Electrical Experi 00
Electrical Experi 00
Electrical Experi 00
WELLESLEY COLLEGE
PRESENTED BY
Edith Milwood Perrin '10
ELECTRICAL
EXPEEIMENTS;
ILLUSTRATING
PEEE
OE EEICTIONAL ELECTEICITY
CONTAINING THE
G.
FRANCIS, F.LS.
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS
THE DICTIONARY
FIFTH EDITION.
D.
FRANCIS,
21,.
G.
STRAND.
1850.
D. PEANCIS, PRINTER,
PREFACE.
A WORK
**
entitled
Electrical
and
it
may
the
more
who
electricity
was
all
in
it
rapidly succeeded
At
from about
studied the
its
predecessors.
present century, philosophers were learning the facts of the science by long
series of
experiments
lecturers
facts
showy
illustrations,
now
past
in their
This time
the experiments proved the facts, the facts suggested the laws
If they
have
given merely a dry explanation of facts and laws, apparently regarding the
detail of
science
must have
as well as their
fact illustrated
in
minds enlightened
by a pleasing popular
PREFACE.
experiment often fixes
would
m-ent,
fail
The Author
opinion that the
more
it
will
to
itself
of this
more
little
work impressed,
interesting
all
He
own
hoped
of the descriptions,
it
is
many
make
years.
may be
his
all
The
considered
and
it
is
to be
This treatise contains more experiments and illustrations than any other
all
known with
fluid or
make no
difference whatever
as the origin of
certainty relative
in
the
practical
oe
and populai
it.
G.
FRANCIS,
F.L.S.
amber
the
and derives
name from
its
the Greek
word
electron,
ments, prove that the whole earth and atmosphere, below, upon, and above
the surface,
is
pervaded by
this highly-elastic
and subtle
fluid,
sometimes
phenomena
in a
at other
times in a latent condition, and although then imperceptible, yet not on that
If
it
its
life
and existence,
Over
power
is
no
less extraordinary.
It is
proved identical with the vivid and withering lightning, the streaming
easily
aurora, the
all
devastating earthquake.
when
which
called galvanic
or
it
electric
all
;
fluid
it
and combustion
is
it
the
of
efi'ects
action,
solitary
of crystallization
Although
the earth and atmosphere are alone subject to our experimental researches,
yet there
is
is
which
fills
all
space,
firmament.
which
it
it
to
and that
move,
it is
restrain,
fill
we have been
the fluid
phenomena
and directing us
of nature,
all
cess only
common
at
expense
little
may be made
workmen
the
Its application
ordinary
either
wonder and
lived
many
so
till
centuries afterwards,
it
capable
is
and
delight.
It is surprising that
times.
by ourselves or by
modern
of the grandei
to
many
was not
till
when rubbed,
sixteenth century, when Dr. Gilbert, by discovering that other bodies had similar
drew
properties,
Still
there
in
was so
little
to
was enough
to
this
successful,
and
upon the
two
when
classes
a
;
The
should be accumulated in
still
first
subject,
years,
fluid
greater abundance.
lished in
trivial
to construct a
pump was
seen.
considered as but
made
was
first
one made of
pub-
glass, far
exceeded
it,
first electrics,
treatise,
being excited, and conductors, or those which not capable of excitation themselves, that
is,
along them.
thought
at that
time not to be
ference between
to this,
so, yet
M. du
called vitreous
and resinous
electricity.
dif-
He
two
fluids distinct
electricity
Leyden
became more
phial in 1746,
the attention of
all
studied,
when
it
till
From
this
time
classes of people.
mode
of
3
acticn of the phial, and
one
cause of
pubHshed
fluid,
Soon the
action.
all electrical
was boldly asserted and proved both by Dr. Franklin and L'abbe Nollet
about the same period, the former venturing to bring
the clouds, and to perform with
it all
and
accounted
in a
easy,
Mechanical
of
satisfac-
phenomena was
for,
at
free
electricity,
by
tension, for
all
could go no further
names
these
of friction, the
made during
century of the
established.
electricity
was firmly
it,
the present
galvanism and
magnetism, not only confirm our previous views, but induce us to attribute
the facts of
cause,
all
and the
subjected to experiment.
altered circumstances,
The
common
and producing
immediate object
we
difi'erent
materials
much do
these subjects engage the attention of the scientific world, and so numerous
wider
field for
electrical research,
in
and the
material world.
CHAP.
I.
electric fluid,
free,
by the
The laws
consideration
action,
and
it
will
v/e
artificially excited, or
it
its
is
if less
natural state
disturbed, that
its
when by contact
presence.
the light
is
of a futuio
common
fluid,
experiments on excitation
while in
effects it
may be
and
at present
call
is,
becomes apparent
thrown into a
may
However
diversified
the
and the more attentively the various phenomena are noted, the better founded must be
The
eflfect
be in a great
will
measure accordant with the degree of friction employed, and with the dissimilarity of the
bodies acted upon
and although
electrical, yet
will
it
is
is
is
stance that
all
The conclusion
employ.
to
among
appear
to
to
friction
is
still
more
easily
In performing
that the earth
times
is
taken, and
be
electrical
this is easily
but
will
single
in
mind
must
at all
moment
it
it
must be prevented
The
it
first
may be
excited
are excited with difficulty, but suffer the fluid to escape over their surfaces with great
rapidity of motion.
Be
it
within
its
if
we
rubbed,
action
is
is called
take proper
we
in
which
it is
and
body
sphere of attraction.
we
of them,
disturbed, the
it
electrics,
means
is
This however
not considered.
is
is
same
it is
amount
and substance
in both,
rubbed
in the substance
in
is
said to be electrified
effect neutralize
are rubbed together while they remain in contact with each other, no action
is
annexed experiments.
2.
i)lace.
is
apparent
wax
minus or negatively.
when
A simi-
a stick of sealing
to
any
light
Take
Attraction of rubbed paper.
3.
two pieces of white paper, warm them at the
fire, place them upon each other on a table
or book, and rub strongly the upper paper
with a piece of India rubber the papers will
now be found strongly electrical, so as to adhere together with such force that it requires
some trouble to separate them, and when
separated and then made to appi'oach each
other again, they will immediately rush together a second time.
;
to a wall.
a piece of common brown paper
about the size of an octavo book, hold it
before the fire till quite dry and hot, draw it
briskly between the side of the coat and the
4.
Take
it on both
by the woollen. The paper will
now be found
5.
If while the
In grinding coffee,
7.
Coffee excited.
particularly if it be fresh burnt, it will be
seen to cling around the lower part of the
mill, and also around the cup or basin held
to catch it
sometimes so strongly as to cover
the sides 2 inches or more above the general
surface.
trical attraction,
to a public
audience, if the light matters to be attracted
are suspended in some manner, as for example in the following instrument, which is
at each
This experiment
is
Newton made
that Sir I.
to electricity, but
it
began
and fro ;
to
after
sometimes
the table ; sometimes in oblique ones ; sometimes also leaping up in one arch, and leaping
down in another, divers times together, without sensibly resting between; sometimes skip-
ping in a
it.
A.
more
delicate,
made as follows:
foot
The
is
right
is
is
a stout wire,
shown
Upon
in the figure.
the hook of this
be in reality no repulsion at
be one electric fluid or two.
all,
or
if
there
are
suspended
two
pieces of sewing silk,
same
between
glass
If
it
This is shown
Glass tube excited.
conspicuously by using, instead
of the sealing wax, a glas-s tube about 2 feet
long, and an inch in diameter
make this
perfectly dry and warm at the fire, then rub it
briskly with an old black silk handkerchief,
made warm. The glass will be powerfully
excited, and of course attract with great force
the suspended feather.
9.
much more
far as possible
11.
is
neighbour.
The
any other
its
the electric
disturbance of various bodies, so as to inform
us that some power exists which is called into
action by friction, assisted by perfect dryness
of the materials employed, but they do not
communicate any intelligence of what this
power really is yet a very trifling increase of
the intensity of any of the foregoing will
render the fluid itself perceptible to our corporeal senses, sight, hearing, feeling, smelling,
tube
from
snapping noise
This
will arise.
is
the elec-
tric spark.
peculiarity:
is
plate of metal
Sensation of cobwebs.
Shock from a
cat.
Take up
in the
We
Suspend
24. Metallic ball electrified.
from the ceiling a metallic ball by a silk cord,
touch
it
with
the
excited
glass
tube.
This
and
will
(Dall
the
of
manner
we may
and
less
modes of
marked
1, and which is called from iti inventor, Bennett's gold leaf electroscope consists of a wooden foot, which supports a glass
The
8
round
at top by a brass cap, which
the sides, but takes off and on, in order that
hang
gold
which
from
two
slips
of
leaf
if the
the middle of the cap in the inside should
become broken, tbey may be repaired. The
cap should not in any other case be removed.
The gold leaves are about 3i inches long, and
^ an inch wide they are best fastened on by
a little piece of flatted brass, soldered to the
inner side of the cap, and the leaves, attached
by gum water, gold size, paste, or any thing
similar. They should hang so as to touch each
other when not in an electrified state, and
when divergent, as shown in the cut, they
should approach to the slips of tin foil on the
glass. The cap has occasionally a point which
this however is
screws upon it, as shown
never used, except in trying experiments
upon the electricity of the atmosphere.
fits tight
for
scribed hereafter.
Note.
elec-
may
may be made
lamp
glass, also,
wood or
glass with
silk is used,
let
it
common
paste.
When
specified.
is
9
wood 6
thick,
by
this
means sharp
effect as before.
Bombazine
excited hy rending.
a piece of this stuff" at the fire, or
any other kind of material formed of two
substances, such as woollen and silk, silk
and cotton, silk and hair, &c.
when warm
and dry, draw out the various threads, of one
the
of
substances, and put them on the cap
of the electroscope; it will immediately become aff"ected. The weavers of bombazine
are well aware of these electrical properties.
34.
Warm
it
this
and
like
manner.
desire to vary
observant will
apparent anoor in the
eff'ect
same may be done with charcoal, putty powder, black-lead, lime, and numeroas other
bo
lies.
through
it,
troscope
but at a distance from the electhen hold the sieve to the electroscope, that will be found to be excited
and
if the means be taken which are explained
;
tricity is
10
experiment, in which the exciter touches the
apparatus, it positively charges it with some
of its own fluid, and therefore it is in this
case not merely the extremity of the gold
leaves which become electric, but the whole
apparatus, and they being the only delicate
parts of it, show that it is so ; this then is an
instance of accumulated or communicated,
electricity.
end of
46.
It is then evident that in every instance of
trified
the other
deprived of
comes
its
is
fluid
electrified
two
wax
silk,
Roughen the
and the
and rub
glass,
glass
is
it with
then negative,
silk positive.
Rub
tinfoil
It
is
important then to
observe, that
was not
till
the experiments of
Mr. Canton
impropriety of the terms vitreous and resinous, though they were not able to affect
the question of whether there is one fluid or
two.
body to be tested
close to
it,
if
the bali
n
recede
it
is
still
more when
electrified
electrified positively,
lapse,
it
states of
follows
is
and
by this body,
if
that at
they col-
The two
be shown, as
electrified negatively.
the fluid
may
also
49. Excite a rod of sealing wax, and another of glass, both by flannel. Hold them one
on each side of a pith ball suspended by silk,
Make
more.
Rcrcrse
Cat Skin
Smooth Glass
is
(We believe
black rabbit.)
Rough Glass
50.
Tourmalin
and
is positive with amber,
the blast of air from bellows ; negative
glass support,
Hare's Skin
human hand.
finer furs.
White Silk
metals,
skin.
Black Silk
5 1 Try the same experiment with an electroscope made of the following shape
the
.
Sealing
Wax
Baked Wood
is
negative
with flannel.
manner
Ejc.
31,
had been
was
alao tried,
12
found negative." Another remarkable circumstance is that color makes a considerable
difference, black and white having in many
cases a contrary effect.
The
following curious
many
of these effects
uppermost being
positivoly,
the lowermost
negatively electrified.
59. When two ribbons are made to repel
each other, draw the point of a needle lengthways down one of them, and they will rush
together.
positive
54.
black,
if
Take a
warm
if
black.
cited negatively.
55.
strip of flannel
will excite,
57. Place the ribbons on a 'rough conducting substance, rub them as before, and
they will, on their separation, show contrary
electricities, which will also disappear when
they are joined together. The upper ribbon
is negative, the lower positive.
58. Place the white ribbons which have
been rubbed upon the rough surface, upon
that surface again after they have been se-
spark where
The
last will
it is
lowest.
63. If we take two ribbons of white silk,
cut from the same piece, and make them rub
against each other, while they cross at right
angles, the piece which crosses the other
transversely assumes negative electricity, and
the other becomes positive,
64. The same effect is sometimes produced
by rubbing two sticks of sealing wax, placed
at right angles with each other.
It would
appear from these, and other experiments,
that the substance which
greatest friction
is
subjected to the
other positive.
century,
13
the whole retain the same shape as
still
remained in
if
the leg
When
it
it.
always be negative.
71. If rubbed against a metal it will benegative, unless the latter has received
come
72.
the
Draw
a black
it
when held
electricity
75.
to the electrometer.
ribbon of
paper, or linen,
silk,
If
flat.
is
becoming quite
"When paper
by
different electricities be suffered to meet
the inflation immediately subsides, and they
69. Let
some-
will
it
73.
when
still
CHAP.
11.
is
is
are,
no
appearances.
electrical
many
these
less
than
The mere
contact of substances, the separation of two bodies which are united, heating, cooling,
evaporation, impulse of steam, chemical actions, animal muscular motion, even the slow
is
not an action
we can
nay,
it
is
probable that
we can
occasion, which does not in a greater or less degree disturb the electrical fluid, sometimes
exhibiting
it
in
Thus clouds
drifting
through the
atmosphere, the wind impinging upon the earth's surface, the rolling of the ocean upon the
shore,
phenomena of
fall
to us
when
in
effects.
othci* cases
14
though equally produced, yet not
We
observable,
stances,
effects
circum-
can however show by our contrivances, that these electrical disturbances must take
place in
all cases,
degree of friction
even where the most minute substances are concerned, and where the
is
so small that
The experiments
indeed,
and others of
later
many
of
we have
hitherto found
it
COULOMB
It consists
diameter of a
a glass vessel,
common
about the
tumbler, and 6 or 8
the
same
less
at all,
unless
Coulomb
The following
principle,
is
the most
Through
the
municate to the knob of the lac needle, suspended by the silk thread, which was previously almost in contact, and the two knobs
The moveable knob
will repel each other.
will therefore be repelled from that which is
fixed, and the quantity of electricity will be
proportionate to the distance to which it is
duiven.
By means of the micrometer at top,
set at atiy position, so as
in other
of great delicacy.
graduated.
long
glass tube B, at the top of
which is a circular scale of
ivory C, with a small hand
moveable around the cenUpon the centre of
tre.
circumference
Upon A
top
is
and
may be
of
shown
We
phial.
electricity
It is called
TORTION ELECTROMETER.
of
this
upon
date,
many
scribed
show
it
of Coulomb,
It
those
fixed a
is
to a certain distance,
which
them
leaves,
so that
15
the nearer C is brought to B, provided no
spark pass between them, the greater will be
the effect of C approach.
Now touch A a
second time this new fluid will act still more
upon that in C, and as action and reaction are
equal, B will be acted upon a second time,
gold
more than
this.
The balance
electroscope,
(page 5,)
is
gravitation, but
The manner
in which the state of the elecwhether positive or negative, is discovered by the tortion electrometer, is by
exciting it by a known body, as glass, and
then observing if the ball be attracted or repelled by the approach or contact of the
substance to be tried.
Other instruments of extreme delicacy, and
which we shall find it for the future sometimes
convenient to use, are Volta's condenser and
may
thus be
instrument,
tricity,
BennetVs
electrical doubler.
We
show the
is
sulated,
has
plate
for
is
singly,
following
plates
The
course insulated.
plate
is
The
of
supported
is
will pre-
principle
insulated
is
its
The
attached to
f
1
and separation
leaf electroscope
perceptible.
volta's condenser,
Shows a pair of these condensing
made
\lm m i
example
{
CI
BENNETT
ELECTRICAL DOUBLER.
C is a second
below B, and that
connected with the ground.
Touch A
silk threads.
metallic plate
is
phcrd
little
lb-
finger
is
A with
the
By
We will now
vergence of the gold leaves.
show the use of these instruments by experiments.
fix
ELECTRICITY BY PRESSURE.
Hauy
76. Pressure of Iceland spar.
directs us to press in the hand a piece of
Iceland spar ; then by holding it to the
Ex.
electrometer
by
this
we
even
The same
77. Pressure of other stones.
with the topaz, cnclase, arrago-
may be done
crystal.
electrified.
M. Libes fixed
79. Pressure of metal.
an insulating handle to a metal disc, and
pressed it, holding it by the handle against a
the taffeta acquired
pitce of gummed taffeta
positive electricity, and the metal disc negaThe effect increases with the pressure,
tive.
but it ceases altogether as soon as the tatleta
loses its glutinosity, which renders it easily
;
compressible.
84.
Electricity
by
heat.
affected
17
periment requires very great care, and even
with that will sometimes scarcely be satisfactory m tha result.
If iron or manganese,
or even plumbago, be substituted for the zinc
plate, the result is the same
but if gold or
platinum are employed no electrical action
takes place, from which IM. de Rive inferred
that these and similar effects resulted from
chemical action, and not pressure or contact
in this case the experiment, and others which
follow, belong to galvanism, and not free
electricity.
It is still a disputed point with
;
philosophers.
We
show that
shall presently
we
are
now
considering.
Have a tin,
Contact of powders.
zinc, or copper disc, 3 inches over, with an
insulating handle. Spread out upon a smooth
sheet of white paper any of the following
substances, quite dry
succinic, citric, oxalic,
benzoic or boracic acid^ sulphur, silex, alumine, carbonate of ammonia or resin. Touch
the powder with the plate of metal, and apply
the latter to the electrometer, v/hen after
several contacts electrical signs will be apparent
the copper being in every instance
87.
'
is
positive.
negative,
The
effect of
is
considering.
moisture
is
two
which follow.
Mr. Singer
says,
prefer
smooth cartridge
paper, and silver leaf.
The silver leaf is first
laid on paper, so as to form silvered paper,
which is afterwards cut into small round
alternating with writing or
upon
upwards
zinc
silvered
18
cemented on before the plates are Introduced
the tube, and the other afterwards
eaoh cap should have a screw pass through
its centre, which terminates in a hook outinto
side."
This screw serves to press the plutefi
closer together, and to secure a perfect metallic contact with the extremities of the co-
lumn.
way
is
shown beneath
in this
connected, during the adjustment of the pendulum, by a wire, that their attraction may
not interfere with it and when this wire is
removed, the motion of the pendulum commences. The whole apparatus is placed upon
a circular mahogany base, in which a groove
is turned to receive the lower edge of a glasg
shade, with which the whole is covered."
An instrument of this kind it is supposed will
go for ever we have had one which has gone
for many months, and a friend of ours had
one of 1200 pairs of plates, which had been
goin^ three years when we saw it.
;
Ex.
bat
this
motion
sticking to
is
it.
Mr. Singer directs, that in order to preserve the power of the column, the two ends
should never be connected by a conducting
substance for any length of time. It is there-
sort
ball
of them.
For
this
purpose the b
A name given to
to
2000
series
may be supported
vertically
;;
19
on an insulating pillar.
We
We
ball
when
it
the
strikes
whi^h prevents
proceeds
if
it
This
is
Upon
20
properties, but
which
is
tricity.
Charcoal,
electricity
at other times
be tried as follows
none
Support
of a delicate
at aU.
e;':)ld
It
may
a brass plate
leaf electro-
ratus
bodies.
hydrogen.
gives, at different
air.
21
EXCITATION BY CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE.
This division of the subject forms what is
called thermo-electricity, which
alternately,
negative,
tricity.
commonly
involves so
free
many
electricity,
that
beyond the mere circumstances attendant upon the electricity of the tourmalin,
and one or two other bodies. The tourmalin
subject
all
into boiling water; then hold it to an electroscope, when the gold leaves will immediately diverge, one end exhibiting negative,
the other positive electricity, and will so
continue all the time of cooling.
now
it
other.
upon
tourmalin
is
Most
is
now
positive
boracite, axinite,
mesotype, the
silicate
of
tapaz, sphene, calcareous spar, amethyst, diamond, red and blue fluor spar,
garnet, and many other bodies, though it
appears probable that it is only in those
zinc,
The
experiment on the
one of Mr. Canton. He
procured some thin glass balls, of about an
inch, and an inch and'^ in diameter, with
stems or tubes about 8 or 9 inches in
length, and electrified them, some positively
on the outside, others negatively, and then
soon after he apsealed them hermetically
plied the naked balls to his electrometer, and
could not observe the least sign of their being
but holding them at the fire, at
electrical
99.
following
electricity of heat is
22
cording to the plus or -minus state of it within
them. Heating them frequently, diminished
their power, but keeping one of them under
water for a week, did not in the least impair
it.
The balls retained their virtues above six
years.
We have not tried this experiment.
the
the
glass,
and immerse
EXCITATION BV CLEAVAGE
up by the
fix
split.
Make
107.
a large card
warm
at the fire,
the other.
EXCITATION BY EVAPORATION.
we
106. If
insulating handle
plate of mica,
having in
the fire.
of water
water.
101. Melt some sulphur in an earthen vesput it in a melted state to cool upon a
piece of metal ; it will upon separation be
found highly electrical, as may be proved by
holding it to an electroscope.
sel,
Let sulphur be melted in a glass vesand afterwards left to cool, they will both
103.
sel,
Volta,
Lavoisier,
La
Place,
and others,
much
light
upon
this subject.
23
CHAP.
III.
tried
it
surprise,
universal a fluid
In trying to
this physician
how
Considering
must be a matter of
Dr. Gilbert had not been some of them made long previously.
cularly in electrizing
experiments
set of electrical
first
if
extraordinary properties.
in
known
attractive
CAUSE OP
elicit
electric
Desaguliers, and others, renewed the subject with that energy which might have been
The former of
expected.
cated to, and would pass along certain bodies, as for example, that
It
silk.
communi-
it
was afterwards found that those bodies which could be excited by the
ordinary means then employed would not convey or conduct the fluid readily along them,
which show
them
is
fluid,
still
retained in their
many
Hence arose
for
it
will
taking proper means, be no less excited than other bodies, as was shown in
more
JBa?.
86, 79,
plainly.
is
These
electrics,
in
one
electric in
one
It will
state,
in masses,
ductor
and when
in the state of
may be an
wood ashes
baked
still
more
So green wood
is
a con-
thus almost
all
Many
horn, tortoise-shell, wool, silk, gums, resins, wax, cotton, sugar, &c., &c., are electrios,
yet as soon as either of
in a
this
is
and
communicated
also the
same
settles in
24
Too
yet
it
will
when heated
to redness
it
Notwithstanding
becomes
we
so also
for convenience
sake divide
all
to the senses.
Thus
fluid given to
air is
on the contrary,
is
fluid
latter retaining it so as to
an electric or non-conductor
is
Sia
surface,
its
&c.
air,
this,
pass along
fluid to
being dissipated as
were
fast as
be apparent
it
is
it
accumulated
water,
may be
retained.
use them for such parts of our electrical machines as are intended for the transit of the
accumulated
fluid.
Thus of an
electrical
its
is
metallic chain or wire, to allow of the passage upwards of electricity, the glass cylinder
it,
it
free,
its
it,
and
its
glass support
The
may be
close
Make
the tube dry, cork it up, and shake the quicksilver briskly from end to end.
If now the
tube be held towards any electrometer or
electroscope, it will show itself powerfully
excited.
tube
flashes
exhaustion
even heating the vessel well,
and thereby rarifying the air, will often be
;
sufficient.
individual
ti
25
bottom of the
may
It
tabic.
also be ob-
lines,
slight electrics
especially
Plumbago, or black
The mineral
metals.
lead.
acids.
liquids
and snow.
Pulverized glass.
Flowers of sulphur.
Dry
metallic oxydes.
Oils.
Baked wood.
Dry atmospheric air and other
White sugar and sugar candy.
gases.
paper.
silk.
we have shown
brown paper
is
other
so also in Ex. 15. The comb passing
over the hair must certainly be separated in
turn from those particular parts it touches in
its course along, and not till then is it seen
and thus in
that those parts are electrical
every experiment there is not merely friction,
but separation of the parts rubbed together,
;
Transparent gems.
Glass.
Fat.
Wax.
Sulphur.
Resins.
lac.
To
trial.
upon
dip a glass
top of a gold leaf electroscope
rod in it as a handle, and let it get cold ;
when quite cold, lift up the sulphur by the
handle, and the gold leaves will immediately
diverge, the cup itself being electrified, and
if the sulphur beheld to another electroscope,
;
that will be
shown
also to be excited.
As
it is
raised
they cease.
120. Take a piece of glass, about 5 inches
warm it, wrap tin
long by 3 inches broad
foil all over it, and rub the outside of the
The glass
tin foil smartly with the hand.
36
2G
thus excited, held to the cap of Bennett's
gold leaf electroscope, will not show any
in
electrical effect while it remains wrapped
the
the tin foil, but if this be removed, and
wax.
To
121.
excite
glass handle,
Rub
this
full of
the fluid
in
and
balls
be
In
excite the glass.
no appearance of the fluid being disturbed,
until the cushion be lifted up, when ths balls
this state there will
27
diverge
will
motion
down again
placing
and thus they may be
their
it
will cease,
al-
when
CHAP.
greater.
lY.
electricity
it
will
IT.
for the purpose of accumulating the fluid in greater quantity than the glass tube or such
it
is
capable.
it
From
electric fluid, a
it
due knowledge of
it
was
an
silk as electrics,
electrical
perfect
employ
and sulphur,
or as bodies to be excited.
upon the
Electricians
to pass.
for the one purpose chiefly the metals, they being the best conductors
and
to
and
resin,
electrics
glass,
of these forms
machine.
Otto Guericke
fitted a
an
Upon
axis.
giving
it
a whirling motion,
It is
shown
in the cut.
is no cushion, no
conductor, no means of collecting the fluid
from the earth, and none to draw or collect
it from the cylindtr, as we shall presently
show are all necessary. Therefore, although
answering the purposes then required, it is
very inefficient compared to our more modem
inventions.
Otto Guericke had no means of
forming a globe of sulphur but casting it in a
glass globe, and then breaking the glass from
off it.
Mr. Hawkesbee used the glass globe
itself rather than that of sulphur, and in that
was the great difftrence between his machine
and that of Otto Guericke.
The next machine was invented by the Abbe
Nollet.
Of this description was the greater
part of the machinps which were used about
one hundred years since.
It is represented
It will
annexed
;;
28
a cushion to supply the fluid, and a prime
conductor to collect it.
Still, as will be evident, it was very large and unwieldy, and
the necessity of suspending the conductor
from the ceiling a great inconvenience. The
(^*
acceptable
to
These were the machines, heavy aid ;Tnwieldy as they seem, which were carried about
from place to place for exhibition. The advantage of this machine over the last was its
different and more convenient form, and the
appendage of a conductor, which was hung by
silk lines from the ceiling.
The globe was
still rubbed by the hand. The conductor was
a bar of iron, or generally a gun barrel, connected to the electric by a chain hanging noin
it, and touching the revolving globe.
In the next machine constructed, four
globes were whirled at once it was a contrivance of Dr. Watson, and is represented
beneath
;
is
the
electrician.
as follows
suspended on
fastened to upright
Instead also of the uncertain
method of a chain or fine wire hanging down
silk lines
pillars of glass.
29
second machine, also we believe by Mr.
Nairne, has a cylinder, working vertically,
with a multiplying wheel beneath, and another
on the table. The conductor is made of tin,
and instead of a series of points attached to
it, it
machine
tut
is
represented
in
the
following
'
end of
it
g.lass cylinder,
a hair-covered chair.
Thus
in the
how-
It
may
and
is
also be
30
bore a small hole through the axis of that
ture, and its pressure regulated by a screw
behind it, as at the letter E, in the cut of cap which does not bear the handle ; this
the whole machine above given.
When the done, stop up the inner end of the hole again
with a small piece of dough, putty, or clay.
cushion slides backwards and forwards, a slot
or long hole is made in the foot board, and -Now grease the outside of this cap well, put
the small piece of wood which forms the foot [it in an upright position, half fill it with the
melted cement, warm well the end of the
of the cushion slides in a groove beneath the
foot board.
In the cut A shows the back 'cylinder, put it upright into the prepared
of the cushion.
B the leather flap. C the cap, let it remain till the cement is hard, and
silk.
D the wooden spring. E the glass then clear out the hole through the centre
support.
F the cap, which unites the glass by a hot wire being very careful that it is
and spring. G the foot. H the holding screw.
at all times afterwards left open.
This is
The part D is united to A by a round wooden necessary as a vent for the heated air, which
screw on which a chain is hung when the
of course will be liable otherwise to burst
machine is in use this chain ought to touch the cylinder, not merely when the other cap
is fixed to it, but ever afterwards when the
the ground.
C represents the prime conductor, formed machine is in action. The hole being thus
either of wood covered neatly with tin foil,
opened, the other cap may be fixed on in
or of metal.
the same manner
It has round and smooth ends,
a second hole however is
not necessary.
at one of them a ball and wire for the susThe cause of greasing the
pending of various apparatus, at the other a outside of the cap is that any cement which
projecting wire furnished with a row of points
flows over may not stick to it.
to collect the fluid when, disturbed by the
By attending to the above description and
cylinder. It is necessarily supported upon a
observations, an electrical machine may be
glass pillar, sometimes attached at the lower
made out of a common sample phial, capaend to the same stand as the rest of the ble of giving sparks, charging a Leyden jar,
machine, in which case the conductor runs and performing most of the simple electrical
parallel to the cylinder, and has the points
experiments.
;
ments.
damp and
dust.
all dirt,
freslx
amalgam,
;)
put
it
Warm
and cleanse
Take
the whole
it
from
all
away
27
fire,
it
some
(a receipt for
back in
its
it with its
upright a brass chain, the other end of which
reaches to the table or floor, or the walls of
the apartment.
Upon now turning the handle, streams of fluid will be seen to issue
from the cushion, and passing under the silk
To collect the fluid,
to fly off at its edges.
place the conductor with its points about a
quarter of an inch from the edge of the silk,
Note.
quire
here friction,
suspended from the cushion
which is the cause of the disturbance, takes
;
place.
The disturbed
fluid
passes to the
31
and is confined from escape
that ceasing, the fluid
by the silk flap
would fly to anything around, particularly to
glass cylinder,
is
like
pillar
D.
B B
opened by a person entering, a sudden contraction takes place in the nearer side, which,
the glass at
which
is
causes.
follows
It
is
figured
and
described
as
which sup-
the plate of glass, which is made cirand has a hole drilled through the
centre for the admission of a spindle, so that
it may be turned by the handle B.
CCCC
are four cushions, fixed tv,o and two together
to rub against the glass. D D are two double
flaps of black silk. E is the prime conductor,
which is of metal, terminated by a ball H at
one end, and after branching into two arms
F F, which are bent at the part next the plate,
terminating with points as at G G.
I and J
are glass rods to support the prime conductor.
These are not both necessary if the machine
be small
the rod marked I will then be
sufficient.
The structure of the cushions
and the prime conductor is seen in the annexed cuts.
is
cular,
CUTHBERTSON
PLATE MACHINE.
32
bout an inch wide, and of such a length as
to leave 4 or 5 inches between their inner
extremities and the brass flanch of the cenThe pieces A, or
tral axis of the plate.
cushions, may also take oft" by unscrewing
the hand screw at the top, marked C, which
passes through the top frame of the machine
D. E is a screw to regulate the pressure of
B represents
the cushion upon the plate.
thc-e being one to each side
the silk flaps
These are sewed together around the
of A.
outer edge, so that the plate revolves between
them. Any common silk of a black color
will answer for tViis purpose, and it is quite
immaterial if it be previously oiled or not.
machine,
DDD
more or
figure shows the prime conseparated from the machine, or
The annexed
iductor, as
understood.
CHAP.
y.
We
but
have already said so mv-ch about electrical attraction and repulsion, that we have no^
little
and
matter,
we
shall
fluid is repellant
of
may be
itself,
efTectt
charged positively o
but attractive of
all
othe
1.
2.
3.
4.
electrified bodies
become
possessed of a contrary electricity, or electrified substances, without parting with their owi
electricity act
electricity
which
is
in their
own neighbourhood
producing in them
at
in
33
5.
electrified,
is
it
is
acts
upon
that
an uaelectrified body
is, if
we
would be as
it
This
for higher
fifth
distances of
and
4,
at 4 inches as 1 only
and so on
1, 4,
it
would be as
or, in other
^, at
words,
if
be 16,
the attractive
^,
numbers.
and
in showing
that the laws of other sciences or powers of nature are accordant to those of electricity, yet
as
its full
it is
Mr. Canton,
that an electrified
its
of air which
come
body communicates
in contact with
place supplied by a
new
it.
of this air
same kind of
electricity
the electricity
each other
is,
that they
with
must
this
also electrified,
be, that
and must
it.
why
may move
is least.
body must be
to its distance
we
was ascertained by
The consequence of
own
It
proved.
its electrical
of his lordship,
where
on the contrary,
electricity,
atmosphere.
as published
by him
in
1779, we shall introduce the more easily-understood remarks of Coulomb, published seven
years later.
already described.
of
Having
electrified the
of
was
18,
two
is
quadrupled.
balls
In the
first
In the second
it
the
Here the
and there
is
is
to be accounted for
upon each
by two
other,
what
by the
Thus
We will
it
actual tortion
forces exercised
index of the
is
to render the distance of the balls, in the third case, one half of
fluid
case,
In the third case, the suspending wire was twisted 567, and the
The
at 0,
Secondly, having twisted the suspending wire 126, the balls approached
separated 36.
two
two
first.
The
half
same kind of
electricity,
may
performed by the excited glass tube, and the rest by holding towards or annexing to the
electrical
34
Ex. 125. Suspend from
and from
who
is
electrified,
when
on a glass-legged stool.
This experiment
becomes most effective, because seen more
conspicuously,
when
the hair
is
of a grey
color.
mutually attracted.
126. Diverging threads.
Tie twenty
fine
may be about
there
other,
forming
balloon-shaped
curious
body.
Let a metal
130. Radiating feathers.
ring be supported upon a glass pillar, and at
six or eight equally-distant points around
this ring tie a thread (not silk) a (ew inches
^^=iO
Procure a
feather, as
made
and
stick
it
glass
on the up-
is
ments of
glass
will
offer
a most elegant
object.
131. The electrified cloud. Take a handwadding or raw cotton, squeeze it together tight, yet so that the threads shall not
be entangled.
Place it upon a flat, smooth
board, connected with the prime conductor
of a machine.
Upon electrifying the board,
the cotton will separate itself, and expand
until it becomes a large fleecy mass, and if
the machine be in good action, the whole
mass of cotton will fly away. Indeed it may
ful of
33
always be made to fly off, if the quantity be
proportioned to the strength of the machine.
Let it be remarked, however, that it will soon
fall to the ground, not only because of the
attraction it has for other bodies, but because
of the gravitation
it
not altered in any degree by the electrization, unless an excited tube be constantly
held towards it, when one power will, if
strong enough, counteract the other.
is
plates, formir\g a
animated.
upon a glass
bottle, or other
insulator,
the rest
yet the figures will not dance. The reason is
this, the upper plate being charged by its
connexion with the machine, the figures are
attracted by it, they becoming charged are
repelled by the upper, and attracted by the
lower plate. When they touch this their
charge is removed by that contact, and conveyed to the earth, while the figures jump
up again for a fresh supply, and thus they
move alternately from the one to the other
When
is
it
plate.
it
them.
Note.
is
put upon
it.
36
may be
an objection they
gatively
down
and the
balls
are flying
down
up and
and
flying
may be rubbed
with sand
paper.
become
electrified
these
latter,
therefore,
it,
is,
142, Electric
figure
upon two
swing.
fine
Balance
silk
small
and place
which forms
strings,
37
action, the figure will vibrate
other.
may
figure
before
it
deposit it.
The ball
may be dispensed
with, if the pillars be glass, and the figure
suspended on linen, the top of one of the
pillars
bemg connected
Suspend
a strip,
other figure
come
of the
Fasten on
wax, about
and thrusting
Put the other end of the
the wire into it.
wire into a hole, either at the end or side of
the conductor, so that the wax shall be at
to a thick wire a piece of sealing
it,
your
assistant,
(for in this
experiment you
and
stop
it
any quantity
together
by the point of a
pin,
if
it
scraped
will
re-
Connect a
147. Electrified camphor.
spoou or small metal cup, with the conductor
SB
of a machine, light the camphor, and then elecconductor ; the melted camphor will
throw out the most beautiful ramiiications as
long as the machine is turned. This experiment is even more beautiful than that with
trify the
sealing wax.
Suspend to the
148. The electrical pail.
which projects from the prime conductor, a small metal or wooden pail, having at
the bottom of it a hole, so fine that water
will pass only by drops.
Pour a little water
into it, and when electrified, the water instead
of dropping only will pass out in a stream,
and this will divide itself into several streams,
each of which in the dark will be beautifully
luminous.
ball,
and placed at right angles to the prime conductor of a machine, minute holes being
pierced on the underside of the tube at 3 or
4 inches distant from each other.
The tube
should be suspended by silk. Upon turning
the machine, the water from the ends will
fall in streams attractive of each other, while
from the middle hole it only drops. In the
dark with a powerful machine, and 4 or 5 feet
distance for the water to drop, this is a most
splendid experiment.
149. Insulate a small condensed air fountain and electrify it ; the jet will be minutely
subdivided and expanded over a considerable
space, but will return to its original limit
when the electrization is discontinued.
150. Suspend one pail from a positive
conductor, and another from a negative conductor, so that the ends of the jets may be
about 3 or 4 inches from each other. The
stream proceeding from one will be attracted
by that which issues from the other, and
will
be luminous in
the dark.
Hold
a pail which
is
furnished with
several
poles of
it?
We have
not tried
" that
requires considerable attention to make it
succeed, as a small difference in the apparatus,
or in the force of the machine, &c., will
this
experiment.
Mr. Adams
says,
it
occasion a failure."
Procure a waxen
158. Electric swan.
swan, and which may be bought for a few
pence at the pastry-cook's, who use them to
decorate twelfth-cakes
cover the throat and
breast very neatly with tin foil, which may
be painted over afterwards to prevent its
being seen ; or the whole may be covered
with gold leaf.
Let the swan float in a
basin of water, which is supported upon a
glass stand, suffer a chain to fall from the
prime conductor to dip into the water ; turn
the machine and hold a piece of bread to the
swan, it will immediately turn to it, and
approach as if to eat the bread. The swan
may be made of cork, and if an electrical
stand is not at hand, a very excellent one
may be made with a wine bottle, a flat and
smooth piece of wood being nailed to a peg
which fits into the top of the bottle. A sheet
;
39
of paste-board or a cover of a large book
the same purpose.
^^
act
INDUCTION.
The circumstances
of electrical repulsion
taking place between bodies similarly electrified is a natural consequence of the fact that
the electric fluid repels itself, and attracts all
other matter.
Suppose there are two conductors placed as in the following cut ; one
HENLEY
The
aUADRANT ELECTROMETER.
body
is
particularly the
jar.
It
charged,
Leyden
consists
of
the point of it most distant, or at right angles to the stem, is 90. In the centre of the
circle, of which the semicircle is the half, is
supported on a pivot a very thin wooden
pointer, so that
a vertical line.
it
stem
will rise
by
is
electrical
repulsion, and
indicate
end
B C
it
will
end
methods, that
C, driving
it
it
in
placed at the
outer end. If this apparatus be inserted in a
hole of the prime conductor, or any other object strongly electrified, the pith ball and its
pith ball
BC
40
IGl. Hold an excited glass tube to the
pair suspended from B, they will be attracted
to the glass, showing themselves in a contrary state to the glass ; they are thereby
proved to be negative. Then hold the excited
tube to the pair at C, and they will be reshowing that the excited glass and
themselves are both electrified alike, which
endowed with
pelled,
we know
is
positively.
162. Try this experiment with three conductors, as in the annexed cut. When excited
as before, either by the proximity of a
charged conductor, or by an excited glass
rod held towards them, beyond the conductor N, draw away the central conductor,
and also the excited rod, the central conwill not be charged at all, that
ductor
marked P will be positive, and that at
negative.
e^
c^^^^^^idbi.
When
164. While the last experiments are proand before the conductors are taken
out of contact with each other, suddenly stop
the machine, or remove the excited tube, according to that with which you are operating,
and the fluid will arrange itself as at first it
has become in a quiescent state, and consequently no divergence of any of the balls will
take place. If there should be, it shows that
the conductor has become charged with accumulated, and not induced electricity, and
therefore all the pith balls will diverge with
the same electricity. It has in fact positively
received fluid, and not merely had that inherent in it disturbed.
gressing,
upon a
and so
upon
on.
fourth,
ratio is
in all probability it
the glass
is
of
all electrical
apparatus, the
41
hibited much more strongly by long conIf the greater
ductors than by short ones.
electric effects are produced by very long
conductors, a question relative to their greater
or less diameter, or their greater or less soSome
lidity, would naturally suggest itself.
experiments upon this subject will show us
that it is not those conductors that have the
greatest quantity of matter in their bulk, that
conduct electricity the best, but those which
have the greatest surface hence it appears
that electricity passes over the surface, and
accumulates there only.
Yet in violent
transmissions of the fluid it appears certain
that the fluid passes through the whole substance ; when treating of the mechanical effects
of electricity, we shall see this abundantly
exemplified.
At present we have only to
adduce an illustration or two of the ordinary
accumulation of the fluid upon the surface
of bodies, rather than of its passage violently
through them, and for this we have the law
of Coulomb that the quantity of fluid capable of being made apparent by excitation
or transference is in proportion to the surface
of a body along which it passes, or upon
which it is accumulated.
Thus a hollow
cylinder is always as efficacious as one which
is solid, and a large thin conductor will accumulate more fluid than a small one of more
solid material.
The power of a Leyden jar is
always in proportion to its extent of surface,
and not according to the thickness of the
coating, and so on in numberless other similar instances.
The following experiments
have been adduced to show that in excited
bodies, or those which are charged with fluid,
the fluid is only to be found disturbed at
the surface.
;
The
Place upon an
a metal quart pot, mug, or
some other conducting body, nearly of the
same form and dimension, then tie a short
cork ball electroscope, that is two cork balls
suspended on a linen thread, to a silken cord.
Electrify the mug, and hold the electroscope
within it, when it will not be at all affected.
167.
electric
electric ivell.
stool,
many
times.
ball.
ball,
11
be produced.
on one which
may
is
larger.
Thus
electrical
42
that the gold leaves diverge
then gradually
electroscope.
giving
it
CHAP. VL
INFLUENCE AND DIFFERENT EFFECT OF BALLS AND POINTS.
ELECTRICAL AURA.
The
diff'usion
all
rounded
off
by
balls,
is
suffered to project
it
it
was
is
side
removed
thereby dissi-
43
pated, so great
is
the
or pointed wire suffices to dissipate the whole fluid collected by a large machine.
the reason
city,
why
all
power
so
is
Hence
if
As
is
draw it thence.
row of points
placed on the side or end of the conductor nearest to the cylinder, the fluid being thereby
attracted
from the
glass, to
which
it
they
may be
likewise persons
We
who wear
all
is
We
may
have in electrifying
a lady frequently seen in the dark that the whole of the lace border of a head-dress has
is
fluid,
articles are
surface, or
no
No
when
effect
produced.
is
it
The
covered
should at
so
fluid,
is
dispersive effects
;
all
for
is
it
not
times project
influence of points
is
easily
proves the law of induction before explained, in a very perceptible manner, for even the
very appearance of the light at the point will immediately inform us of the nature and
state of the electricity of the
E.V. 172.
Hold a
ball
body
to
which
it
with
Hold a
176. Star of electric light.
pointed wire towards the prime conductor,
action,
star
will
perceptible
on
when in
a
be
the point, and not a brush as before.
then hold
cushion.
Hold
appended.
conductor
silently,
is
178.
Remove
some con-
44
bent towards the end in the same direction,
represented beneath.
The fluid issuing
from these various points will turn the star
of wires round in the opposite direction.
is
as
A'o/e.
In the dark, the fluid from the
various points will resemble a circle of fire,
and this is rendered more brilliant if the ends
of the wires are tipped with tallow or sealing
wax.
A number
In
182. The electrical inclined plane.
which a flyer is furnished with a small grooved
pulley at each end of an axis tluit bears it, it
is placed on two wires which are supported
hen this is connected with a
by glass.
moderately powerful machine, the flyer immediately begins to turn round, and traverses
it takes no account of
the quantity of fluids emitted or absorbed,
nor yet for the distance of the points from
each other, or the impulse with which the
fluid escapes.
It also supposes two points
satisfactory, because
up the
wires.
this there is
a difficulty in conceiving that the star should
be equally perfect in a variety of circumstances.
The following explanation appears
more
satisfactory.
The
momentum,
flies off
45
to keep the string somewhat steaay, also
the opposite arm of the flyer should bear a
ball as a counterpoise for the weight of the
To use it, take away the
wire and string.)
conductor of the machine, and put the flyer
in the same place as the points of the conductor usually are, when it will turn round,
and the ball striking against them of course
rings the bells.
is
jects
This apparatus is
184. Electric orrery.
It represents the sun, earth
/seen beneath.
balanced
/ and moon.. The earth and moon are
exactly as in the last experiment ; they are
at their centre of gravity, upon a pointed
wire, bearing at its other end the sun;
this wire has a point projecting sideways near
The moon also bears
its farthest extremity.
a side point, thus (every part being nicely
187. Fix the point to the end of the nethe lucid star will turn
gative conductor,
Try
all
bodies.
long
Bring an
I
I
'
190.
Hold
swan, and
it
will recede
a ball and
it
will approach.
46
and hold a needle towards
the ball ; the ball will plunge beneath the
To explain this, it is
surface immediately.
to be remembered that oil is an electric. As
soon then as the needle is presented to the
ball, it draws away its electricity, which occasions the ball either to go to the side of the
electrify the saucer,
vessel or to the
bottom of it
now
presented to
it,
the
little
until
it
all
curious phenomenon
simple means.
hood of an
electrified point
must
electricity,
and more
by other
The
fluid
is
is
easily
the point
the dis-
fied,
itself,
similarly charged.
Make a boat or
193. T/ie pointed canoe.
canoe of cork or wood, and place a figure in
it, poising a large needle in the manner of a
spear, let this float in water, connected with
the prime conductor, and hold the hand
towards it ; instead of approaching the hand,
the boat will recede from it.
The
particles
and
in
it
the point.
In
been
fluid
it
interrupted flashes.
know must
To
free,
room by an
in Ex. 14.
duction we
all
the electrified
is
'
off"
the fluid.
45
198. Thrust a sharp pointed wire through
the centre of the rind of half an orange, so
that the rind forms a cup around it. Let not
the point project beyond the edge of the rind,
and holding it towards a charged conductor,
no effect will take place, except the general
attraction of the fluid for the whole of the
Now project the point forwards
apparatus.
little and little, then as soon as it emerges
from the rind, the peculiar silent action of
drawing off the fluid commences, and a star
of light becomes visible.
by
is
is
3 inches
about as
throw
were there.
Other effects of points will manifest themthrough every part of the subject.
selves
48
CHAP. VIL
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND SPARK.
The
shows
electric fluid
itself in
and
conductor whence
through which
it
no noise
is
fluid,
and 20
example,
fluid;)
and
at others long
tried
by any
also
Another
perceptible.
air,
or other electric
perceptible, a
the flyer,
if
scarcely perceptible,
is
it
passes.
and as may be
some times
also
varies in intensity, so as to be at
at others,
zigzag
LUMINOUS TRANSFERENCE.
effect is
Ex.
itself as in
chapter
for
With
little
more
forcible
emission of the fluid the whizzing becomes changed to a crackling, and the phosphoric
The
fluid, until
minute sparks.
light to a series of
its
its
and
same
straight.
that
in the
dissimilarly
is
air,
These
electrified.
a negative spark
it is
Thus
same circumstances.
and zigzag.
in the
however
would
effects
is
ball to another
centrated and rapid spark, becomes a series of large, long brushes of diffused fluid.
in color,
different
no
less
The
than brilliancy.
is
if
some
it,
If
consequently, whiter
as before,
brilliancy
is
made
to approach to the
is
further increased
seem
to burst,
killing
Such
is
how
first,
more
At
like
and
is
by degrees
still,
the
lost, unti
prime
at the
vivid,
a less distance
it
when
further,
we
little
in the hand, or
they are
by
weak lightning
The
becomes
distant
gases,
taken.
for
that the
it
may be
power of an
its
to the earth,
passage.
electrical
It
is
49
common
many
how such
a spark
but
this is
not
fair
still less is it
some machine,
to
it
will
is
much
itself,
it
will give a
is
assisted
to
is
to each other,
between them.
By
The explanation
known.
true length
when approaching
this
The
nating ball of the prime conductor, and a metallic ball held in the hand,
them gradually
spark so
to
of the glass
that
measured.
to be
shown
real
will
pass
is
always to
be obtained from the end of the conductor, and also that the conductor should be of a
considerable size.
is
The sound
is
fluid.
jar, as it
is
205.
red spark.
^xa.^ a piece of gilt
leather over a metal ball, and take a spark
with the surface of the leather, and the spark
will be red.
206. Green spark.
Use a piece of
silver
will
may run
along
it,
will be of a
yellow color.
Take
Pass
208. Place upon the conductor of a machine a little cup full of water, or else place
upon the table a tumbler full of water, with
a chain which reaches from the conductor so
as to electrify the water.
If now a spark be
taken from the surface of the water by a
metallic ball, or still better by the finger, the
spark will be red.
39
50
The
effect in these
two gases
is
singular,
215.
gas,
217.
218.
No spark through
vacuum.
present.
Previous
let
ns the rarity of
any medium
if
light in
vmtery
mercury
open end, and secured by the finger
at the
is
inverted,
quicksilver descends,
is
it
its intensity.
221.
vapor.
Fill
still
mercurial vapor.
mercury, or,
to boil in the tube itself,
better, suffer
it
is
invisible.
It
is
Thus
220.
vapor.
in hot
Use 222. theGreen
glass with very hot
In proportion
color
acid vapors.
a volatile acid,
to pass.
greenish.
Pass a spark through carbonic
acid gas.
The spark will be very similar to
that in air, except that it will have a little
green in it.
It is more irregular than in air.
\
is
condensed.
51
Make
Make
vapor of mercury.
Make a vacuum
226. Pure white light.
above chloride of antimony, by boiling it in
The light
the tube. This salt boils at 388.
is of a pure white and very brilliant.
227. Take an air pump receiver of 12 or
14 inches high, adapt a wire, pointed at its
lower extremity, to the top of the receiver,
letting the point project an inch or two in
the inside.
Place the receiver on the plate
of the air pump, and electrify the wire at its
top positively. Whilst the air remains in the
receiver, a brush of light of very limited size
only will be seen, but in proportion as the
air is withdrawn by the action of the pump,
this brush will enlarge, varying its appearance,
and becoming more diffused as the air becomes
more rarefted, until at length the whole of
the receiver is pervaded by a beautiful blush
of light, varying its color with the intensity
of the transmitted electricity, and producing
an effect which is in the highest degree
pleasing.
Make
borealis.
more
is
may
An
The
and
52
tents of nitrogen, and the flashes will be of
a line white color, and present one of the
most
brilliant
whole
in mind.
1st : That the sum of all the
spaces on the glass, between one piece of tinfoil and another, must be much less than the
length of the spark which the machine will
give ; in fact, altogether this aggregate space
borne
science presents.
i
Exhaust
233. Light in rarefied gases.
the tube, and introduce oxygen, the flashes
will be now very close and compressed, and
of a whitish color, but not brilliant. When a
small quantity only is introduced, the form
and appearance are better, but still the appearance is not so good as with common air.
'
'
'
'
This
236. Use now carbonic acid gas.
produces a very poor brush, of a reddish
purple color.
and of the
tiful line
may be
with
if
are contrived upon the fact, that if you interpose an insulated conductor between a
luminous
Sew amunber
238. Luminous spangles.
of metallic spangles upon a black silk ribbon
Suffer a
very nearly to touch each other.
spark to run along the spangles, and a beau-
interrupted
appearance.
tvords, &.C.,
common
paste,
spangles of
tin-foil,
when
whole length.
V,..-"
53
tnbes set round a stand in a circle, the under
part is covered with tin-foil, connecied with
each spiral, and with the lower stand, to
convey away readily the fluid. B shows a
glass pillar in the centre, and A a brass wire
terminated by balls, which turns freely upon
the top of B, so that as it revolves, it shall
come very near to each of the spiral tubes in
succession
the top of A is placed so near to
are better
[
have a frame,
Note.
cessary to
It
is
make
cutting
them
across.
!V\ /\
/\ /\ /\ /\T
'
,.:
;~i
,..
:
<
;.a
.S
5..S
aKa aios
I
%t,l
Uiil
L
r
244. It
54
whole distance.
By the different shading of
the cut, it will be seen what must be pasted
on the one side and what on the other.
may be
from
effect.
further orna-
The
AA
CHAP. YIIL
THE LEYDEN JAR AND ELECTRIC SHOCK.
The
year 1745 was famous for the most surprising discovery that had yet taken place in
its effects
native of Leyden,
Observing that
electrified bodies,
by the Leyden
who was
exposed to the
its
jar, as it is called,
power by
common
atmosphere, which
replete with conducting particles of various kinds, soon lost their electricity,
terminated on
all sides
of the surrounding
retaining
it
air,
is
its
:
always
and were
electrified
bodies
a longer period.
conducting body in a
it,
glass, or
warm
The
easiest
glass phial.
method
He
tried with
common
was to inclose a
the phial, and thrusting a wire through the cork, which touched the water.
After taking
a few sparks from the machine to the wire, and holding the phial by the outside, he
removed
it
from the machine, and endeavouring afterwards to take out the wire with the
other hand he
felt
it
may be added,
terror also.
unexpected
65
It
was
this astonishing
electricity.
From
year in which
it
is
it
It has just
so.
best conductors of
water.
in
all
it
now
generally, this
We
follows then that partly lining and covering the phial with a
still
more
efficacious, as well as
more
Leyden
;t
convenient, as
time
These acted not from any peculiar virtue in the hand and
The'Leyden
it.
ductors,
this
and notwith-
it,
see,
jar then described as lined and covered with tin-foil, differs in principle
no degree from Mr. Cuneus's bottle of water, and the explanation of the one therefore
it is
covered with
tin-foil
up
to
jar
is
248. To
Leyden jar
wrists,
time be charged.
restore
it
To
end
of the
shock.
Let the
who
several persons
which
is
bottle,
it.
As
by means
This is
ot what is called a discharging rod.
either a semicircular piece of wire with a ball
at each end, or else two wires with balls at
the outer ends, and jointed at the lower ends
where they are received into a socket, into
which a glass handle is fastened. Hold the
common
discharging rod firmly, and discharge a phial by it, he will not receive a
If the phial be a very large one, or
shock.
if he hold it lightly, he will feel perhaps a
slight tingling of the fingers, when the shock
If he be furnished
passes, but this is all.
with the glass handled discharging rod, or
jointed discharging rod, as it is called, he
may by setting its knobs at a proper distance,
discharge even the largest battery without
danger.
It is usual for the sake of convenience to fasten a chain to one of the arms oi
the discharging rod, which communicates
with the outside of the phial.
ELECTRICAL BATTERY.
instrument is so arranged
the outside coatings are connected
together by standing in a box lined with tinand all the inside coatings are also
foil ;
tery. This powerful
that
all
machine longer.
A, bottle
electricity
more
as
tensity,
On this fact
charge necessarily takes place.
the discharging electrometer is constructed.
is supposed to be a cross section of the
prime conductor of an electrical machine.
B is a brass cap, forming the end of the electrometer. It is made with awire beneath to fit
the hole of the conductor. C is a bent glass
tube. Da brass ball at the end of it. E is awire
with a brcss ball at each end, which wire is
moveable backwards and forwards. When a
shock is to be taken, the ball E is placed at
a certain distance from the surface of A. A
is connected with the inside of the Leyden
jar, which communicates the shock, and the
chain is connected with the outside of the
jar. When the jar is charged to such a degree
of intensity, as to acquire force enough to
BALANCE DISCHARGER.
For discharging a battery
at a certain de-
5/
marked I
and a small
moving weight between C and E to be slipped
To
backwards and forward, as required.
the socket of G,
When
earth.
them
for,
so impermeable
(though
electric fluid,
it
is glass to the
permits one side of
it
We
shall
error
of this
experiments.
principle of the
Explanation of the shock. The explanation given of the phenomena of the Leyden jar is that of induction. Glass is supposed to contain, at all times, on its two
surfaces,
ball,
as
tin-foil
on
become
balls
Procure a frame of
253. Magic picture.
dry wood, and furnish it with a glass, as a
picture-frame usually is, cover this with tinfoil, as inEx. 252
cover the back with a loose
piece of dark paper, or a thick dry pasteboard, cutting a small hole in the middle, in
order to bring through it a strap of tin-foil,
which is pasted upon the coating of the
under side of the glass, and reaches to the
frame ; now cover the tin -foil on the f;ice of
the glass with a picture of any kind, and the
instrument is complete. To use it, put a
8
;
surfaces
at rest.
to the
and he
a shock in the fingers, while he
will be quite unable to take off the money.
This amusing apparatus is represented in the
do so
will receive
following cut
Take
charge
Construct an
2i>4. Electric pendulum.
instrument of wire, with pith balls at the end
as represented.
charged plate of glass,
of
it,
so that
and
its balls
Hang
when it
this
on the
will vibrate,
Make an object
body cork,
its
of
charged jar may be handled with impunity, provided we are careful never to
touch the outside'and inside of it at the same
time, as may be easily proved.
255. To discharge a iar gradually with
the finger.
First, put the jar on an in-
59
it by a thick black silk
This will play between the knobs of
two phials, if one be electrified positively,
and the other negatively ; or will discharge
a phial, if suspended at a equal distance from
the knob at the top, and a knobbed wire
proceeding from the bottom of it.
thread.
261. Let a coated jar be set on an insuand let its knob be touched by
the knob of another jar negatively electrified
a small spark will be seen between them, and
both sides of the insulated jar will be instanly
lating stand,
negatively electrified.
wax
it
tive electricity.
jar,
Upon
turning the handle, the phial will become charged on the inside by the same fluid
which is taken from the outside.
electrified
depend on
in succession.
the
jar,
which by that
its
be discharged.
60
at pleasure, the outer coating being a tin
case large enough to admit the jar easily
within it, and the inner coating a similar
case sufficiently small to pass readily in the
inside of the jar.
The charging wire of the
inner coating should be surrounded by a
glass tube covered with sealing wax, to serve
as an insulating handle, by which the inner
coating may be lifted from the jar when that
is charged without communicating a shock
Arrange the jar with its
to the operator.
coatings, and charge it, it will act in every
respect as an ordinary coated jar
charge
the jar, and without discharging it, remove
the inner coating by its insulating handle.
If this coating, when removed, be examined,
it
This instrument is
273. The double jar.
seen in the margin.
It is used for various
experiments, and shows how
necessary it is to connect
the outside and inside of the
same jar together, before it
Place
will be discharged.
the double bottle on a table
not insulated, and charge the
upper bottle
it will
be found not at
all,
or but slightly
lift
and that
it is
positively
by
its ball
therefore,
side of
with the
Tlie outside of
coimecting
conductor.
and
will
be negative,
of
Amusement is
The
a chain connected with the coating.
other hand should hold a glass handled discharging rod, connected with the other end
If he touches a person with
of the chain.
with
the ball of the discharging rod, and also
a shock
the knob of the small charged phial,
through the
will pass along the chain, and
It
person, without affecting the operator.
tin-foil,
placed
distance
a
usual to employ for the above purpose
jar, made
coated director, which is a Leyden
coated in the
of the following form, and
is
ordinary manner.
tin -foil to
by bringing a pointed
wire gradually near the
knob, and theuncoated part
of the glass between the spots will be pleasingly illuminated, and the noise will resemtle
If the jar
ble that of small fired crackers.
is discharged suddenly, the whole outside
To produce
appears illuminated.
appearances the glass must be verv dry.
isiiiface
.litse
gun.
The
birds are
made
of small bits of
61
slip of tin-foil which is pasted alongj
Connecting the!
the figure to the muzzle.
wire with the electrical machine in action f
it will of course become charged, during (
which time the birds will elevate themselves
by electrical repulsion ; when the bottle is|
charged to a certain extent, the distancei
between the muzzle of the gun and ball near,
it will not be sufficient to restrain the pas-[
sage of the fluid, which will therefore pass
between them, occasioning at the same time
a flash of light, a loud report, and the
and a
uncoated
side,
tin-foil alternately,
hand.
Take a
finger caps
which
We
itself is
6-2
the fluid.
It must be placed so that when
the knob is turned, the knocker lifted or the
bell pulled, this wire may come within striking distance of the bottle, which will consequently be discharged. The fluid passing
along the wire, the knob to his hand, his
body, and finally the wire beneath his feet to
the outside of the bottle, when the circuit
standing at the electrified door, a circumstance almost impossible if in the street, and
not always easy of accomplishment in a room.
It is absolutely necessary that this wire should
be trodden upon by the person to be shocked.
The knob, knocker, or bell pull of the door
should be furnished with a second wire,
coming near to the ball of the inside of the
charged bottle, but not so near as to draw off
be of course complete.
will
CHAP.
IX.
phenomena
:
rends to atoms in
it
its
whether
it
fessor Faraday,
be
so,
as are light
and
fluid,
others
of these
to believe that
many
Many
passage.
against, or
its
common
of
we know,
when thrown
it
it is
fire
some of which
Pro-
this opinion,
efTects
in other respects
2.
Heat
3.
The
is
produced by
friction, so is electricity.
best conductors of heat are mostly also the best conductors of electricity.
by heat and
by
also
electricity.
may
caloric
from
fluid.
So
On
the contrary,
is
it
fluidity
alleged.
Secondly,
contain does not cause the same congelation as that occasioned by abstracting
it.
Fourthly, caloric not only heats but expands bodies, the electric fluid
more extended
in dimensions.
electrified, it neither
becomes
its
may be
it
is
only the
we
difficult, yet
to.
To
confute this
will
soon show
look at the lightning, and then say can this mighty phe-
63
nomenon be occasioned by any compression of
Even supposing
inconceivably
We
it,
and what
is this
electrical
shall
densed at
all,
air that
we
effect if it were.
air is scarcely
or
we suppose two
if
con-
the fluid passes from the positive to the negative side of the apparatus,
electric
is
Besides this,
electric fluid.
as
would be con-
it
fluids,
meeting each other, the concussion, and consequently the condensation, could only take
place at
to the
may be
any reason to
think that the inflammation takes place at any one point of the inteijjupted circuit rather
Besides which,
when
the inflammation of
less quantity, so as to
diminish very
much
compared
fully the
we
are therefore
kingdom
E.r. 280.
table,
by a
until
knowledge
its
own.
little
necessary to overturn
side of this a point
connected with the prime conductor of a
machine. The breeze passing from the point
will blow down the card.
is
much
alone can be
more
The
much
instruction.
it.
in a
amusement and
illustrate
bound
air
air
and the
take
made
281.
upon a
wire, or
of a
away from
sail,
it.
small vessel
The impact of
The
sail
should be of
white paper.
usually of three
joints connected together by a piece of chain
covered with silk. The joint which bears the
ball or point, bears a glass handle ; so that
It is
The
Make a vane or
283. Electrical vane.
wheel of paper, or thin pasteboard, (such as
is represented annexed) and suspend it by a
pin upon a piece of brass at the centre. Hold
the positive charged point towards one side
64
of
it,
will be
^287.
js
is
This tube
to the back.
passes through the upper
nearly
brass cap, and
reaches the bottom of the
under cap. F is a brass
vertically,
and a system of
wheel-work put in motion by the same means.
Several of these contrivances were invented
by Mr. Ferguson, one of which is represented
beneath
instead of
horizontally,
ball
to
ball
and wire
TTW!lTiiwi!iiiii:iililiiiiil;iiiilliiilliiliiiiiiii:rai!:iii
iiiiii^
285.
Water expanded.
tery through
This
C and D
65
is bent upwards at the lower part.
Previous to using the instrument, fill the
tube B to the height of about 2 inches with
on the surface of which in
a colored fluid
the long arm is to rest a light guage made
of quill, part being cut so as to act as a
spring, which will hold it at any part of the
and which
tube.
may be
see to what extent, Mr. Kinnersley's electrometer must be viewed at the time, but as
in Mr. Coward's the spring quill guage will
retain the position to which it has been
driven, this instrument may be inspected
whenever convenient.
289.
To show
either of
To
which
The
it
will
is let
be observed
side pillars
is
in a piece of ivory,
is
a non-conductor.
shown
taken
place.
baked
wide
66
the card, and what is very singular a burr or
projecting edge will be formed on each side of
the card.
shock may be passed through
three or four cards at once, and each have
its double burr.
296.
a shock through
them, the whole of the paper will be pierced
without being in the slightest degree moved.
Upon smelling the part of the paper which
has been pierced, it will be found to have
imbibed a strong odour analogous to that of
phosphorus.
of
insert
two wires
in the
jar,
proportion of
it
its size.
The mechanical
ciency,
proposed by Du Faye, that positive and negative are two distinct electric powers.
302. The direction of the electric fluid is
rendered visible when a Leyden jar, which
by means of the
The wire within
on the outside.
attached to the inside of
the bottom. In charging, the lower part becomes charged first, and the fluid will be
seen to pass upwards inside in flashes, while
sliding piece
is
67
if
fluid will
which
is
negative.
wax on
result equivocal.
307. The next figure represents an apparatus similar to the last, except that it has
wires instead of cups, and a light vertical
wheel in the centre. Upon connecting the
wires with the diff'erent parts of the machine,
and putting it in motion, the wheel will turn
side.
The following
309. Lateral discharge.
cut represents a small conductor insulated,
and nearly touching a charged jar. There is
a second conductor, also insulated and nearly
touching the former, and in a straight line
with it. Make the discharge by a discharging
rod, from which a chain hangs that does not
touch the bottom of the jar, and the farther
conductor will receive an electric spark, which
quits it again almost at the same instant.
This electrical appearance without the circuit
of
an
electrical jar
plosion.
This
may
is
68
greater
is
The following
it.
explosion.
common wire
felt,
The same
fluid laterally.
when
phosphorus.
A ball for all
such purposes as this should have a wire
handle to it, the wire being grasped, and the
ball held beyond the hand.
will inflame the
Instead of the
317. Candle re- lighted.
phosphorus, in the last experiment, substitute
a candle, the flame of which has just been
blown out, and which has a long snufF; upon
passing a shock or spark through the incandescent part of the wick, the candle will be
re-lighted.
a spark is taken
from the prime conductor by a ball and wire
held loosely in the hand, though no sensation
is felt when the wire of the ball is grasped
Take some of the powder of Canton's phosphorus, and by means of a little spirits of
firmly.
is
the case
fitted into
a groove
on the surface of a piece of smooth mahogany, ivory or sealing wax, in such a manner
that by sliding the wires backwards or forwards, their ends may be placed at any required distance from each other. When they
are about ^ an inch apart, place a thumb or
finger over the interval, and pass a charge
from wire to wire ; the thumb will appear
perfectly trawsparenc during the passage of
the spark beneath it, but no unpleasant
sensation will be
felt.
wine stick
it
all
and keep it
from the light. To illuminate this phosphorus, draw several strong sparks from the
conductor, keeping the phial about 2 or 3
inches from the sparks, so that it niay be
the phial will afterexposed to their light
wards appear luminous, and remain so. for a
;
considerable time.
when
minous
transparent.
The
fluid in
passing
Put a piece of
the point of a wire
common phosphorus on
Pass a
1 inch distance from each other.
strong charge from wire to wire, and after
the explosion a streak of light will be evident
It will conin the track of the discharge.
tinue luminous for several seconds.
Many
colors
electricity as follows
69
Mr. Wilson
323. Prismatic illumination.
placed upon a metal stand, which was rounded
at top, and about ^ an inch in diameter, a
prepared shell, and near the middle, where
the color-making parts predominated, he
brought the ends of a metal rod, and then
connected the two metals properly with the
coatings of a charged phial, in order to discharge the fluid.
In this circuit there was
left, designedly, an interval of about 3 inches,
unoccupied by metal, and next one side ot
the glass. The discharge was made by completing the circuit with metal where the interval
was
left.
The
was
inflame
readilv
the
may
328. Or, let a person standing on an insulated stool and connected with the prime
come
This
will
spirit,
and
Make
some
70
The
One
bottle
is
of these wires
is
and
is
a fixture.
The other wire G is connected
with the cock E, and meets the former wire
near enough to give a spark, whenever the
cock E is turned ; and as this also lets on the
gas, this is inflamed by the spark, and in its
turn lights the candle in the front of the instrument. The only trouble required to put
this ingenious machine in action is to rub the
warm
it.
an inch
is
quite
sufficient,
Even i
of
Hydrogen
334.
pistol.
The
simplest
Where the
a short ivory
tube, which fastens into the brass tube, so
This
as to reach about half way across it.
piece of ivory is pierced so that a wire may
pass through it.
The inner part of the wir.i
is at a small distance from the ii.ner part of
like that of a
trigger
is
common
pistol.
ordinarily placed,
is
71
the top of the tube, and the outer end of it
If then a
terminated by a small ball.
spark be taken by the barrel, and at the same
time that the finger touches the ball of the
trigger, a spark will pass from the tube to
the point of the wire inside, and thence to
337.
Mr.
Cavallo's pistol.
recommends a
is
made
who wish
pistol
Mr.
Cavallo
in the following
manner, to those
to make experiments on the explosion of hydrogen and
oxygen, or with known quantities of common
air and hydrogen.
It consists of a brass
tube, about 1 inch in diameter and 6 inches
long, to one extremity of which a perforated
piece of wood
is
securely fitted
a brass wire,
.-^'^
This
amusing
The
piece of apparatus is seen annexed.
structure is evidently upon the principle of
and B
the electrical pistol. The two vases
have each a hollow brass chamber at top,
part of the side of which is cut away in one
of the figures to show the wire withinside.
The
72
in the same way as the pistol was loaded
with hydrogen gas, and cork thetn up after
which, connect the tops Fand G together by
also let the chain E
a chain, as represented
be attached to the discharging rod, and the
chain D to the outside of a charged jar.
;
other,
amusement,
is
made by asking
a person
to
341. Fill a
flat
is
tightly
rammed
the diff'erent sides of the jar or battery employed, a very small charge, and indeed a
very small jar will be sufficient
have
often failed in firing gunpowder by a large
battery according to the old method, and
We
73
by Mr. Sturgeon about to be described, even
Leyden jar holding no more than a
ball at
may
It
at the other.
with a
will be fired
gunpowder.
10
to C.
74
where
convenient.
Take a round
353. Spiral illuminated.
board well varnished, and lay on it a chain
in a spiral form, let the interior end of the
chain pass through the board, and connect it
planation.
The gunpowder is placed in an
ivory cup, with two wires at a short distance
from each other in the centre chamber, one
chain leads to a director or discharging rod
ready to discharge the bottle, the other dips
into an earthenware dinner plate, full of
water.
The gunpowder will be fired
the shock passes.
when
terior
may be sewed on
i
in order to retain
it
in its
If in-
position.
354.
stead of using a board for the nbove experiment, we lay the chain either in a spiral, or
any other manner on a sheet of dry white
paper, supported by a book, when the shock
is j)assed, the chain will he illuminated as
before, and will leave a black burnt mark
upon the paper at every link of the
chain.
Procure a board
355. Luminous board.
of any length, and send it to a baker's, to be
baked for two hours ; afterwards jilnne it,
and lay along it, seven, nine, eleven, or thirteen strips of tin-foil, an eighth of an inch
These slips are to be put on and connected together at the ends, exactly in the
wide.
same way
room by
when
it,
silk strings,
it
will
ap])earing like a
as the strips
upon the
glass in
Ex.
This is usually
356. Eggs illuminated.
done by means of a little apparatus called
the egg stand, and which
represented in the marThis consists of a
wooden frame, with a piece
of metal let into the bottom a chain attached to
this is connected with the
outside of a Leyden jar.
There are three wooden
slides to hold as many
eggs.
A wire and ball
passes through the upper
part of the frame, so as
to touch the top egg, and
the eggs are lo touch each
other,
A shock is passed
through the eggs by touching the upper
ball with a discharging rod, which reaches to
the inside of the charged jar, whose outside
The eggs
is united to the chain at bottom.
will become beautifully luminous, and the
shock in passing will make a sound as if the
egg shells were broken, as indeed they will
be if the shock be large.
A quart jar is
quite sufficient for this experiment.
The
eggs, if eaten immediately, will have a
strong taste of phosphorus ; and will very
soon afterwards become putrid, that is to
say, in two or three days.
When broken,
the white and yolk will be found completely
interna ingled with each other, if several
shocks have been passed through the eggs.
is
gin.
of combustion
that are produced by electricity result from
action on metals and their oxydes.
its
pieces of
window
glass,
middle frequently
marked with an
remains entire,
and
is
on
each of
The
when performing
this ex-
stencil plates.
jar to the
so
on
for other
numbers.
The fusion of wire may therefore be employed as a measure of the quantity of electricity accumulated on any charged surface ;
for the preceding experiments show that any
given quantity of electricity will fuse the
same length of wire, whether it be disposed
in two jars or one ; and hence it may be
concluded, that the greater or less intensity
of a charge does not materially affect its
This test is therefore
wire-melting power.
practically useful, for the various electrometers measure only the intensity, and are
76
equally affected by one jar as by a battery
When the fusion of wire
of one hundred.
is taken as a test of electrical power, care
should be taken that the length of the circuit
is always the same, and that the degrees of
ignition are uniform for a wire maybe melted
with but slight variations of appearance,
when very different quantities of electricity
have been transmitted through it. The lowest
degree of perfect ignition ought therefore to
be obtained in all comparative experiments,
and its phenomena should be uniform, that
is, as soon as the discharge is made, the
wire should become red hot in its whole
length, and then fall into drops.
In order
to ensure a perfect uniformity in this respect
throughout a series of experiments, Professor Hare has invented the apparatus
shown benealh
This consists of two bent
arms, which diverge from a centre, as a pair
of compasses, and when adjusted are held
tight by a screw at the centre.
A reel of
fine pendulum wire is fixed at one end by a
screw, and at the other by a small pair of
nippers. The whole is of baked wood, with
glass supports.
a powerful stream of the fluid, as in the electricity of steam afterwards discussed, the
effect of free electricity in producing chemical
and magnetic changes is by no means inconsiderable.
The following experiments will
illustrate a few facts relative to this subject.
We
marked most
distinctly
Color a
363. E^dnciion of vermiUior).
card wit^h vermillion, mixing it up with water
and a little gum, such as that already prepared in the boxes of water colors, place it
when dry upon the table of the universal
discharger the wires being one on each sid t
of the card, at about the distance of 1 inch
If the charge be now
from each other.
passed through the wires, the fluid will pass
across the surface of the card to the part over
the negative wire, and it will there perforate
the card in its passage to the negative wire.
;
The course
dicated
by
of the fluid
is
77
?.cid
oxygen of the
air
fluid
passes.
Damp
starched,
iodine will
become
3G6. Reduction of
oxyde of
tin.
Introduce
that
some
when
Perform the
367. Reduction of mercury
same experiment with Vermillion in a tube,
the mercury will be separated, and that with
facility that the charge of a very moderately-sized jar will be fully sufficient.
such
showing that
insertion,
..
78
through water, by means of a point so
374. Moisten a very small slip of litmus
guarded, a spark passing to the distance of paper in a solution of caustic potash, and
^ of an inch would decompose water, when then pass a succession of sparks over its
the point exposed did not exceed one sevenlength in the air, the electricity will by dehun<h-edth of an inch in diameter.
With grees neutralize the acid, and consequently
another point which I estimated at one fifteen form with it the nitrate of potass or saltpetre,
thousandths, a succession of sparks one- so that the paper becomes touch paper.
twentieth of an inch in length aftbided a
375. The composition of water.
In the
current of small bubbles of air."
In these
experiments on the electric pistol the noise
experiments the gases were liberated at both
and flash of light were occasioned by the
poles.
Dr. Faraday however has devised a
chemical union of the hydrogen, or gas insimple plan for evolving the gases, so that
jected into it with the oxygen of the air. Now
oxygen shall make its appearance at the one
chemists are aware that this union produces
pole and hydrogen at the other, and also for
water, this is evident, by inspecting the
other electro -chemical decomposition.
The
pistol after it has been several times fired,
following is Mr. Faraday's description of his
" Upon a glass plate, placed when it will be found quite damp with the
apparatus.
moisture so formed.
over, but raised above a piece of white paper,
376. Eudiometers.
80 that shadows may not interfere, put two
The fact of certain
small slips of tin- foil
connect one of these gases being iufiamed by the electric spark
has given rise to various instruby an insulated wire with a machine, and the
ments called eudiometers, one
other with the discharging train or negative
conductor.
Provide two pieces of fine
of the most simple of which is
platinum wire bent as in the figure anshown in the margin. It consists of a thick glass tube closed
nexed, so that the part D F shall be nearly
upper
Pz/-
part
which
approach
until
after
some hours'
electrization.
all
The
these
Opera-led upon.
N.
Result.
Nitrous gas
Sulphuretted hydrogen
. .
nitrogen.
Sulphur
& hydrogen.
Ammonia
Olefiant gas
Charcoal fiihydrogen
The
needles
communication
depends upon
of magnetism to
a fact which was
79
Now
unknown
were
same
direction.
one direction, any matter which has a tendency to become magnetic will arrange itself
at right angles to the electrical course.
In
from north
and place
CHAP.
X.
electrophorus
trical
is
fully described in
machine, in Consequence of
its
page 26.
It
power of giving
is
it is
little
placed
this
may be
touching
slip
it is
to supply
it
elec-
As
obviated by pasting
the
still
it
only object of
is
evident that
80
purpose than the finger of the operator, which
by means of
the electrophorus
is
finger touches
placed upon
upper
state in the
it,
We
easily explained.
is
When
substances.
upper plate
and the
ground,
plate,
or
it, it
it
it
will
it
will
remain
is
Thus
the action
The
electrified plus,
again occasioned,
all
it
The
repeat
this operation
several
distance
beyond
this will
Placing
it
down on
and
jar
when
will consequently
which
it
will in like
is
Leyden
it
when the
electrified
becomes negatively
it
will of course
when
Why
will
flannel,
is
table.
be a mark quite
free
all
previously recorded.
The
The
streak which
it
plate
the
is
ot
or
ramifications,
because of
the
positive
ever
intimately
mixed
will
from
one of
separate
sifting
the other
In
falling,
81
sulphur
tion.
These beautiful figures may be preserved for years if made on a sheet of glass
which has a frame to it like a picture, the
glass being after the experiment reversed
towards the back, so that it may not be rubbed
387.
Draw
is
pro-
389.
diameter,
is
jar which
is
shades.
lower plate.
circle of ramifications
ment when
number
of irregular figures
like stars.
A shock made to pass
through the same plate generally produces
more distinct ramifications, and sometimes
somewhat
82
CHAP. XL
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY,
Many
atmospheric
to
It is therefore
fluid.
mena
perform.
be
electricity, excited
of Dr. Franklin.
fluid,
He made
and should
arise
made
his assertion
human
it
art
many
to
not surprising
with the experiments which their comparatively small machines enabled them to
mind
&c.
and active
of a silk hand-
by performing with
known.
83
purposes only. As these instruments varied
from each other only in a small degree, and
were all dependant upon the same principle,
we shall describe but two of them. The'first
is called from its inventor and use, Cavallo's
atmospheric electrometer. It is represented
beneath, and consists merely of a common
jointed fishing rod, without the last or smallest
joint.
From the extremity of this rod projects a slender glass tube covered with sealing
wax, and having a cork at its end, from
which a pith ball electrometer is suspended.
There is a small string also which runs the
whole length of the apparatus, to render the
electrometer insulated when required to be
so.
It is fastened by a pin to the cork ball
No
be taken.
upon a
as for example,
When up
tance.
fluid
appended
to
it
seemed
as
it
were a
ball o
illuminating
all
84
from it goes through the tube, and is terminated by a ring, upon which a pair of pith
This instrument is attached to the side of a window frame, with
the funnel projecting outwards, while the
pith balls are preserved dry within.
Franklin also contrived one or two electric
instruments of the like nature to Cavallo's atmospheric electrometer, the object of which
was principally to indicate to him when a
thunder storm was approaching. The whole
of this apparatus is very simple, consisting
merely of a long pointed rod, which proceeded
through a glass tube, that was let into the
roof of the house. The rod bore at the lower
end a clapper, suspended on silk, while there
was a lateral communication by means of a
wire with an insulated bell. When therefore
the fluid was in any considerable abundance,
the bell became charged, it therefore attracted
the clapper, which being then repelled, discharged itself by striking against the other
bell.
Thus ringing was kept up.
balls are suspended.
soon as
rod
fluid is attracted
manner
These doubts we
as in flash of lightning.
endeavour to remove.
atmosphere may
be imagined from the experiments
with the gold leaf electrometer in page 9,
and still more so from the electricity of evaporation in page 22
indeed, evaporation
alone is amply sufficient to account for all
the effects which take place.
Although the
evaporation of a few drops of water manifest
but a small effect, yet the whole amount of
First.
will
easily
M. Bichman examining
an apparatus of
kind too nearly, was struck by the lightning which descended, and fell a sacrifice to
this
This
act
last
when
apparatus
the fluid
is
it is
in
science.
some abundance,
and
To
obviate these inconveniences, M. SausBure contrived the following more simple and
instrument
Saussure's atmospheric electrometer consists of a glass case or bottle, with a metal
foot, and four pieces of tin-foil up the sides
in connexion with the bottom.
Withinside
the glass are two very fine silver wires,
swinging freely in a loop above, and ending
effective
below
made
in
in joints,
and pointed.
(The uj)per
may be imagined, by
5280 millions of tuns of water,
The next
same time.
question to clear up
is
the
man-
and
in the
manner of
Leyden
jar.
85
other electric atmospheric phenomena
take place, and to what cause may be ascribed
man]/ of the phenomena which are observed
in the course of common electrical experiments.
It may be more fully proved as
how
follows
Adams.
down.
398. If a long narrow trough of water be
part of the circuit in the discharge of
a battery, and a person's hands be immersed
in the water at the time of the explosion, he
will feel an odd vibration in the water, very
different from an electrical shock. The quick*
stroke from the repercussion of the air and
the vapor is communicated to the hand by
the water, and the hand receives a shock
made
by a ship
at
sea
during an earthquake.
399. Glaciers imitated.
much
We
the experiments in
page 51, where this
phenomenon is explained and the identity
becomes the more evident from the circumstances that whenever it appears, the atmosphere is found replete with the electric
fact.
will
refer to
Vacuo, described in
electricity affects
396. Pillars of sand and whirlwind imiPlace bran or small pieces of paper
in the middle of the lower board. When the
machine is put in action, these will be alternately attracted and repelled with great ratated.
Place a
build-
electrical appearances,
stars or n-.eteors
known
to us as falling-
some
cause,
$fc.
It
rain,
86
drops, and still more so, why snow appears
in light fleecy flakes is owing to electrical
repulsion, as is somewhat proved by the ex-
the
in
writers, certain
it is
404. Waterspout.
The waterspout, that
wonderful and terrific object, is too easily
explained by electric attraction to leave any
doubt that its cause is a highly -charged state
of the air, and we are confirmed in this conclusion by the means taken to disperse it,
namely, by firing cannon and pointing sharp
weapons at it. Ex. 154 and 155, showeff"ects
very analogous to the waterspout.
The following cut gives the usual appearance of this
table
is
very similar.
be killed in a moment.
phenomenon
it is
power, as to draw up fish and other obhence the frequent accounts we read
of showers of frogs fish, S(c.
its
-jects
The
identity of the electric fluid with lightningwasone of the first-established facts relative to atmospheric electricity,
and as it was
time, so it is also in importance to
us, teaching not merely the origin and properties of that mighty power of nature, but also
how to escape from its direful effects. The very
the
first in
appearance of lightning would induce us to attribute it to electricity, nor is this supposition in any way weakened by our experimental
researches.
electricity
find
If
them
identical.
with those
closely
analogous,
or
rather
The
rious things
opposed
them.
established,
from lightning is evidently of the first importance, and the manner best to accomplish
this was first suggested by Dr. Franklin.
Soon after his important discovery of the
true nature of the electric fluid, he pointed
out the utility of conductors to buildings.
The necessity of these was admitted by all,
but philosophers could not agree among
themselves as to these conductors, whether
they should be terminated by a point or a
ball.
Those who contended for the superior
efficacy of a ball, maintained that a point
drew the fluid from a greater distance than
a ball,
invited towards
the
building.
it
were
As many
87
experiments were brought forward in furtherance of these arguments, it had many
supporters, till Franklin, by his ingenious
explanation of their experiments, and one of
his own, set the matter for ever at rest. The
following experiments are those now alluded
to:
410. Fasten the head of hair of Ea;. 129,
or the glass feather of Ex. 128, to the prime
conductor, and turn the machine, while the
hair or the filaments of the feather are divergent, hold towards them a ball; the fila-
When the
nately to the outermost feather.
ball is held, the feathers will clasp the ball,
but when the point approaches, the first
feather recedes to the second, the second to
the third, and the third to the conductor.
conductor
metallic course
^uninterrupted
when
there shall be a want
place, as
shown
line,
and
put
crosswise,
of contiguity at that
D.
do
415.
wood
Now
place
either
of the pieces of
restore the ball to the
crosswise, and
top.
The shock will pass and throw out tae
piece of wood that was placed crosswise,
but not disturb the other piece.
its
at
sists
on
to each other.
line
falls.
88
many
for as
CHAP.
XII.
scarcely
is
first,
and
its
may be
no experiments
a short
advantageously admitted
ineff'ectual,
its full
power may be
at
once administered
the frequency of the shocks, and not the strength of them being
most
to be relied upon.
life
We
it
power of the shock, but even by the passage of a large battery through the arms have
ill
effects,
we
unpleasant, and
small jar, at
all
is
found
no
be ad-
number
felt
any but a
even then to be very careful to exclude young children and delicate persons, as the fear
alone
may
mode
of
its
administration.
Is
89
when
a cooling and refreshing breeze is perceptible, or by placing your hand upon his
clothing, when if any woollen or silk interpose between your hand and his body he will feel
a peculiar pricking sensation, occasioned by innumerable sparks issuing from the part
beneath the hand, and which will soon occasion a great degree of warmth in that part.
Or
method is to draw the fluid from him by means of sparks, taken by the knuckle, or
by a wire with a metallic ball at the end of it. If the operator hold this tight he
will not feel the sparks himself.
A stronger way of drawing off electricity is by means
of what are called vibrations, and a still stronger, sparks.
For these two last the patient
either stands, or sits on an ordinary chair, and not on the glass stool before mentioned.
a third
else
The following apparatus is all that is essentially necessary, though many other articles
have been described and recommended. The first essential is a glass-legged stool; if
required for cheapness it may be a piece of
board, made smooth, and with round edges,
supported upon four wine bottles, pegs being
driven into the under-side of the board to fit
solid glass legs are,
the necks of the bottles
In using the stool,
however, infinitely better.
a large sheet of brown paper or pasteboard ;
or, still better, a piece of oil-cloth, larger
than the stool itself, is to be placed beneath it on the floor, to prevent the filaments of the
carpet, or the dust of the floor, from drawing away any of the fluid accumulated.
;
The next requisite is a flexible tube or connector as a chain must necessarily have
n any edges or points, the stool should be connected to the machine by a chain which
is sewed up in silk, and afterwards varnished or covered with India rubber; thus there
vill be no loss of fluid.
But for numerous purposes the instrument called a flexible tube
is much better.
This is explained in page 63.
;
Medical Jar. This is like an ordinary Leyden jar, covered and lined to a certain height
with tin-foil, as at B. A wooden cap is then prepared for it, and a hole just admitting a glass
tube A, is bored in the middle of the cap. The tube reaches below to within 2 inches of the
bottom, and projects upwards above the cap, about 3 inches.
This tube is also partly lined and covered with tin-foil, so
placed that rather more than an inch of the glass is left
uncovered at the lower end, and about 2 inches at the upper
end.
The tube is cemented to the top of the bottle, and a
smaller cap cemented on the top of the glass tube
but
;
These directors are for two purposes, first, that by means of their balls they shall be
able to direct the fluid or shock to any particular part only, and confine it thereto
and
secondly, that the operator, holding the glass handles, may not participate in the shock,
which passes in a straight line from the ball of the one director to the ball of the other, when
they are respectively connected by chains, the one to the outside of the medical bottle,
;
When
44
90
the whole bottle is chargea, and the strength of the shock is considerable; but when the
longer wire is drawn out, the only one left will be that which tuuches the inner coating of
the tube, and this tube being so small, the shocks which will pass will be less energetic than
those given by the larger bottle, and will altogether have a different character.
They are,
indeed, intermediate in effect between sparks and shocks, and are called vibrations.
Animal
electricity partakes
CHAP.
XIII.
steam through an orifice should give rise to electrical appearances was not merely unknown, but not even suspected, until little more than three
years since, when an account appeared in the Philosophical Magazine, that the boiler of a
steam engine near Newcastle being defective, (the joint or fiaunch of the safety valve having
given way, so that the steam, which was at a pressure of 35 lbs. per square inch, was issuing
forcibly through the aperture,) a Mr. Patterson, who was standing near, upon touching
the weiglit of tlie safety valve, felt a pricking sensation in the fingers.
A few days afterwards the same being repeated, induced a greater attention to the subject, when a spark
was elicited and proper apparatus being procured, a shock, and other electrical phenomena.
Thus this wonderful discovery was made, and as it may well be imagined soon bruited
particularly the indefatiabroad, drawing the attention of philosophers to the subject
gable and erudite chemist and electrician. Professor Faraday, who has lately read a paper
"
to the Royal Society, entitled,
On the Electricity evolved by the Friction of Water and
Steam against other Bodies." The object of the experiments detailed in this paper is to
Professoi
trace the source of the electricity which accompanies the issue of the steam.
Faraday relates that electricity is never excited by the passage of pure steam, but only
v;hen water is also present
hence he concludes that it is altogether the effect of the friction
of globules of water against the sides of the opening, urged forward by the rapid passage
of the steam.
The effect of this is to render the steam or water positive, and the pipes
from which it issues negative. Heat, by preventing the condensation of steam into water,
likewise prevents the evolution of electricity, which again speedily appears by cooling the
Water
passages, so as to restore the water which is necessary for producing the efftct.
will not excite electricity unless it be pure
the addition to it of any soluble salt or acid,
even in minute quantity, is sufficient to destroy this property. The addition of oil of
turpentine, on the other hand, occasions the development of electricity of an opposite kind
fact that the issuing of
These experiments and conclusions of Professor Faraday are interesting, and the more
by them we are able to show by fact what we could before these discoveries only
infer, namely, the mighty power called into action by the currents of air, vapor and moisture of the atmosphere
indeed, it is evident, that a gun cannot be discharged, not even
an air gun, nor yet a comrnou tea kettle give suam irom its spout, without exciting the
electric fluid, nor is it in small quantities either, as the following account of the largest and
most powerful electrical machine ever constructed will show. It is that machine now in
so, as
91
use,
AAA A A A
meter
is 3| feet.
The furnace D, and ash-hole
C, are contained within the boiler
and are
furnished with a metal screen to be applied for
the purpose of excluding the light, during the
progress of one class of experiments.
F is the
water guage
E the feed-valve. J J, are two
tubes leading from the valves
to the two
tubes H. A and I are forty-six bent iron tubes,
terminating in jets
either half or the whole of
which may be opened by means of the levers
G G. L is a valve for liberating steam during
the existence of the maximum pressure.
is
the safety valve
is a cap covering a jet, that
is employed for illustrating a certain mechanical
action of a jet of steam.
O is the first portion
of the funnel, P the second portion, which slides
into itself by a telescope joint, so that the boiler
experiments commence. The boiler is cased in wood.
;
KK
may
be insulateJ
..:_:. Iie
which may be called the prime conductor, but which is not used for
a zinc case, furnished with four rows of points.
It is placed in front of
the jets, in order to collect the electricity from
and thus prevent its returning
the ejected vapor
to restore the equilibrium of the boiler. The maximum pressure at the commencement of the experiments is 80 lbs. which gradually gets reduced
The portion of the apparatus,
to 40 or lower.
which is peculiarly connected with the generation
of the electricity, is a series of bent tubes with their
attached jets.
Each jet consists of a brass socket,
containing a cylindrical piece of partridge wood,
with a circular hole or passage through it, i of an
The peculiar
inch in diameter, into which the steam is admitted through an aperture.
shape of this aperture appears to derive its efficacy from the tendency it gives the steam to
spread out in the form of a cup, on entering the wooden pipe, and by that means to bring
it and the particles of water, of which it is the carrier, into very forcible coUision with the
The next
that purpose,
figure,
is
>
:'
The
as for its
when passed through a galvanometer, caused the astatic needle to oscillate between
20^ and 30^ ; it also formed an electro-magnet, which deflected a needle.
In these various
experiments care is taken to place the conductor very near the jets when quantity is
current,
required, and to
remove
it
for intensity.
INDEX.
PAOE
PAOE
27
Electric column
17
Electric fluid, states of
3
Electric light from paper. &c.
7
Paper, adhesion to a wall
5
Paper rent by a shock
65
... .77
3
61
18
Air thermometer
Amalgam, to make
Amber, attraction of
Animal electricity
Atmospheric electricity
Attraction, &c
Aura, or breeze
Aurora borealis
4, 5,
&c
Barometer luminous
24
Battery
56
36
66
15
Belted bottle
Bennetfs doubler
Bennett's electroscope
Biot's apparatus
Board, luminous
Eudiometers
Flexible tube
Flyer with bells
Flyers
Fort and battery
Franklin's system
Franklin's <;lo d
Franklin's bells
Gases, experiments in
Gas inflamed
.'
Glaciers imitated
Glass feather
Glass plate, &c. excited
39,63
65
of light
43
37
73
46
65
Canoe, repellent
Card, pierced
Cat, shock from
Cavallo's electrometers
Cavallo's pistol
Chain illuminated
83
71
Gunpowder
74
Hair electrified
Hare's wire holder
66
49
15
23, 25
.4,
Configurations
Coulomb's electrometer
Coulomb's balance
Coward's electrometer
Crescent, luminous
Cross, luminous
Crystallization of oil of tartar
Culhbertson's plate machine.
Dry
Kay's system
Earthquake, imitated
Effects, mechanical,
Eggs, illuminated
Electrical machines
&c
85
62
75
27
10
87
84
52
.69, 71
85
34
..5,6
75
scattered, &c. 72, 74
6
76
27
Hydrogen lamp
Hydrogen pistol
70
70
35
44
Images, dancing
Inclined i)lane
Induction, &c
Insulation
Jar,
Leyden
39
4
55, 56
Kite
82
Kinuerslcy's air thermometer.. 64
Lateral discharger
67
Leyden jar
54, 55, 61
Light and spark, &c
48
Lightning, cause of, &c
80
Loaf sugar, luminous
7
Machines
27
Magic picture
57
.31
10
63
44
44
73
47
77
17
pile
Du
Hawkesbee's machine
80
14
14
64
53
29
Cylinder machine
17
De Luc's dry pile
18
De Luc's electroscope
53
Devices on glass
66
Directions of the fluid, &c
60
Director, coated
89
Directors
56
Discharger, balance
74
Discharger, luminous
65
Discharger, universal
Discharging electrometer ... .56
56
Discharging rod
61
Door knob, to electrify
15
Doubler, Benneti's
85
Head
34
Cloud, electrified
Cobwebs, sensation of
.22
3, 13
74
Camphor arborescent
Cannon
. . .
Excitation, modes of
Falling stars
Feathers, adhesion of
Bomb
78
Evaporation, excitation by
41
Boat attracted
82
32
45
56
45, 46
42
Brush
58
Electrics, whar, &c
4, 23, 25
Electrometers .13, 39, 56, 64, 83
Electroscope, gold leaf 5, 6, 7, 8
Electroscope balance, &c
5
Electrophorus, &c
26, 79, 80
Electroscope, pendulum
6
51
51
Pendulum
64
26
4
88
Magic vases
Magnet, making of
Marks impressed on paper
Medical bottle
Medical electrometer
Medical electricity
Metals, excitation of
Nairne's machine
71
79
74
89
56
88
..24
28, 29
... 10
23
75
45
6,
9
P8
85
35
36
38
31
85
what
10
Powder house
73
Press
65
Pressure, electricity of
16
Prime conductor, what
30
Prismatic colors produced ... .76
Prismatic illumination
69
Pyramid or obelisk
87
Quadrant electrometer
39
Quartz, light from
7
Rain, snow, &c., cause of
85
Reduction of oxydes
76
Repulsion
6. 32
Ribbons, experiments with ... 12
Rope dancer
37
Rosin, inflamed
Rubbing machine
Sealing wax, attraction
Sealing wax, spun
Seesaw
26
of ...
4
.
37
37
52
Set of spirals
Slicrt of glass to charge
Shock, how communicated
Shock, explanation of
Shot chain
Spangles, luminous
Spider
57
..55
57
52
i7
52
37. 58
38
60
43
Star of light
Steam, electricity of
91
Stockings, experiments with ..12
Stool
Sturgeon's perpetual motion
Sugar fractured
89
.
.19
65
22
38
36
Sulphur cone
Swan, attracted
Swing, electrical
Symmer's experiments
Thunder house
Thread.3, diverging,
Tin, reduction of
12
87
&c
34
77
Watson's machine
Whirlwind, imitated
Wilson's machine
27
Windmill
38
Wire melted
Word, luminous
18
FNP-
8, 9
31
THE END.
STEPNKY PRKSS,
pAok
Perpetual motions
Phosphorus intlamed
Pillars of sand
28
85
28
45
75
54
.
19
VIGNETTK MOULDING.
PEDIMENT.
OXY-HYDROGEN BLOW-PIPE.
AttcADE.
THE
DICTIONAllY
By
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2. Ale from Vegetables Ale Bitters Alkaline Medicines .\lkanet, Extract of Alkermes Cordial Alkermes,
Confection and Syrup of Allspice, Essence of Alloy
Almonds, to Blanch Almond Bloom Almonds, Burnt
Almond Cakes Almonds, Candied Almonds, Confection
of Almond Cream Almond Custard Ice .Almond Emulsion. Milk of Almonds Alnionds Essence of Bitter
mond Flavor Almond Hard Bake,
make Almond
Honey Paste Almond Ice Cream Almond Icing for
Cakes Almond Jeliy Almond Linctus Almond Mix
ture .\lmonds Oil of Almond Oil Soap Soap of Bitter
Almonds Almond Paste Almond Powder Almond
Powder, French Almond Rock Cakes Almond Rout
Cakes Almond Savoy Cakes Almonds, Syrup
Sirop
DOrgeat Aloes Medicines, Compound Decoction. Enema. Extractor, Tincture,
Compound; Powder, Tincture
Wine Alterative Medicines, Balls for Horses,
Laxative, for Grease, for Strangles Alum Baskets and
.Al-
to
of,
Pills,
of.
Ornaments Alum
to Color
Alum, Burnt
Medicines, Eye Water, Ointment,
Plaister, Poultice, Solution of. Sugared, Wash, Whey
Alum in Bread to Detect Alum in Wine to Detect
Alum Mordant Alum White Alumina, or Alum Earth
Alumina, Acetate of Amadou, or German Tinder
Alum, Cubic
Baskets,
.\lum
of.
Aromatic Spirit of. Compound Spirit of. Foetid Spirit of, Succinated Spirit of.
Lavender Water Ammoniacum, Essence of Ammoniacum. Fomentation of Ammoniacum, Mixture o' Ana.
tomical Preparations Anatomical Injections .Anchovies
British
.^n<;hovy. Essence of Anchovies, Transparent
Essence of Anchovy Powder Anderson's Scotch Pills
Angelica Green, to <^.andy Angelica. Spirit of Angelica Cream
Anise
.Angel Water Animal Charcoal
Liniment, Plaister, Spirit
of.
Balsam of Ani-
.Anise PowderAniseed,
Anisette de Bordeaux Annatto, English
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Dye Cotton
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Cheese Anodyne Medicines,
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Paste Anti-Bilious .Medicines Anti-Emetic Medicines
Anticardium Antimonial Powder Antimony, Regulus
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Mixture, Juices,
Wine Ami-Septic Medicines,
Draught. Komentatron, Oargle, Mixture Anti-Spasmodic
Mediiines, Draught. Enema, Vlixture.s, Pills Ants, to Destroy
.\perienl Medicines, Draught. Powder, IMlls, He.
Apiary, to Establish Apoplectic Balsam Apoplexy.
sion,
cuits
Apples, to Preserve
Apple
Marmalade
.Api>le
chil, to
of
.As3;>foetida .Mixture
Assafoetida Pills
\ssaAssafoeiida, Tincture of Assayer's Acid
foBtida Plaister
sion
Assayer's
to Make Badolier's
Baldness, to Cure,
Baldwin's Phosphorus
Balloons from Tarkeys' Crop.s Balloons, Varnishes
for Bailey's Digestive Draught Balsamic Vinegar
Balm Water Balm Wine Balsamic Injection Balsamic Powder Banbury Cakes Bandoline for the Hair
Oil for.
Pomatum
Wash
for,
for
Barbadoes
Barberries,
to
Preserve
Barberry
Barege
V\
Drojis Jelly
BarBark Peruvian,
ater
Balh Cakes
Bath
Bottled to Ripen.
Biood
Feathers Blue
Wood
Ivory and
Enamel Blue Kve
W.iter Hlue Fire Blue MottledWash Balls Blue Oiiitmeni Blue Paints, for House Paiming, Artists, Water
Colors. Distemper
Blue Signal
Blue, or Mercurial Pill
Lights, Bengal Lights
Blue Stone or Blue Vitriol Pale
Hone,
in
to
in
to
of.
to,
for
tist's
to
ter
if
of.
in.
Blue, Purified,
No. lO.
Carminated Lake for Crayons CarminaMedicines Drinks for Cattle Carraway Brandy,
Cascarilla, Tincture of. Water
No.
tive,
make: Salt, Basket, Common, Bay, Fishery Chivallicr's Alcohol Chevenix's Antimonial Powder Chian
Turpentine, Fictuiou.s Chicken Pox Chilblains. Lo-
to
tions for.
Cement
Ointments
for
Peel,
Candiel
Citronella Clairet,
Rossalie
de
six
Imitative, to
to
Restore
Clarifying Powder.
No. 12. Clary Wine Clater's Drink for SheepCleansing Poultice for Cattle Cloth Clothes, to Scour
Clothes, to Perfume, to Preserve, Ball, Powder Clotted
Cream
Clove Cordial, Pinks, Extract and Syrup of.
Lozenges Clover Sped, to Detect Doctored Clutton's
Febrifuge Spirit Cluzell's Kerme.s Coal Balls Cobalt
Blue
Cochineal, Syrup of. Wash Balls
Cochrane's
Cough Medicine Cockroaches, to Destroy Coffee Biscuits. Milk. Ice, Ratafia, Substitutes for, Corsica, Currant. Egyptian, American. Holly, Broom. Rice, German,
French, Rosetta, Rye. Iris, Sassafra.s Coindet's Pills
Coins of Sulphur. Moulds for to Make
Colchicum,
Powder of. Tincture of. Vinegar Cold or Catarrh Cold
Cement. Cream
Colepresse's Cider
Colic Ball for
Horses CoUett's Tooth Ache Drops Colley's Depilatory Colocynth Clyster Coloring for Liquors Composition Ornaments
Comfits Concrete
Confectionary
Congreve Lucifers
Constant White
Contrayerva
Powder Copaiba
-Freeman's Bathing
for
Fruit Biscuits Fruits, Bottle Fuel.
Fuligokali Fulminating Powder, to
make Fulton's Decorticated Pepper Fumigating PasFoul Rooms to Fumigate Furniture Polishes
Furs, to Preserve Fuse for Military Shells Fusees, to
make Fusible Alloys Fusible Metal. Casts from Galbanum, Plaister
kc. Gall, to Purify for the Artist
Gall Drops Gall Opodeldoc Gall Stone, an Artist's
Color Gall, Syrup of Gallipot Varnish Galls Ointment, &c. Galvanized Iron Gamboge Pills Gargle,
Commom Garlic Balls for Horses Garlic, Syrup of
Garlic Vinegar Garnets, Artificial Gascoigne's Powder
Gelatine Gelatine from Bones Gem Cutter's Paste
Gems, Red Sulphur Gentian, Infusion of,iic. German
Blacking German Paste Gilder's Varnisu Gilding.
of.
to
for
for
Check.
Diet Drinks
Digestive
to
Regulate
Dover's Powder
No. 16.
Elephant's
Enamel
Saucepans, &c. Encaustic Painting,
Enema, Common Engineer's Cement
Medium
English Verdigris Enuraviugs, Cleaning of Engraviuifs,
Transfer
Plaster Epilepsy, Electuary
Ergot, Essential Solution of Escharotics EssenBina Essex Ale
Brew Etching Acids,
Biting
Copper,
Glass, for Marble and Stone
Etching Ground Etching Ground,
Lay Etching on
Glass, a Varnish
Covering preparatory
Exihe(piar Ink Kxeter Oil Extempore Smelling Salts Eye
for
for
to
to
tor
tia
to
in, for
for
for
to
(or
to
Filtering
}^o
f
Hair
'.".-acturcd
Limbs.
Bag
No. 19.
Lozenges, Medi-
to
tiles
for
to
Manufactured
in
No- 15.
niac. Imitative
to
Diarrhoea,
or
Alloy Gilding
Gin Gin, Finings for Ginger Beer in Bottles Gingerbread Ginger Cakes Ginger, Essence or Tincture of
Ginger, to Candy Ginger Candy
Ginger Lozenges
Ginger Candy and Drops Ginger to Preserve
Ginger
Powders Ginger, Mock Preserved Ginger Brandy or
Cordial Ginger, Syrup of
Giii;;er Wine
Glaire
Glass, Cutting and Breaking of
Glass, to Drill, for
Thermometers Glass and Porcelain, to Gild Gla.ss, to
Glass, to render
Glass, Staining of Glass,
Powder
Clean
Colors
Staiiiiiij^
to
for,
No. 20.
Glass Seals Glauber's Tincture of IronGlaze for Pottery Ware for Porcelain, White Ware,
Printed Ware, I'aintcd Ware, Raw Glazes, Ironstone
Ware, Green Ware, Red Pottery Ware
Glaze for
Cooking
Glazed Boards, to Clean
Glazier's Putty
Gloves, to Clean Kid Gloves, Doe or Buckskin Gloves
Gloves to Dye Gloves, Perfumes for Glues Glue
Cement Glue Varnish Godbold's Vegetable Balsam
Godfrey's Smelling Salts
Godfrey's Cordial
Gold
Allocs Gold Articles, to Cleanse Gold, lo Color, Green,
;
Red Gold
Sealing Wax
Gold Shells Gold SizeGold, Solder for
Gold Varnish for Leather Goose-
Rain Gold
from Paper,
to
No. 21.
Remove.
'
D>e
(>f
f(>r
for
of Irisn Moss
No. 25.
Peas and
Itch
Ivory Black, to make
Ivory, to Bleach. Dye,
Etch, Smooth. &c. Ivory Jelly Jackson's Itch Ointment Jalap, Draught, Elixir, and Powder of Jamaica
Pepper Water James's Analeptic Pills and Powder
Jams of Fruit, to keep from Moucd Janin's Eye Oint-
ment
Japan
nishJasmine, Essence and Oil of. Hair Powder, Pomatum, and Water Jaundice in Cattle and Horses
Jaunemange Javelle, Eau de Jellies Jesuit's Drops
Jets of Fire
Jeweller's Rouge Jordan's Balm of Rakasiri
Josse's Purified Opium
Julin's Aquafortis
Spirit of
Marble Cemeni
No. 26.
Kirkland's
Neutral Cerate
Kirschwas.ser
Kitchen
Pepper Kitchiner's Essence of Herbs, Pills, Eelish and
Superlative Sauce Knox's Disinlecting Powder Kcechlin's Liquid
Koumiss Knuckel's Phosphorus Kuseque
Powder Kuslitien's Metal for Tinning
Labdanum Spurious Labels of Botues, to preserve
Lac to Bleach, Lake,
Spirit, and Tincture of
Lac-water Varnish Lixquer
for Brass, for Tin, and for Philosophical Instruments
Lacquering, to prepare Brass for, of Old Work, and Process of Lactate of Iron Lozenges Lactic xluid Lozenges
Lady Kent's Powder Laenneo's Sedative Drauuht,
and Remedy
for
Colors Lamp
Lapis Divinus,
danum, and of Quinces Laughing Nuts Laurel Ointment Lavender Drops, Vinegar, Oil of. Water, and
Ammoniacal Laxative Medicines, Balls for Cattle
Drenches for Cattle Lead as a Poison, in Wines Dust
and Grains Lotion of, Plaister, and Lead Tree Leake's
Pills Leather, Dyeing of.
for
for
No. 28.
Caustic
foot's
for
Sniifl"
to
tine
Artificial.
of,
of.
to
of.
to
for
to
to
of.
Pills
to
of,
for
in
rerus, Spirit of
Mineral Chameleon,
of.
Marmorelum, &c.
No. 31.
Modelling Wax Moire Metallique Mole, to Disperse Monicon, or Damonicon Montpellier Yellow
Mordants for Dyeing Morella Cherry Syrup, and Wine
r>lorocco Leather .Morphia, Syrup of Morison's Pills
Mortar, to Make Morveau's Preservative Phial, W.hile
Mosaic Gold Mottes (de la) Golden Drops Moulds.
Elastic, &c. Mountain Wine Mouih or Indian Glue.
Modelling Wax for Muffins Mulberry Syrup, and Wine
Multum Mum Mummy Brown Mumps Munro's
Cough Medicine Muriatic Acid Gargle MuscadelWine
Gold
Mushroom
Myrrh, Gargle
Linclus of--Xitre
talgic
t(.
take from
Ophthalmic
Opiate. .Anti-Tubercular
Ointment
Opiate Confection- Opiate en Puudre Opiate MixtureOpiate, or Thebaic Pills- Opium Cerate Opium ExOj>ium LoAenges Opium Ointment Oi)ium
tract of
Opium Plai^ter Opium, Syrup of Opium, TincPills
Opodeldoc Optician's
ture of Opium, Vineuar of
Cement Orangeade Orant-e Brandy Orange Cordial
Orange Cream Orange Cr.-me d' Orange Flower
Orris
Perfume Ottar
of
Eoses Oxalic
Acid, to Detect
No.
34..
Plummer's Cement
for.
Oil, to
Dry,
8tc.
Types
Printers'
Prints,
to
Prints, to
Bleach
Copy.
(Five Receipts)
Prints, to Transfer to Wooil
Prints,
to Size before coloring
Prints. Varnishes for Colored,
(Three Receipts)
Primrose Vinegar
P^metheau
Light Boxes. &c. &c.
No. 36.
Propiiety, Elixir of
Prunella. Salt of
Prussian Blue, (ThreeReceipts) Prussian Cakes Prussian Green, (Two Receipts)
Prussic .Acid Lotion,
(Three Receipts) Prussic .\cid Mixture
Punch, (Four
Receipts)
Punch a la Romaine
Pun<h-waler Ice
Purging Medicines, (Six Receipts)
Purging Mixture
Purging balls for Horses, (Two Receipts)
Purl, ('l'v\o
Receipis) Purple Knamel Purple Fire, (Four Re. cipt-.)
Purple Precipitate of Cassius Purple Tableltes
Putty for Glaziers, Flexible Pirola, Infusion of Pyroligneous Acid, or Wood Vinegar
Pyro|>hori, (Two Receipts)
Quass Quassia, Extract of Quassia, Infusion
of Queen Cake
Queen's Cordial
Queen^ Metal
Queen's Y'ellow Quick Match
Quicksilver Ointment.
(Two Receipts) Quills, Preparation of. (Four Receipts.
Dutch Method, French Method. English Method. Austrian Method) Qumce Marmalade Qumce Wine
Quinine. Medicines, viz. Cerate, Essence, Lozenges. Ointment, Wine, and Syrup Quin's Sauce, (Two Receipis)
Ragout Spice Raisin Vinegar Raisin Wine Raspberries, to Preserve whole Raspberry Cordial or Brandy
Raspberry Cream Raspberry Drops Raspl)erry lee
Raspberry Jam Raspberry Jelly Raspberry Paste
Raspberry Rock Raspberry Syrui) Raspberry Vinegar Syrup- (Two Receipts) Raspberry Wine. (Two
Receipts; Ratafia, Red. Dry Sharp, and Common
Ratafia Cakes Ratafia, Essence
&c.
of, Aic.
No. 37.
Ratcliffe's
length
of Rock-work
Roman
Candles,
and
Reservoirs,
&c. &c.
Cement
for
Roman Cement,
of, 8c
of.
of.
of.
of.
of.
Sitffron,
to
rilla.
Scamniony, Electuary of
Scarlet Fever Scent Powder
Cloth
Scheele's Prussic
.\cid
foir
Wax
sion of. Simple, Compound, and Tartarized Senna Mixture, (Black Draught) Senna Powder, (Batley's Green)
Senna, Tincture
Compound Sepia Serpentary,
of,
Shaving Oil
Serpentary, Tincture of
Shaving Paste
Sheep-skin Rugs
Sheldrake's Oil
Shells, Mending and Cleaning of
Sherbet Sherry to
to Fine a Butt of Sherry, to Improve
Ship Biscuits -Shoemakers' Black Short Bread
Shot Metal Shrewsbury Cakes Shrub Silk. Bleaching of Silk, to Clean
Silk, to take Stains from Silkworm Gut Sillabub
Silver Frosted or Matt
Silver
Silver Coin of Britain
Silvering
Tree, to prepare Silvering Copper Ingots
Powder Simple Cerate Simple Ointment Singleton's
Golden Ointment Size, (Soft Glue) Size for Artists
Skeletons, preparation of
Sloes, Conserve of
Slov?
Match Small-pox, inc. &c.
Infusion of
No. AO.
for
No.
4-1
Opodeldoc
Worm
Hooping Cough
Straw Bleaching Stiuve's Lotion
Strychnine Mixture Strychnine Pills Strychnine Spirit
of Styptics Styes
the Eye-lids. Treatment of
Yve's Eye Ointment Succedaneum. Mineral Sugar
Boil and Clarify Sugar Candy Sugar Rock Sugar
Zinc Ointment Sulphur, Balsam
Vinegar Sulphate
make
ofSulphur Bleaching by Sulphur Coins,
Sulphur, Electuary
Simple, and Compound Sulphur
LozengesSulphur. Milk ofSulphur Moulds
Medal&c. Sulphur Ointment Sulphur, Precipitated
Milk of Sulphur Seals. Medals, Coins, &c. Snlphur,
obtain Pure Sulphuret of
Tincture of Sulphur,
Mercury Cerate Sulphuric Acid Ointment Suppository.
Worms Swinton's Daffy's
Purgative, Sedative and
Elixir Sydenham's Lenitive Sympathetic Inks.
Black, (Two), Brown, Blue, Yellow, Red Syrian (farnet.
Imitate Syrup Cream, or Cream Syrup Table Ale
for
in
St.
to
of
to
oi.
for
lions,
to
for
viz.
to
Talc.
de,
of Tamarinds,
of Tamarinds
Tannin OintmentConserve
Tar OintmentTar Var-
Oil
and Senna
Wounds, and
Bleeding
Thieves' Vinegar Tin.
CrystalizedTin, to Coat with BismuthTin Mordants
Tin PowderTin Tree, to PrepareTinning Pins and
Tacks Tipsy Cakes Tobacco, British Herb Tobacco
Ointment Tobacco, Enema ofTolu Loaenges
Tolu
Tincture of Tomato SauceTombac, Red and White
Tonic Medicines, (Nine Receipts)Toothache Drops
(Eight Ditto) Tooth Powder, (Eight Ditto) Topaz, to
Imitate theTortoise-shell. Joining of Tortoise-Shell
Boxes Touch Paper Tourney Cement Tracing Papers
(Nine Receipts)
Tragacanth, Compound Powder of
Transparent Soaps
Treacle Beer
TreacU, to make
Brandy from
Tripharmlc Ointment Trotter Oil, to
Purify Tunisian Cement Turkish Bloom Turkish
Depilatory Turlington's Balsam Turners' Cerate for
Chilblains-Turners Work, Polish forTurpentine Balsam of Turpentine, Enema of Turpentine, Linctus of
Turpentine Liniments for Rhumalism, Lumbago, &c.
Turpentine MixtureTurpentine Varnish Tutania. or
Britannia Metal. German, and Spanish- Type Metal.
Small Typhus Fever- Ultramarine Ultramarine ArtificialUsquebaughValerian Mixture Valerian. Tincture of Vancouver's Cement Vandyke Brown Vanilla
Cream Vanilla, Essence of Vanilla Lozenges Varnish
Varnish, to Polish Varnishes, Colors for, viz. Black.
Yellow. Blues. Greens. Reds, Purples, Brick Red. Buff.
Violet, Pearl Grey, and Flaxen Grey
Vauquelin's
Tincture 'of Spirit of Turpentine
Velno's Vegetable
Syrup Velvet. Satin, Silk, &c. Colors for Painfng on.
stop
^^
POPULAR ATORKS^ECIOTLYJPUBLISHET).
The Magazine
Modem
ti.T-usTRATiVK of
Work
BY G. W. FRANCIS, F.L.S,
contains upwards of Five Thousand Receipts. In
or complete in One Volume 7s. 6d.
Numbers
'at
Hd., Parts at
7d.,
Hundred
In Cloth, 8s., or
P'ngravings.
Twelve Parts
at 7d.
Key
Work,
to the above
Worked
at
full
length.
In Cloth. 5s.
to our Colonies
;
Including Adelaide, South Australia. Port Philip, or Australia Felix; Sydney
Western Australia, or
New South Wales. Van Pieman's Land: and New Zealand; with Remarks on
Canada, &c.. &c. Price fid.
;
Cooling Drinks.
Valuable Receipts for making IIkkrhshiso Bkvfraofs in the most economical manner,
includmg Ginger Beer,
Lemonade, Nectar. Soda Water. Persian Sherbet, Raspberry Vinegar,
Orangeade, Imperial, Capillaire, Lait Sucre, Ginger Pop, &c.
Price iid. sent by post for a 4d. piece.
Twenty
The Guide
With a
to Dover,
tlie
City of Canterbury,
fid.
Ivngravings, i'rico
Ul.
to
the
Flower Garden,
Natural System of
Botany, illustrated
Cuts, &c.
In Cloth. 6s.
Wood
Francis's
Grammar
of Botany,
Francis's
Manual
Plants: with
of Practical Levelling,
FranC;|s's
ol
Art of Modelling
with'Explanatory^Engravings.
Wax
In Cloth, 4s.
Containing every information connected with ihis delightful Art. and is Illustrated with nu-^ierous Wood
Engravings of Moulds, Patterns, Parts of Flowers. &c. iic. In Cloth, 2s. 6d. Post Free, 3s.
J.
ALLEN, Warwick
Lane;
D.
FRANCIS,
MARSHALL &
&c.
fid.
Co., and
all
Road;
SIMPKIN,
Date Due
rm
1B9S
No
1137
bim
QC51].n
PMYSIC-
QC
517
F7