizontal line. Numbers 6 through 19 were written
using a combination of lines and dots, or 5s and 1s.
For example:
6 was written as one line with one dot above it: (5+1)
10 was written using two lines: (5+5)
19 was written as three stacked lines with a row of four dots on top of them:
(5+5+5+1+1+1+1)
MAYA NUMERALS
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
STUDENT REPRODUCIBLE
Name:
(Page 2)
For numbers greater than 19, the symbols were arranged vertically in place values, with the greatest value on top.
Each place value was 20 times greater than the one that came before it. Look at the examples below.
8,000
400
420 was written with one dot in the 400s place, one
dot in the 20s place, and one shell in the 1s place:
(1x400) + (1x20) + (0x1)
20
1
Value of
Number
303
420
4,008
PART TWO: To find the value of greater Maya numbers, multiply the value of the Maya
numeral by the value of its place. Then add the values together. Calculate the value of the
Maya numbers presented below.
8,000
Maya Place Values
400
20
1
Value of
Number