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Introduction

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1. Introduction to Operations Management

Operations management is about the way organizations produce goods and services. Every
book you borrow from the library, every treatment you receive at the hospital, every service you
expect in a store, everything you wear, eat, sit on, use or read all have been produced by
someone.
The essential nature of Operations Management is concerned with organizing the process of
getting things done.
An operation is a transforming process converting a set of resources (INPUTS) into services
and goods (OUTPUTS). The input resources may be raw materials, information, or even the
customer themselves. These resources are transformed into the final goods or services by way of
other transforming resources the facilities and staff of the operation.

INPUTS

Examples of Types of Inputs: Customers

At an airport, you are one of the many resources being processed. The operation in which
you are involved is processing your ticket and baggage, moving from ticket desk through
security check points, and onto your awaiting plane. The next time you stand on a moving
walkway, imagine yourself as a part moving along a factory conveyor!
Raw Materials
Plastic pellets are melted and forced under pressure into a mold. The plastic is cooled
and a finished part is ejected from the mold.
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Information
A financial advisor gathers and provides information to clients, and assists in developing
a financial plan. Information also includes feedback to control or improve the process.

The Transformation Process

Process
The steps needed to transform inputs into outputs. This can be a series of steps or this
can operate as a decision tree.
Capital Equipment
The tools needed to support the transformation process: Structures, machines, computer
hardware, computer software and information.
Labor
The personnel needed to execute the transformational process.

OUTPUT

The output is the product and / or service required by the customer. (Customer is used
in the broadest sense the word).
A systems outputs can be inputs to another subsequent process.
Steel panels are used to make car fenders. Car fenders are used to build a car.
Outputs can be inputs to the same system.
Quality control data to improve system operations
Complaints about a bland hamburger may result in the recipe being changed.

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Operations Management involves a lot of different disciplines. To be effective, Operations

interfaces with many different disciplines within an organization. The following diagram
provides a few examples.
Production and service operations have a central role in most firms (services and
manufacturing). They typically account for 70 - 80% of an organizations assets, expenditure and
people.
A major part of total revenue and capital investment expenditure is spent on production
operations.

Functions briefly defined

1. SELECTING involves the determination of what product(s) or service(s) will be

produced, and by what processes.
2. DESIGNING involves the creation of methods of production.
3. OPERATING involves the actual production processmeeting of schedules, satisfying
of production quotas and standards.
4. CONTROLLING involves testing for adequate performance with respect to quantity,
quality, and timeliness and taking corrective action as necessary.
5. UPDATING involves the revision of procedures within the organization, in response to
stimuli from inside the organization or outside the organization.

Operations Management Functions

The operations manager is responsible for the success of the producing unit. This person needs a
solid knowledge base (technology of products and processes) and human relations skills
(decision-making, communication, motivation.)
Because of the complexity of operations management it is usually assigned to several
departments or teams. The degree of cooperation may range from non-existent to highly
integrated. The advantage of the highly integrated team is that it minimizes interdepartmental
conflicts.
PLANNING
Determine future course of action. Examples include layout, capacity, location, products
and services.
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ESTABLISHING ORGANIZATIONAL STANDARDS

Set goals and design; set schedules for projects; determine a means for accomplishment.
STAFFING
Selection and training of personnel; the required skill level of personnel; choosing a
larger workforce vs. choosing overtime, full-time vs. part-time.
DIRECTING
Giving orders, motivating, formulating incentive plans, writing work orders, assigning
jobs, measuring results, checking for acceptability, taking corrective action.
CONTROLLING
Inventory management, quality assurance, process capability.
ORGANIZING
Administrative structure; degree of centralization, make versus buy.

Who, What, Where, When, How

The organizing function entails, in addition to setting department structure, deciding how
resources will be allocated. Allocation is to be as efficient (profitable, cheap, timely, etc.) as
possible within given constraints. This is clearly an area where compromise will be necessary.

Who: manpower assignments

What: product line decisions
Where: facility location, product distribution, and sources of supply

When: timing of inputs, outputs; hours of work; manpower schedules; inventory supply
problems
How: what technology to apply
Thus the organizing function is far broader than mere structuring. The organizing function can
involve sub-stantial use of quantitative techniques such as linear programming, forecasting,
inventory modeling, etc.

Comparing Production and Service Operations

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What is different about service operations? Most services have an element of product-based
operations integrated with service delivery. A pure service operation does not exist. Methods
which may be used to design, implement and evaluate product operations are relevant to service.
Situations faced by service operations managers may be less significant and/or less frequently
encountered by the production/manufacturing manager. The points at which comparisons can
be made include:

Customer Presence and Participation

Production operations change materials into finished product. Then, after storage,
transportation and stocking, the customer is supplied with the product. Unless the customer is
consulted about the product specification and has the opportunity to inspect and give advice
during production itself, production managers seldom meet customers. (The exception is the
plant tour, when clients and other interested parties visit the production
floor.) The public relations and customer care aspects of production operations are minimal.
Operations have room to function without worrying about direct customer interaction and
complaints.
Such customer encounters are commonplace for service operations managers. Even the
manager and staff of a computer services operation are constantly facing situations where
customers complain directly and forcibly-not from a distance, but being present, while the staff is
working.
In a service organization, the customer is an active part of the process. In a charter bus or
taxi, the customer talks to the staff and shares information and feelings. The staff responds to the
customers detailed requirements and handles their anxieties. The staff can also offer their own
opinions.

Using Customers as Labor

In self-service situations, e.g. a modern supermarket, customers are extensions of the staff
of the store. Supermarkets are even experimenting with scanning devices that have the customer
process their own selections and calculate shopping totals. The customer becomes the check-out
person. The aim is to reduce the waiting time and the number of checkout staff, and to provide
the customer more information. Remaining store staff carryout back-office functions and become
advisers to customers, instead of automatons at the checkout.
Self-service requires customers to be physically and mentally able to help themselves.
They must lift, carry, process information and willingly engage in the service process.
Information absorption, overload and under load can be a problem and service systems must be
designed according to the needs, abilities and preferences of differing customers the young,
the old, the pregnant, the confused. If these conditions are not met then customers may perceive
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poor quality.
Last night I spent five minutes and walked up the aisles of my local supermarket several
times before I found the Parmesan cheese. It had been shelved with pasta products, not with the
cheese!
When using a self-service photocopier, a customer found the instructions for reduced,
double-sided copying to be so complex that 16 sheets were wasted out of 24 that had to be paid
for!
The customer who cannot understand the instructions on how to assemble a bicycle or set
up a computer system may be lacking in skill and knowledge, but if this results in dissatisfaction,
this ill-feeling may be passed onto a wider public - their family and friends.

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5. PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Operations management researchers and practitioners face new challenges in
integrating issues of sustainability with their traditional areas of interest. During the past 20
years, there has been growing pressure on businesses to pay more attention to the
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environmental and resource consequences of the products and services they offer and the
processes they deploy. One symptom of this pressure is the movement towards triple bottom
line reporting (3BL) concerning the relationship of profit, people, and the planet. The
resulting challenges include integrating environmental, health, and safety concerns with
green-product design, lean and green operations, and closed-loop supply chains. We review
these and other sustainability themes covered in the first 50 issues of Production and
Operations Management and conclude with some thoughts on future research challenges in
sustainable operations management.
5.1 Introduction and Background of Production and Operations Management
The Production and Operations Management Society (POMS) was created in 1989, and
one of its first activities was to launch Production and Operations Management (POM), with the
inaugural issue appearing in 1992. POMs objectives were ambitious, with an overall objective
to improve practice (Singhal 1992). We review what the journal has accomplished in its first
50 issues in the context of sustainability. We use the term sustainability to include
environmental management, closed-loop supply chains, and a broad perspective on triplebottom-line thinking, integrating profit, people, and the planet into the culture, strategy, and
operations of companies. We start with a brief account of the trends that have shaped the field
of operations management (OM) in the past two decades and influenced the mission of the
journal, POM.
5.2 Innovations in the 1980s and the 1990s: TQM, JIT, and BPR
POMs launching in 1992 came at an auspicious time for OM, as the 1980s had already
underlined the benefits of total quality management (TQM), time-based competition, and justin-time operations (JIT), imported to Europe and North America from Japan. These
philosophies had been refined in the 1960s and 1970s and came to be recognized in Japan as
the backbone of the reconstruction of its postwar economy. TQM, JIT, and time-based
competition provided both the tools and the elements of the management systems needed to
integrate them with company strategy. The locus of control and methodology of these tools
and management systems was directly associated with operations. With the growing
realization of the impact of these innovations on customers and profit, operations began its
transformation from a neglected stepsister needed to support marketing and finance to a
cherished handmaiden of value creation. It was becoming a primary focus of strategic
importance for companies around the world.
Building on these early innovations, a wave of change began in the 1990s called
business process reengineering (BPR), which provided immense benefits to nonmanufacturing processes by applying the time-based and waste-minimization efforts that
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TQM and JIT had applied to manufacturing. Gradually, this whole evolution came to be
known as process management, a name that emphasized the crucial importance of processes
in value creation and management. Process management was given further impetus by the
core-competency movement, which stressed the need for companies to develop technologybased and organizational competencies that their competitors could not easily imitate. The
confluence of the core-competency and process management movements caused many of the
past decades changes including the unbundling of value chains, outsourcing, and
innovations in contracting and supply chains. People now recognize the importance of
aligning strategy and operations, a notion championed by Skinner.
5.3 Focus on Product Development and Supply Chains
As companies developed their core competencies and included them in their business
processes, the tools and concepts of TQM and JIT were applied to developing new product
development and managing supply chains, and they typically involved multiple
organizations. Generally, they first incorporated JIT between suppliers and production units,
then moved to optimized logistics (including efficient consumer response (ECR)) between
producers and distributors, then to customer relationship management (CRM), and finally to
global fulfillment architecture and risk management. These supply-chain-focused trends
inspired similar trends at the corporate level as companies moved from lean operations to
lean enterprises and now to lean consumption (Womack and Jones 2005). We show in
simplified form these trends and drivers in Figure 1, based on Kleindorfer and Van
Wassenhove (2004). We also show the impact of emerging sustainable OM.
As we look back on the first 50 issues of POM, we can see that these trends drive the
research published in POM and its application and integration in company strategies around
the world.

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Figure 1 Locus of Value Chain Restructuring 19802010.

The 1980s introduction of TQM and JIT in manufacturing gave rise to the recognition
that the principles of excellence applied to manufacturing operations could also improve
business processes and that organizations structured according to process-management
principles would also improve. The combination of these process management fundamentals,
information and communication technologies, and globalization has provided the
foundations and tools for managing todays outsourcing, contract manufacturing, and global
supply chains.
5.4 Supply Chains as the Business Model
Many successful and innovative companies now formulate their strategies and business
models in simple operational terms (for example, Amazon.com, Dell, Li and Fung, Southwest
Airlines, Toyota, and Zara). Asked about Zaras business model, a senior executive said, At
Zara, the supply chain is the business model. OM has moved from a narrow focus on costs to
an appreciation of the customer (service, willingness to pay) and to a closer scrutiny of assets.
OM provides the methods for analyzing and improving value drivers at the process level and
for measuring and balancing costs, revenues, and assets. These methods include integrated
financial and operations-driven metric systems, such as economic value added.

6.

Convergence of Social Needs and Competitive Advantage

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The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) (the Brundtland

Commission) defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Criticized by some for its all-encompassing scope, the sustainability movement has
nonetheless gained traction because of the evident inefficiency of our current products and
production processes in their use of the planets resources. This is as true for the
industrialized countries as it is for the less industrialized ones and provides huge
opportunities for creating new value. For example, about one percent of all material that
originates at the top of the supply chain serving the United States remains in use six months
after sale of the products containing it.
Because of these growing concerns, business enterprises are under strong pressure to
measure their impacts on the environment and to engage in 3BL reporting to account for the
energy and other resources they use and the resulting footprint they leave behind. Primary
activities that contribute to their footprint are producing and transporting current products;
recycling, remanufacturing, and reusing used products; and designing new products.
Naturally OM has contributed to measuring and reducing this footprint. The basic drivers of
this movement are evident in Figure 2 below, reproduced from the first special issue of POM
on Environmental and Operations Management.

Figure 2 Sustainability and the Extended Supply Chain.

We begin with the people part of 3BL. Employees need to take pride in their work and
need to believe that their companies operate in a prudent and responsible manner and care
about employee health and safety. Concerning the planet, aligning sustainability goals with
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employees and market incentives can be difficult. Community pressures and the threat of
liability, however, can drive companies to improve their environmental performance. Clearly,
companies are most likely to improve their environmental performance when public pressure
results in strong regulations. Sometimes, companies themselves lobby for regulations if they
have developed an environmentally friendly technology and believe that regulations
requiring their technology would give them a competitive advantage.
Strategy and public-policy experts debate the ultimate cost and benefits of
environmental regulations. Many early discussions about sustainable technologies focused on
trade-offs between sustainability and economic competitiveness. Porter (1991, p. 96) argued
that the conflict between environmental protection and economic competitiveness is a false
dichotomy based on a narrow view of the sources of prosperity and a static view of
competition. He argued that tough environmental standards can trigger innovation and
upgrading of sustainable technologies, noting: Properly constructed regulatory standards,
which aim at outcomes and not methods, will encourage companies to re-engineer their
technology. The result in many cases is a process that not only pollutes less, but also lowers
costs or improves quality.
Since the early 1990s, this debate on whether synergies exist between profits and
sustainable practices has become muted, primarily because the public has been largely
indifferent to the economic and policy arguments. Throughout the world, the public and its
political representatives have been demanding improved performance on environmental,
health, and safety issues. The question for companies has become not whether to commit to a
strong environmental, health, and safety record, but how to do so in the most cost-effective
manner.
We must enlarge our perspective in OM to include people and the planet because companies
will be expected to do so. We can expect the opportunities to invest in sustainable
technologies, operations, and supply chains to increase rapidly because of the following
factors:
1. The costs of materials and energy will continue to grow as the world economy expands
and as rapidly industrializing countries, such as China and India, make strong demands on
these resources.
2. Public pressure for environmental, health, and safety performance is likely to remain
strong, leading to strengthened property rights, additional regulations, international
agreements on controlling negative externalities and preserving resources, and reductions in
subsidies.
3. Increasing awareness of 3BL issues could increase consumer demand for products
made by companies subscribing to 3BL practices.
4. Peoples growing antipathy to globalization is leading to strong non-government
organization activity regarding businesses sustainability performance.
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Sustainable OM in the First 50 Issues

Sustainable OM integrates the profit and efficiency orientation of traditional OM with

broader considerations of the companys internal and external stakeholders and its
environmental impact. The evolution towards sustainable OM is clear in three areas that
integrate the three Ps of sustainable OM.
1. Green product and process development
2. Lean and green OM
3. Remanufacturing and closed-loop supply chains
Although the focus here is on the first 50 issues of POM, we also cover work published
in other premier OM journals.
7.1 Green Product and Process Development
7.1.1 Uncertainty, Lead Times, and Investment As a company moves to long-range
strategies and moves beyond its own internal opportunities, the technologies it invests in will
involve more money, longer lead times, and greater uncertainties about benefits and outcomes
of development efforts. Whether a firm invests in sustainable technologies or not, its
competitors may do so. The issues the firm faces are similar to those it would face in
developing any new technology, particularly those whose development seems inevitable, and
it may want to employ game-theoretic models of technology acquisition.
Product design is often complicated by the uncertainty inherent in the evolution of
environmental trends and regulations; Noori and Chen (2003) developed a scenario-based
method for addressing this uncertainty while deciding on product and process designs.
7.1.2 First Mover Advantage The first-mover advantage for sustainable innovations
includes royalties for licensing technology; development of manufacturing capabilities that a
competitor would be unable to copy or unable to copy quickly; a head start on the next
generation of technologies, including the creation of proprietary information that would
provide competitive advantage. Once the firm develops and markets a product successfully,
learning effects would lead to improvements in technology, lower prices, mass markets, and
entry of competitors, similar to the well-studied case of the impact of short productdevelopment cycles in the automotive industry. In the case of Toyotas hybrid petrol-electric
car, Prius, for example, compared to a gasoline powered counterpart, it consumes half as
much gasoline, releases half as much carbon dioxide, and lowers the release of smog-forming
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons by 90 percent. Its competitors, such as Ford Motors,
General Motors, Mercedes, and Porsche, which initially focused on a few sustainable
technologies and did not pursue hybrid cars, are now rushing to market them, although the
idea of a hybrid car is far from new. Piper, an American engineer, first proposed it in 1905.
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7.1.3 Sustainable Product Design Essential to developing sustainable products is

sustainable design. The early history of product design is replete with examples of inefficiency
over its total life-cycle. As the ratio of labor costs to material costs went up, it became
uneconomical to replace or repair most products individual parts, and their designs reflected
that. The solution to most malfunctions or breakdowns was simply to replace the entire
assembly or subassembly. Manufacturers are now moderating this practice, developing
designs that avoid environmentally hazardous components and make it economically possible
to save components that have high reuse value. Modular designs increasingly facilitate
remanufacturing; automated diagnosis of problems; and repair or part replacements by users,
original manufacturers, and third parties. Frameworks for designing conventional products
can be modified for designing green products. For example, Singhal and Singhal (2002)
developed a framework for analyzing compatibility in modular product design that is
analogous to analyzing compatibility of product designs for recyclables and reuse.
7.1.4 The Impact of Sustainable Design on Supply Chains Resources lost in later
stages of the supply chain imply dependent losses also upstream, and thus downstream
savings lead naturally to higher savings upstream in the supply chain. Identifying and
managing environmental impacts throughout the supply chain is now a focus of OM research
Modular design and easy disassembly also facilitates disposal. According to the World Future
Society, The u.s. faces a tidal wave of e-waste. Some three-quarters of all the computers,
televisions, and PDAs ever sold in the u.s. are no longer in use and await disposal. These
devises all contain substantial amounts of toxic materials and are thus prohibited from most
landfills. Disposal cost estimates already stand at $50 billion with no clear solution on how
these costs will be covered. With easy disassembly, it is economical to remove parts that
contain toxic materials and making the rest of the product acceptable in landfills. Safe and
easy disassembly would ameliorate a scourge inflicted on emerging economies as developed
economies dump their toxic waste on such countries as China and India.
7.2

Lean and Green Operations

Operation Management is attempting to use the tools and concepts of lean operations
to add green metrics to the measures of Excellence Companys use in evaluating business
processes. Several POM authors have written about whether the lean and green approach is
evident in practice, how best to achieve it, and what its net benefits are.
7.2.1 Corporate Image and Profitability Mitigating environmental, health, and safety
impacts of a company is socially responsible and good business. Promoting environmental
care can enhance a companys and an industrys image as shown by chemical industries
adoption of codes of responsible care and the rapid spread of ISO 14000. Kassinis and
Soteriou (2003) show that environmental practices in the hospitality industry enhance
profitability by improving customer satisfaction and loyalty.
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7.2.2 Synergies between Lean and Green Improved environmental, health, and safety
performance can aid plant-level productivity efforts and increase revenues and market share.
To gain these positive results, the firm must establish management systems and tools that
integrate environmental, health, and safety metrics with other process metrics within the
company and across the supply chain (Bowen et al. 2001). King and Lenox (2001) and
Rothenberg, Pil, and Maxwell (2001) examined the links between lean manufacturing and
green manufacturing and found some synergies, but also found that harvesting them is not
simple. People generally assume that improving quality practices improves environmental
performance.
7.2.3 Regulatory Compliance To comply with regulations, companies must track their
use of hazardous substances and emissions of pollutants. Because regulatory scrutiny is costly,
many companies are going beyond compliance. By going beyond current regulations,
companies reduce the costs of changing technologies and operating policies to comply with
new regulations.
7.3.4 Liability and Negligence Another factor driving companies to improve their
environmental performance is the risk of being held liable or found negligent for accidents or
environmental damage, a risk they face even when they act prudently and uses state of-the-art
technology. To limit liabilities, many companies implement strict risk-reduction mechanisms,
lowering the levels of pollution, biocides, and toxics (P, B, and T) associated with their supply
chains and products.
7.2.5 Employee Health and Safety Similar to community concerns, employee health
and safety is a key focus of risk reduction and risk communication initiatives. Employee
health and safety is not limited to company workers or onsite exposures, but includes all
parties in the supply chain who may be exposed to a companys product.
7.3

Improved Tools and Management Systems for Better Product and Process Design.
To achieve sustainable OM, companies must integrate employee health and safety
metrics with key business processes, measure results, and obtain the commitment of top
management. They may use life-cycle analysis, gated DfX screens (where design for X (DfX)
includes such factors as environment, safety, disassembly, and recycling), and eco-logistics to
promote sustainable products and supply chains.
Concerning new management systems to promote employee health and safety
excellence and sustainable industrial practices, the papers in POMs first 50 issues have
investigated two synergies with OM concepts. The first is lean production or the process of
discovering and eliminating waste that originally focused on time, quality defects, and excess
inventory, but is now being used effectively to ferret out environmental wastes. The second
source of synergy is between quality and environmental management systems focused on the
Environmental Management System under the international standards ISO 14000 and the
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related Eco-Management and Audit Scheme of the European Union. ISO 14000 began
development in 1991, after the successful deployment of ISO 9000 standards, and the
aspirations underlying ISO 14000 were motivated by the experience with ISO 9000. While it is
still too early to say whether ISO 14000 and other systemic approaches to managing employee
health and safety impacts are effective in a 3BL sense, there are several promising indicators
that it may. These include the increasing evidence that process excellence, as embodied in the
ISO 9000 quality standard, can be a significant aid to discovering process defects and fixing
them. By extension, this same logic of process excellence appears to apply to impacts on
employee health and safety and their associated Environmental Management System, and
industrial practice is increasingly reflecting this belief.
Several industry-specific studies of sustainable OM have also appeared in POMs first
50 issues. Forestry managers make extensive use of mathematical models to optimize
harvesting patterns. Caro et al. (2003) discuss using these models to take environmental
regulations into account and quantify their costs and benefits. Flowers and Linderman (2003)
consider how to turn hazardous waste into fuel for cement kilns to dispose of the waste while
respecting air-quality regulations. Wolf (2001) and Kleindorfer and Saad (2005) discuss risk
methodologies being implemented in the chemical industry to reduce environment, health,
and safety related accidents and to promote sustainable operations.

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