The Chemical Laboratory
The Chemical Laboratory
The Chemical Laboratory
LABORATORY:
Its Design And Operation
A Practical Guide for
Planners of
Industrial, Medical, or
Education Facilities
Sigurd J. Rosenlund
THE CHEMICAL
LABORATORY:
ITS DESIGN AND
OPERATION
A Practical Guide for Planners of
Industrial, Medical, or
Educational Facilities
by
Sigurd J. Rosenlund
~p
L..:.:.!::J
NOYES PUBLICATIONS
Park Ridge, N_ JersBY, U.s.A.
Preface
vi
Preface
January 1987
NOTICE
To the best of the Publisher's knowledge the information contained in this book is accurate; however, the
Publisher assumes no responsibility nor liability for errors or any consequences arising from the use of the information contained herein. Final determination of the
suitability of any information, procedure, or product for
use contemplated by any user, and the manner of that use,
is the sole responsibility of the user. The book is intended
for informational purposes only. Expert advice should
be obtained at all times when implementation is being
considered. Due caution should be exercised in the handling of equipment and construction of facilities.
Contents
INTRODUCTION
1. PRELIMINARY PLANNING
Listing Operations
Estimating Space Requirements
Work Bench Space
Free-Standing Equipment
Arguments for Additional Space
Educational Laboratory Requirements
Fume Hoods
Analytical Balances
Other Equipment
Planning for the Future
Storage Areas
Industrial, Medical, and Research Laboratories
Educational Laboratories
Reagent Storage
Glassware
Instruments
Preparation Space
Repair and Maintenance
Equipment Check-Out
Laboratory Location
Safety Considerations
Efficiency Needs
Environmental Considerations
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viii
Contents
Vibration
Sunlight
Noise
Access to Utilities
Zoning Regulations
15
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16
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2. LABORATORY LAYOUT
Limitations
Making the Scale Drawing
Room Organization
Work Patterns
Work Bench Dimensions
Bench Configuration
Storage Cabinets and Shelves
Heat-Producing Equipment
Toxic and Flammable Materials
Analytical Balances
Sample Receiving
Office Space
Workers' Area
Supervisor's Area
Furniture Dimensions
Safety Shower
Completing the Layout
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3. UTILITY REQUIREMENTS
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43
Contents
Chemical Spills
Safety Shower and Eyewash Station
Chemical Storage
Fire Protection
Earthquake Preparedness
Mechanical Hazards
Equipment
Doors
Utility Failures
Electricity
Water Pressure
Gas
How to Handle Utility Failures
Personal Protection
Safety Glasses
Lab Coats
Foot Protection
Food and Drink
Smoking
Hair Protection
Safety Signs
Conclusion
ix
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Contents
Other Materials
Wall Treatment
Paint Quality
High Resistance Paints
Ceiling Treatment
Lighting
Interior Decoration for the Laboratory
Color Choices
7. WORK BENCHES AND FUME HOODS
Suppliers
Cabinet Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wood versus Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assessing Quality
Kitchen Cabinets
Work Bench Components
Work Top Materials
Stone Tops
Cement Composition
Solid Epoxy
Plastic Laminate
Compressed Wood Fiber
Ceramic Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ceramic Tile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Choice Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work Top Protection
Fume Hoods
Hood Construction
Installation
Building a Simple Hood
Ductless Hoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modular Furniture
8. UTILITY OUTLETS
Mounting Outlets
Hot and Cold Water
Deionized Water
Sinks and Drains
Gas
Compressed Air
Electrical Outlets
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Contents
Compressed Gases
Conclusion
xi
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107
xii
Contents
Janitorial Services
Cleaning Materials
Keeping Track of Cost
Laboratory Ethics
115
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Contents
xiii
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153
INDEX
154
Introduction
Introduction
Preliminary Planning
Preliminary Planning
LISTING OPERATIONS
It is important to make a list of every task that will be performed
in the laboratory, down to the smallest detail. Operations such
as pH measurements, transfer of flammables from safety storage to shelf bottles, or recording observations must not be overlooked. Even in a small laboratory, the number of individual
tasks will be quite substantial.
Each operation on the list should then be evaluated for problems
it might create and for any special requirements. These might
include the following:
Hazards the operation may create and what
precautions must be taken (fume hood, separate
room, etc.)
Non-hazardous nuisance it may cause (odor,
dust, heat, noise, steam, etc.)
Possible contamination of other work being performed.
Vibration or other disturbance of other operations.
Special environment needed (controlled temperature, clean-room conditions, absence of drafts,
etc.)
Security requirements (controlled access to certain instruments or operations, etc.)
It will take time to come up with all of this information, particularly in cases where new types of work are contemplated. If
a new piece of equipment is to be installed, planners should obtain as much literature as possible from the manufacturer and
make a careful check of procedures for which it ,viII be used. If it
can be arranged, a visit to another laboratory in \\Thich this instrument is already in use will prove very helpful.
It is not only the new work that will need evaluation, however.
Even operations that have been performed for many years
should be reviewed and updated as needed. Safety requirements, for example, could have been changed, as will be discussed in Chapter 4.
A partial check list of operations for an industrial chemical
laboratory is shown in Table 1. The format of a formal list will
vary considerably from one laboratory to another, but with such
an aid, one can easily see which operations are compatible and
then group these together. Those that need special treatment
will readily stand out. The planner will also be able to estimate
the number of rooms required for the total operation. Finally, a
complete list of all laboratory functions will facilitate the next
step, an estimate of space requirements.
ESTIMATING SPACE REQUIREMENTS
A typical laboratory that has been in operation for some time
usually has run out of space for optimum operation. In some
cases, the space may be there but cannot be utilized to full advantage. Work benches gradually get covered with permanent
equipment set-ups, leaving little room for other work. Lack of
storage space for supplies and samples becomes the rule rather
than the exception. Adequate room for a desk, bookcase, or
typewriter has often been overlooked. As more personnel is added, these problems become critical. Overcrowding also has a
serious effect on safety.
Since such conditions are evident so soon in many cases, it is obvious that they could have been avoided by more careful planning. The most important space requirements to consider are
Hazards, Problems
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Ether extractions
Powder screening
Muffle furnace
Drying oven
Solvent evaporation
Solvent dispensing
Solution preparation
Perchloric acid digestions
Kjeldahl digestions
Desk work, telephone
Vacuum pump
Microscopic work
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Preliminary Planning
Free-standing Equipment
There is more to a laboratory than work benches and the instruments mounted on them. Free-standing equipment must also be
considered. This includes refrigerators, safety storage cabinets
for chemicals, safety shower, desk space, typewriter stand or
computer terminal, or any other equipment that is not benchmounted. File cabinets, which are real space-robbers, must not
be forgotten. In one laboratory, much space was saved by placing two-drawer file cabinets beneath the large table used for
sorting samples.
10
Preliminary Planning
11
STORAGE AREAS
When it comes to laboratory storage, it is safe to say that the
space required is at least twice what a planner would estimate.
Samples, reagents, and spare equipment will pile up at an alarming rate. To this should be added the fact that some items will
have to be stored under controlled conditions and that valuable
iten1s will need to be kept in locked storage. Flammables, even
in moderate amounts, need special storage. Since regulations
vary from one area to another, this matter should be discussed
with local fITe department officials.
12
Educational Laboratories
Very few educational laboratories that have been in operation
for awhile have adequate stockroom facilities. Every stockroom
supervisor has tales about lack of space.
Preliminary Planning
13
Preparation Space. The stockroom should have space for preparation of solutions and other items, such as unknowns for
COllrses in qualitative analysis. This requires a regular work
bench with sink. There must also be room for prepared solutions
to be dispensed to student laboratories in bench-sized bottles,
which take up a good deal of space.
Repair and Maintenance. Another job for the stockroom personnel is to do minor repairs and routine maintenance of equipment. Adequate bench space should be set aside for this.
Equipment Check-out. A large table next to the check-out
window can be very valuable. Prior to class, equipment needed
can be taken from the shelves and lined up on the table, ready
for quick delivery to the students. When returned, it is placed on
the table and taken back to storage after the end of the period
rush is over.
The above considerations do not give a direct answer to how
many square feet of space a given laboratory will need. 'They
merely show what has to be accommodated. At this point, a planner may be able to see major discrepancies between allotted
space and required space, which must be resolved before going
on.
LABORATORY LOCATION
14
Preliminary Planning
15
Environmental Considerations
Environmental effects are often underestimated during preliminary planning. Dust or fumes entering the laboratory each time
the door is opened, for example, will certainly create trouble, as
will high temperatures in the area adjacent to the laboratory.
16
Laboratory Layout
Time has now come to convert the preceding data and ideas to a
workable laboratory layout. In all but the simplest cases this
should be done with the assistance of a contractor, designer, engineer, or other building professional. Many small laboratories
are planned strictly on a do-it-yourself basis in order to save
money. Unless an experienced in-house person happens to be
available, the results are often poor and the savings questionable. In other cases, the whole job is turned over to an architectural or engineering fmn on a turn-key basis with little involvement by the laboratory operator. This sometimes results
in a facility that is not altogether suitable for its intended functions, in spite of a highly professional design. Some designers
tend to rely heavily on standard layouts which they have used
successfully in the past but which may not be suitable for a given
installation.
In other words, the laboratory operator is still the key person at
this stage and should be prepared to burn a considerable amount
of midnight oil, even with the best professional assistance. fIe
will be in constant contact with the architect or designer, and
the project will sometimes be like a ball that is tossed back and
forth. In this game, the building professional will have the
17
18
LIMITATIONS
Laboratory Layout
19
ROOM ORGANIZATION
20
Work Patterns
Using the space requirements previously developed, tentative
placement of specific pieces of equipment may now be made.
Planners should try to visualize the daily laboratory routine
while doing this. Anything that will save steps and minimize
congestion should be incorporated. The list of operations described in chapter 1 will make it possible to group together compatible tasks for highest efficiency and greatest safety. If planners think in terms of the distance laboratory workers will have
to walk when performing routine duties, a pattern of interconnected work areas will soon begin to emerge. After some trial
and error, a reasonable pattern will be developed. This should
then be presented to the architect or designer, who may'have
some critical comments about lack of practicality from a building
standpoint or conformance to codes. This will mean back to the
drawing board. After several trips back and forth, a workable
plan can be developed and agreed upon.
WORK BENCH DIMENSIONS
Typical laboratory benches are 36 inches high and 30 inches
deep when mounted against a wall. This includes the average 7
inches (more or less than this may be required) behind them for
carrying utilities. The actual base cabinet depth is 23 inches,
which makes narrower counters possible in areas where space
for utilities can be sacrificed. If benches are formed into a peninsula or an island, a typical total width is 54 inches. It may be
more if the center part has shelves or extra utilities.
Laboratory Layout
21
The distance between work benches should not be less than four
feet. In one laboratory an extra bench was fitted into a large
room by decreasing this distance to three feet, but the result
was serious congestion. In educational laboratories, five feet
would be advisable because of heavier traffic.
BENCH CONFIGURATION
The shape of the room will determine the location of the work
benches. In a long narrow room, they may be conveniently
placed along the wall, as in a Pullman kitchen. In a wider room,
islands are practical but present special problems. The utility
hookups, for example, may be difficult, particularly in an existing building, unless there is easy access from below. If a sewer
connection is required, it must be made below the floor level. Incoming utilities can be brought in from above the island through
a chimney-type arrangement going to the ceiling.
Peninsulas may be a better solution than islands in rooms that
can accommodate them. In such an arrangement, utilities are
run along the wall and branched off as required. However, if a
regular work bench is installed along this wall also, such a plan
will create large, less useful corner areas. One laboratory solved
this problem by substituting a 12-inch wide work surface along
the wall in place of a bench. Plumbing and wiring were installed
below, and the peninsulas branched out from there. The exposed
utility space was then covered with removable plywood panels
painted to match the furniture. This eliminated wasteful corners, while the narrow work surface proved useful for many
jobs.
Educatiollallaboratories often have island work benches, generally with a sink at one or both ends. Depending on room size, a
peninsula arrangement could save considerable cost with no loss
in efficiency.
Although they are not too practical as work surfaces, corners
22
can be put to good use accommodating large items, such as drying ovens. There are also fume hoods made to fit into corners.
Since a corner is easily reached from the work areas on both
sides, it can also be a good place for a sink.
STORAGE
C~lj3INETS
A1'l) SHELVES
Laboratory storage cabinets and shelves are available in different widths and are usually 12 inches deep. A depth of more
than this is not recommended unless large, bulky items are to be
stored. Narrower shelves, six to nine inches deep, have been
found more practical for reagents and other small items. If
shelves and cabinets are to be mounted on \\Talls above work
benches, possible interference with work performed there must
be considered. Three feet or more should be allo\\Ted for aisles.
HEAT-PRODUCING EQUIPMENT
Some types of equipment give off a considerable amount of heat.
Most planners are aware of this and will provide for appropriate
ventilation, a matter that will be discussed in detail later. Radiant heat, however, is less often recognized as a problem. In a
food laboratory, for example, a six-unit Kjeldarl1 digestion and
distillation apparatus was installed against a wall and the hot air
was drawn off overhead. The heat radiating from 12 flasks and
heaters, however, made the workers on the other side ofthe narrow room very uncomfortable. Another laboratory solved this
problem by installing 12 separate digestion and distillation
Kjeldahl units along the side walls of an alcove, where they
radiated against each other rather than into the room. Even
though it was quite hot for a worker standing between them, the
time spent there was limited and other operations were not affected.
Muffle furnaces also produce radiant heat but only durhlg the
brief periods ,vhen they are open.
Laboratory Layout
23
ANALYTICAL BALANCES
Analytical balances are among the prima donnas of the laboratory, requiring separate and unequal treatment. They refuse
to cooperate if there is the least amount of vibration and will
quickly expire upon exposure to corrosive fumes. Yet they must
at all times be close to the action, or laboratory workers will
have to do a fair amount of hiking. As a rule, analytical balances
are placed on separate tables, which should be large enough to
also hold a desiccator for samples and the operator's notebook.
The table must be as stable as the rock of Gibralter. In a
teaching laboratory, balances are usually placed in a separate
weighing room, which can be locked when not in use. This can be
located between two laboratories, giving it better accessability.
SAMPLE RECEIVING
Analytical laboratories need an area where incoming samples
can be sorted and recorded. The size of this is hard to overestimate. In addition, some laboratories need an area where
samples can be prepared for analysis. A pesticide laboratory, for
instance, may want to set aside a complete room for such work,
since it is often quite messy.
OFFICE SPACE
Two types of office space are usually needed. One is the area
\,~here laboratory workers perform calculations, check proce-
24
Workers' Area
The laboratory workers' office space should be as close as possible to work areas and to frequently used files. There should also
be room for a type\\TIter, if required. The work may be done on a
separate desk or a section of desk-height work bench.
Supervisor's Area
A supervisor's office may be a separate room, although an area
with partitions extending part\vay to the ceiling is often just as
satisfactory and less expensive. In addition, such partitioniJlg offers the bonus of valuable extra wall space. A large \vindow bet\veen office and laboratory is reconlmended for good supervision of activities. Since books and reference materials are often
kept in this office, adequate space for shelves must be provided.
In a small laboratory \vithout much interference, the supervisor
may simply need a desk in a corner of the room.
Furniture Dimensions
A typical office desk is about 3x5 feet, though another size may
be more desirable. There should be at least three feet between
the desk and the wall for getting in and out of a chair. Typical dimensions for file cabinets are 15x25 inches, but the opened
drawers may increase the total depth to as much as 48 inches.
Bookcases are usually 9 to 12 inches deep and are available in
many widths.
SAFETY SHOWER
The placement of a safety shower and eyewash station must be
Laboratory Layout
25
26
Utility Requirements
28
DEIONIZED WATER
Utility Requirements
29
gives out, the other will take over until the service company arrives. This avoids annoying delays that are bound to occur
should a single tank stop operating at some crucial moment.
The condition of a DI water tank is indicated by a small neon
light. When the light goes out, the tank is exhausted. Since the
power consumption of the light is very low, it can be plugged in
to any available circuit.
DI water is not equivalent to distilled water in all ways. While
the content of most ionic species is very low, it does contain dissolved gases, such as air and carbon dioxide. The latter caused
problems in one laboratory when DI water was used for diluting
poorly buffered samples for pH measurements. Erratic results
were also reported in another case when DI water was used in
connection with the determination of trace amounts of boron.
The manufacturer explained that when close to exhaustion, the
resin used would no longer be effective in holding back traces of
this element.
Finally, DI water is anything but sterile. In fact, the resin beds
seem to support bacterial growth quite well. In other words, it
does not replace distilled water for all applications, but those
who use it right will enjoy pure water at reasonable prices.
DI water is handled in plastic pipe, generally PVC. For rough
plumbing, it is usually desirable to have the pipe terminate close
to the hot and cold water lines. Tanks should be located where
servicing will be convenient and where minor water spills during tank exchange will cause no problems. One laboratory
placed them in a small closet with a door leading to the outside of
the building, where the service truck could park directly in front
of the door.
DISTILLED WATER
There are times when DI water just will not do, as seen in the
30
GAS
For many years, gas was the primary source of heat in the laboratory. Today, although electric heaters have become more common, gas still has some advantages sometimes overlooked. It is a
quick source of heat and very fast to regulate. A gas burner can
be pulled away in a fraction of a secon.d should a distillation or a
reflux operation get out of hand. In case of a spill, a gas burner is
quickly dismantled and cleaned, whereas an electric heating element may have to be replaced. Another advantage is the lower
cost of the gas burners.
Running gas lines into a laboratory is not difficult once it has
been determined where they are needed. It may simplify plumbing installation to have rough plumbing for gas terminate close
to the water lines. When estimating total requirements for gas,
it should be kept in mind that it may also be needed for a water
heater and a heating unit for the building.
ELECTRIC POWER
In laboratories in operation for some time, there are often not
enough electrical outlets or enough circuits to handle the load.
Retrofitting for more power is very expensive. One laboratory
received several bids for wiring their new facility. The accepted
one was much lower than the others because money was saved
by installing the bare minimum number of circuits and no spare
circuit breakers. Every piece of conduit was jammed full of
Utility Requirements
31
wires. Within two years, more wiring was needed for new equipment. This very costly expansion would not have been necessary if allowance had been made for future work.
From the list of laboratory operations previously prepared, it
will now be easy to single out the ones that require power. The
manuals for the equipment already on hand and catalog information on items yet to be purchased can provide the power requirements. Compared to what was available some years ago, modern laboratory equipment does not need much power. Exceptions are heating devices and motors, which may be very power
hungry. A list of the wattages involved should be made, noting
which equipment operates on 110 volts and which on 220. Allowance should be made for future purchases of equipment. This information will help the electrical engineer or contractor determine the number of circuits.
Most modern instruments will operate over a wide voltage
range but they may, at the same time, be quite sensitive to voltage variations during use. Such variations often throw calibrations off, as they did in one laboratory where an AA spectrophotometer suddenly began to act up. Investigation showed that
someone had plugged a large hot plate into the same circuit in
another room. As the proportional switch in the plate went on
and off, the circuit suffered enough voltage variation to affect
the instrument. High wattage equipment was from then on kept
off this circuit.
Knowing about this case, another laboratory planner insisted on
a special circuit to be used only for instruments drawing low and
even power. Still another laboratory managed to justify a very
elaborate voltage stabilizing device to feed instruments, which
they felt had paid off.
SEWER CONNECTION
In a building under construction, connecting a laboratory to a
32
VENTILATION
A well-ventilated laboratory is still not as common as it ought to
be. While local building codes may not require it, any laboratory
should have a well-designed forced ~ir ventilation system. It not
only promotes worker comfort but has a strong effect on safety.
Utility Requirements
33
34
lege, the same system served lecture rooms, offices, and laboratories. Despite the use of fume hoods for unpleasant operations,
freshman chemistry classes still created fumes which would at
times permeate the whole building. While considerably more expensive, a separate system for the laboratories \vould have been
advisable. A split system in this case would have had an additional advantage. During the night, while ventilation for the rest
of the building was shut off, it could have been operated at low
speed in the laboratories to prevent build-up of fumes. This
would have increased safety and minimized equipment corrosion as well.
In another college laboratory building, air intake for ventilation
and fume hood exhaust ducts were placed too close together on
the roof. Under certain wind conditions, unpleasant odors would
fill the whole building, causing many caustic comments.
Close cooperation between laboratory operator and designer
can sometimes bring about savings along with good results.
Once-through ventilation was requested for a laboratory to be
installed in a 30x30 foot building. After a careful study of the
plans, the designer suggested that a separate exhaust fan could
be eliminated at significant savings. He laid out a carefully planned system of intake and exhaust vents in the ceiling. The exhaust air went to the attic, which had large vents to the outside.
The ventilation was good and, in addition, the attic area was
heated in winter and cooled in summer.
A good idea that did not work out was found in a laboratory
where flammables were to be handled. The climate was such
that air conditioning was not felt to be needed. The designer
came up with an excellent ventilation system but, unfortunately, he placed the air intake on the west side of the roof, practically overhanging the wall. During the summer, the prevailing
wind from the northwest would sweep across the sun-baked
parking lot and then contact the hot concrete wall of the building
before entering. This problem could have been avoided had the
intake been placed on the north side of the roof where the temperature was much lower.
Utility Requirements
35
Laboratory Safety
SAFETY AWARENESS
Laboratory Safety
37
38
Laboratory Safety
39
After informing himself on regulations and other safety information, the laboratory operator will be ready to meet and discuss
plans with the authorities. To many, this is considered at best a
nuisance to be avoided if at all possible. Some think, for instance,
that a call to OSHA for information will alert this agency to the
fact that a laboratory is there and will be followed up by inspection. Likewise, they fear, a call to the local building department
40
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EVAPORATION RATE
-1)
SOL.UbILITV IN WATER
APflEARANCE AND ODOR
FLASH
~OINT
EXTINGUISHING ...EDIA
SPECIAL. fiRE FIGHTING PROCEDURES
Lal
Uel
Laboratory Safety
UNSTA8L.E
ISTA8L.E
INCOMPATABIL.ITV (AlIl,uiills,o ImJid)
I
I
I
I
CONDITIONS TO AVOID
t1AlARDOUS
POL.VMt:HIZATION
MAV OCCUR
I
I
I
I
CONDITIONS TO AVOID
L-OCAL. EXHAUST
$PECIAL.
MECHANICAL. (Gen'flJlJ
PROTECTIVE GL.OVES
OTHER
EVE PROTECTION
OTHER PRECAUTIONS
Figure 1 : (continued)
41
42
VENTILATION SYSTEMS
Laboratory Safety
43
FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
Storage and use of flammable materials are often not given sufficient consideration. A safe storage cabinet is obligatory if more
than very small amounts of flammables are to be used. These
cabinets come in many sizes and shapes, including wall-hung
models. There are even types large enough to hold a 55-gallon
drum. Cabinets conforming to official specifications are not
cheap, but a planner should not be tempted to get by \\ith one
that seems "just as good." In addition, the cabinet selected
should be large enough to take care of future needs.
Some larger institutions build special explosion-proof rooms for
storage of flammables. These must conform to all official rules
with respect to design, construction, and location.
Work with flammables should be confined to areas where other
work that could cause ignition is not performed. This practice
must be carefully policed. Extra ventilation may be needed for
such an area. Knowing that most flammable fumes are heavier
than air, one laboratory installed an explosion-proof exhaust fan
at floor_level below the bench where flammables were used. To
make the area for working with flammables easier to identify, it
could be marked off with red lines on the floor.
44
CHEMICAL SPILLS
Laboratory Safety
45
CHEMICAL STORAGE
Storage of flammables has been discussed separately, since
these materials present special hazards, but there are many
other materials that must be stored with special care. These
may be toxic or corrosive, or they may be capable of entering into violent reactions if mixed in case of breakage or spills. Some
may give off hazardous fumes even if stored in nominally closed
containers.
A few general rules for storing chemicals can be listed here:
Any chemical that may give off hazardous
fumes must be stored in a separate and well
ventilated area. Extra precautions must be
46
Laboratory Safety
47
FIRE PROTECTION
48
EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS
Although earthquakes are more frequent in some areas, such as
California, they can occur almost anywhere. Places with a history of quakes have strict regulations regarding precautions,
but occasionally a jolt in some place like New York reminds us
that a laboratory planner should take them into account.
There are two important safety measures that can be taken at
very low cost. The fIrst is to equip shelves with guard rails to
keep reagent bottles from falling. The height of such rails should
be adapted to the size of the containers. This is a requirement in
California. The second is to fasten tall objects to the wall, a simple and inexpensive procedure. With bookcases, for example,
the books may fallout but the case will stay in position and not
tumble down with the whole load.
Earthquakes may also jam doors, another good reason for having more than one door leading from a laboratory.
Procedures to follow in case of an earthquake or a fIre should be
posted and reviewed with laboratory personnel from time to
time.
MECHANICAL HAZARDS
Most mechanical hazards in the laboratory can be avoided by
good planning. There must be no obstructions in traffic areas,
particularly those needed for rapid evacuation in case of emergency. Wide hallways may look like good parking places for
movable equipment not currently in use. They may also seem
convenient for storage of reagents and supplies that temporarily
Laboratory Safety
49
do llOt fit into regular storage places. The use ofpassageways for
storage, even on a temporary basis, is very unsafe.
Waste containers and stools are frequent occupants of laboratory aisles, where they may cause congestion. One answer to
this is to provide a sufficient number of knee-holes in the work
benches to hold them.
Equipment
50
UTILITY FAILURES
Most laboratories depend upon a stead)r supply of electric
po\ver, water, and gas. Very unsafe conditions may develop if
any of these should fail, so precautionary measures must be
taken.
Electricity
Electrical failures are by far the most common. The most important safety measure is the installation of emergency lights,
which \vill go on as soon as the power fails. Their batteries \-vill
automatically be recharged after the power comes back. They
should be installed even in laboratories where "York is normally
performed only during the day. Such units are fairly expensive,
but smaller ones made for home use are now available in hard"rare stores. A check should be made \\rith local authorities as to
whether these are permissible for industrial use.
Water Pressure
Failure of water pressure can spell disaster in laboratories
where some operations, such as distillations, are dependent on
water. Ideally, an audible alarm would indicate the lack of water
pressure. Laboratory supply houses sell water flow indicators
that can be placed in series with the water line to equipment.
When water is flowing, a brightly colored ball in a clear tube will
move or a small propellor will turn. These can be observed from
a considerable distance by watchful laboratory personnel.
Gas
A gas failure is rare but could present a serious hazard if it
should occur. Unless turned off, a gas-po\vered piece of equipment "ill pour unburned gas into the room after service has
been restored.
Laboratory Safety
51
PERSONAL PROTECTION
Cleanliness comes very close to godliness in the laboratory. A
worker always washes hands before eating or smoking, and
many times in between. One thoughtful laboratory operator
placed bottles of liquid skin cleanser and hand lotion next to all
sinks. Apart from personal cleanliness, there are other important forms of protection for the worker. Most notable among
these is eye protection.
Safety Glasses
52
Lab Coats
Lab coats do more than protect clothing. They also protect the
wearer against chemical spills and are easily removed if a ~pill
should take place. Cotton fabrics are both the most comfortable
and the most resistant to chemical spills. For certain operations,
disposable protective clothing may be required.
Foot Protection
The last drop from a liquid transfer always seems to find its way
to a worker's toes. The operator of a laboratory where highly
corrosive chemicals v.rere handled declared that only solid top
shoes could be \vorn. This unpopular edict was rehuorced by a
display of his old shoes with many spill marks on the toes.
Laboratory Safety
53
Food in most cases should not be in the laboratory, not even candy bars. There is always a chance that food products could
become contaminated by chemicals on the work bench or on unwashed hands. There should be designated areas where food can
be consumed.
Laboratory workers seem addicted to coffee, and in a typical facility coffee cups can be found at every work station. 250ml beakers are almost ideal for coffee, but their use should be discouraged. It is too easy to pick up the wrong beaker on a crowded work bench. One supervisor gained much popularity by
presenting his staff with a set of mugs for Christmas. Despite a
shortage of space, someone found a safe and sanitary place for
storing them. Of course, all food and drink must be banned from
areas where toxic materials are handled.
Smoking
54
SAFETY SIGNS
Safety signs of approved types, available from laboratory supply houses and safety equipment dealers, should be posted in appropriate spots. The door leading out of the laboratory should be
marked EXIT, while the door to a back room should be marked
NO EXIT. The location of a fITe extinguisher must be clearly
marked. Signs are available for every type of hazard. Homemade signs not conforming to official standards should not be
considered.
CONCLUSION
Every laboratory is different. Standard safety features when
applied to a given situation may be insufficient in some cases, superfluous in others. There will also be times when work is being
done with materials or procedures not covered in available literature. Here the laboratory operator must use a combination of
experience, knowledge, and common sense. The last of these
may often be the most important. Planning a laboratory and
making it operate safely thus becomes a custom procedure.
56
AIR POLLUTION
Few laboratories have true air pollution problems, but the possibility should always be considered. Some may give off toxic
fumes, which are regulated by law and therefore must be controlled. Others may produce fumes which, though not toxic in
the eyes of the law, may be foul-smelling or irritating. While outside the official reach of regulations, neighbors may eventually
become irritated to the point of instigating legal action.
An example of this type of problem was seen in a laboratory performing macro-Kjeldahl analyses on a large scale. This procedure sent sulfuric acid fumes into the atmosphere through a
stack on top of the building. Usually the fumes did go away with
no problems, but workers in a nearby business building complained about eye irritation when the wind was right. There
were also extensive corrosive effects on the building's roof. Both
problems were solved by scrubbing the fumes with a fine water
spray, but this sent far too much acid into the city sewer. Final-
57
ly, sodium carbonate solution \vas injected into the \\rater used
for scrubbing, a treatment \\Thich satisfied the local \\Taste \\Tater
inspector.
Flammable vapors in the amounts emitted from a laboratory are
rarely of much concern, but it is a good idea to make some estimates. Usually these vapors are quickly dispersed in the atmosphere to the point where they cause no problem. Care should be
taken that there are no sources of ignition close to the top of the
exhaust stack.
LIQUID WASTE
58
SOLID WASTE
Whatever goes to the local sanitary dump will eventually find its
way into the environment. For this reason, materials that are to
be disposed of as garbage from the laboratory should be carefully scrutinized. There are those who feel that traces of hazardous
materials when mixed with large amounts of regular garbage
will somehow disappear. They will not. Worse yet, some materials could react when combined and possibly generate enough
heat to cause fire.
Broken glassware free from hazardous chemicals, paper towels,
empty containers that have not held toxic, flammable, or highly
reactive chemicals are all good candidates for the garbage container. For any other waste material, the laboratory operator
has to make decisions. Filter paper, for instance, could contain
residue that should not be disposed of as garbage. Anything that
contains heavy metals or ionic species that may be termed hazardous must be given special disposal. The same is true for both
organic and inorganic materials from which natural processes,
such as leaching, could extract hazardous substances.
Disposal Containers
In the laboratory, wastes are collected in suitable containers
placed in convenient locations. Kneeholes in work benches are
59
good for this purpose, since the containers are then out of the
way. Waste containers must be compatible with \\That is put into
them. Acidic materials, for instance, may quickly damage steel
buckets. Some plastics may not stand up to solvents placed in
them, and so on. Flammables must go into approved safety cans.
Dry waste should be put into self-closing containers designed to
snuff out a possible fITe. Lining solid \vaste containers \vith plastic bags is highly recomn1ended.
All containers must be clearly marked as to contents. Color
coding with wide adhesive tape is one way to do this. Special
warnings should be placed on containers for particularly hazardous materials. A typical example of poor waste management
reported in the press concerned an unmarked waste container in
a university laboratory. When the container showed signs of
heat-producing reaction and began to leak, a professional cleanup team was called in. Although only four gallons of material
was involved, 27 different chemicals were identified in the mixture!
Waste Storage
It is important to keep the amount of potentially hazardous
waste in the laboratory to a minimum at all times. Periodically,
contents of the laboratory waste containers will be transferred
to appropriate containers for final disposal. These must be
stored in a safe location, often outdoors, while awaiting pick-up
by a disposal service. There will be local restrictions for such
storage. A locked storage area may be needed, for example, to
prevent unauthorized access to hazardous materials. The fire
department may set strict limits as to how much flammable material may be present. All containers must be marked with contents, and the storage area will no doubt require warning signs.
Waste Disposal Services
There are no\v n1any companies specializing in \\Taste disposal.
60
Local ones are listed in the yello\\7 pages of the telephone directory. The laboratory operator should contact more than one for
suggestions and estimates. In such discussions, a disposal service \\rill ask detailed questions as to the exact nature of the
Vlaste and quantities involved. An agreement will be made
about the types of shipping containers to be used. These are nonreturnable. The disposal service may sell suitable containers
and require these for certain types of waste. In other cases, the
laboratory may provide its own. If drums are needed, they are
available from companies engaged in drum reconditioning. Manufacturers of chemicals may have used drums available at reasonable prices, but since these \vill contain residues of their former contents, a check for compatibility must be made before using them.
61
62
DIFFERENT LABORATORIES,
DIFFERENT PROBLEMS
Since pollution control and waste disposal problems vary greatly from one laboratory to another, they have to be handled on a
custom basis. The laboratory operator will no doubt be an expert on the materials used but not on their disposal. It is important for him to stay in touch with people familiar with disposal
and provide them with detailed information.
Industrial laboratories often handle a relatively limited number
of chemicals. Since many of these same chemicals are also used
on a manufacturing scale, their disposal will have already been
planned for by plant personnel. Disposal of chemicals used only
in the laboratory, however, for investigative and development
purposes must also be considered, as well as reagents used for
testing.
Laboratories handling biologicals have their own special problems. They often have to dispose of small but significant
amounts of materials that may be very hazardous. Every laboratory procedure must then be scrutinized with this in mind.
University and college laboratories must dispose ofagreat variety of chemicals. Some may even be types for which hazards
have yet to be well defined. Setting up a disposal program then
becomes a complex procedure, calling for cooperation by all concerned. These laboratories also keep a large number of chemicals on their stockroom shelves, making periodic inventory
time-consuming.
63
FLOORING MATERIALS
An accomplished architect once recommended a certain type of
rubber tile for a laboratory floor because his data indicated its
superior resistance to acids. He had not bothered to find out
whether or not acid spills would be a problem in this case. They
would not, in fact. Solvent spills, on the other hand, were quite
likely to occur, and the recommended tile had poor solvent resistance. This example illustrates two things: the importance of the
laboratory operator's involvement with details that are sometimes overlooked even by experts, and the need to study each
laboratory's requirements individually.
There is no flooring available with perfect resistance to chemi64
65
66
Concrete
In one ne\v laboratory, a concrete floor \\~as given a very smooth
finish and then treated \vith a sealer until it lost all porositJl . Several types of concrete sealers are available, some "rith high
chemical resistance. Such a floor is easy to maintain and to repair if damaged by strong chemicals. Rubber or vinyl floor mats,
available from hard\vare stores and other supply outlets in roll
form, can be placed in front of "rork benches and in other traffic
areas. They are comfortable to stand or walk on and have good
chemical resistance. Routine maintenance consists of mopping
and an occasional hosing do"rn outdoors. Such mats might also
be considered for use on other types of flooring. They \vill catch
most spills and are easily replaced "Then worn out or damaged.
Rubber Composition
Rubber is vulnerable to attack by many organics and should be
avoided by laboratories using certain solvents. On the other
hand, it has a high resistance to many inorganic chemicals and is
often preferred in facilities "There such materials are likely to be
spilled. Like vinyl, it is available in both sheet and tile form.
Other Materials
The other usual flooring materials (wood, ceramic tile, etc.) are
rarely seen in laboratories. Planners should be aware, however,
of ne"r developments in this field and investigate them with the
same question in mind: How will this material resist the chemicals to be used in this particular laboratory?
Different types of flooring may be used in different parts of a
laboratory. In a large university chemistry building, one
material was used for the organic laboratories and another for
the inorganic because of the different chemicals handled.
A \\Tord should be added here about laboratories where highly
67
flammable vapors are present. Conductive flooring can be installed, as it is in hospital operating rooms, to avoid a build-up of
static electricity and subsequent sparks.
WALL TREATMENT
Concrete, cement block, and wallboard are the most common
,vall materials found in laboratories. All can be painted after
treatment with an approprite sealer or fIller. The choice of paint
is very important. Both durability and ease of cleaning must be
carefully evaluated. "Bargain" paints are rarely a bargain in the
long run, particularly "Then labor is such a large part of the cost.
Paint Quality
Painting is generally performed by a contractor on a bid basis.
Unless another agreement is made, a contractor will furnish the
lowest priced paint that \\Till do an acceptable job, even though it
may have inferior durability. To avoid this, the contract should
be very specific with regard to the type of paint to be used. It
may even specify a certain brand.
In the laboratory, alkyd paints are preferable due to their durability and cleanability. Although latex paints have come a long
way since their development, they do not measure up to the
alkyd variety in laboratory applications. The popular latex
enamels, in particular, are inferior to a good alkyd enamel. They
are hard to apply smoothl~y and they pick up dirt far too fast.
Semi-gloss (also called satin finish or eggshell) alkyd paints are
the most suitable for laboratory wall application. They have
neither the easy dirt pick-up of flat paints nor the shine of high
gloss enamel. Although flat paints are better able to hide irregularities in the wall surface, this advantage is not enough to recommend them. High gloss paints are best in laboratories where
clean-room conditions must be maintained or where frequent
cleaning has to be carried out.
68
Prior to painting, wallboard is sometimes given a heavily textured surface. This is impractical in a laboratory since it makes
cleaning more difficult. The smoother stiple finish is attractive
a11d easier to keep clean.
69
CEILING TREATMENT
In a testing laboratory \vith a room about 15x30 feet, the ceiling
was painted just like the walls. The result was an acoustical disaster. With the hard floor, hard walls, and solid work benches,
conversation across the room was quite uncomfortable. Over the
phone, a person speaking from this room sounded as if he were
standing in the middle of a cathedral. Another laboratory room
with about the same dimensions had an acoustical ceiling. The
difference was staggering. In fact, the changes that took place in
the room's acoustics from hour to hour during the ceiling installation were dramatic.
Even a small room will benefit from acoustical ceiling treatment.
A veterinarian's examining room \vas only about 7x7 feet, but
with its hard walls and ceiling and no upholstered furniture to
break up the sound waves, conversation \\~as uncomfortable.
Proper ceiling treatment would have made a great deal of difference.
There are many types of acoustical tile to choose from. It is easily applied by a do-it-yourselfer to an existing ceiling. The tiles
must be handled with great care as they are fragile.
In many cases, a suspended ceiling is installed in a laboratory,
since the existing ceiling of an industrial type building may be
higher than needed. The lower ceiling brings about significant
savings in both heating and cooling costs. In addition, it provides
space for bringing in utilities overhead. The suspended ceiling
consists of T-shaped aluminum extrusions holding boards of
acoustical material, usually 2x4 feet in size. Flush mounted
fluorescent light fixtures may be made part of such a ceiling. The
ceiling boards are readily removed for access to utilities.
Acoustical ceilings do have certain dra\\Tbacks. They are fragile,
porous, and attractive to dust. Areas surrounding air intakes
will soon show dust deposits, but periodic vacuuming with a soft
brush attachment \\rill keep a ceiling in good shape for a long
time.
70
LIGHTING
71
72
provided they could choose the colors. The department secretary was appointed color coordinator. She came up with a daring
but artistic scheme. Over a weekend, employees moved in with
rollers and brushes, and by Monday morning the laboratory had
taken on a new look. An added bonus was that very little equipment had to be moved off the benches. Knowing which items
were fragile or sensitive, they were able to work around them.
In the corner of another laboratory, there was an unsightly array of pipes and conduit. This was also a dust catcher. It was
easily covered up with plywood panels, which were painted to
match the surrounding walls.
In another case, a wooden structure was built to hold equipment. A paint dealer matched the work bench color, which made
the painted structure look like an expensive built-in.
Some laboratories may even want to consider using wallpaper in
a limited area. An appropriate pattern of solid vinyl wall covering, which is both resistant and very washable, can be a cheerful
addition when used in the right place. Wood paneling in an office
area is another possibility that should not be overlooked. Little
extras like these can make a great deal of difference in comfort
and morale, usually at a modest cost.
SUPPLIERS
Distributors of general laboratory equipment also offer one or
more lines of work benches and fume hoods, often shown in a
separate catalog. In addition, there are several companies specializing in this field. The annual LabGuide issue of Analytical
Chemistry, published by the American Chemical Society, has a
good listing of suppliers. A laboratory planner should obtain
catalogs from several sources and compare both features and
prices.
The supplier should be able to take care of installation or to
recommend a local contractor who can do it. Very simple installations are sometimes performed on an in-house basis.
73
74
CABINET CONSTRUCTION
Cabinets come in a variety of units to suit individual needs.
These are then bolted together to make benches. Any combination of drawers, cupboards, and knee-hole units is possible.
Some fume hoods come complete with their own base cabinets.
Where desirable, desk-height units can be integrated into the
system. All units come with legs which can be adjusted for an
uneven floor. Standard installation leaves room behind the
counters or along the middle of peninsulas for utilities. After the
cabinets are installed, counter tops are put in place and benchmounted fume hoods added.
Wood versus Steel
Laboratory cabinets are available in both ,vood and steel. Educational laboratories often use wood, while industrial laboratories usually prefer steel. Wood cabinets do not have the sterile
look of steel, but they are far less resistant to physical abuse.
They come prefinished with a wood stain. A damaged area is not
difficult to refmish. Wood cabinets have no rust problems, but
some users have complained about poor chemical resistance of
the interiors. The quiet operation of doors and drawers "rith no
metallic noises is appreciated by many.
Some wood furniture is now faced with plastic laminate. Its resistance to chemicals is superior to that of most regular finishes,
and color choices are wide. Best of all, such surfaces are very
easy to keep clean. In case of damage, however, repairs can be
difficult.
Steel cabinets have superior resistance to physical abuse. Refinishing scratched surfaces can often be done "rith a spray can.
Finishes used on steel also have a high resistance to chemicals,
even on the interior parts, but long-term storage of reagents
that give off corrosive vapors "rill eventually lead to rusting.
Gone are the da:ys "Then steel cabinets were available only in
75
gray or olive drab. Some laboratory planners have created interesting color schemes by using one color for cabinets and another
for doors and drawer fronts.
Sound-deadening material is used to make door and drawer operation quieter than formerly. One manufacturer features
drawer fronts of molded plastic, which makes'it possible to have
the handles recessed.
At the University of California in Berkeley, the building manager of Latimer Hall selected wood for benches where inorganic
work was performed and steel for organic work. This decision
,vas based on his experience \Vyith finishes at the time the
laboratories were installed.
In the long run, the choice between wood and steel is usually a
matter of taste. Prices are quite comparable. When asked why
he had chosen wood benches for the recently built chemistry laboratory of the U.S. Geological Survey facility in Menlo Park, California, the supervisor simply replied, "Because I like wood!"
Assessing Quality
It is hard for a layman to judge the quality of the various cabinets offered. Much of the quality is hidden beneath the surface
and "rill not show up until the cabinets have been in use for an
extended period of time. Price is only a partial measure of quality. One reason for this is that high style cabinets, offering no
more quality or durability than the regular types, demand higher prices.
When comparing different cabinets, there are a few clues as to
which ones provide the best value. First of all, a manufacturer of
laboratory furniture should have data on the chemical resistance
of finishes used. Even though nobody expects to splash reagents
over the fronts of the cabinets, accidents do happen. Resistance
data should be compared to a list of chemicals to be handled in
the laboratory. A costly finish with outstanding resistance may
not be needed in all cases.
76
77
78
The~y can
79
ance, lacking the veins found in stone. In these, too, porosity may
be a problem. Treatment with vinyl and similar plastics works
well against porosity and many chemicals but is not effective
against stronger solvents. Pressure treatment with epoxy compounds, on the other hand, has produced tops with outstanding
properties. Though costly, such tops have become very popular.
Solid Epoxy
Tops made from solid epoxy compounds are resistant to just
about any kind of chemical abuse but are very expensive. They
are often sold with an integral backsplash and curved junction,
which makes cleaning easy. They are much easier on glassware
than either stone or cement composition.
Plastic Laminate
Extensively used in kitchens, plastic laminates have found wide
application in the laboratory. Their main advantage is comparatively low cost. Their main disadvantage is poor heat
resistance, coupled with the fact that repairs are difficult to make.
On the other hand, their chemical resistance is surprisingly high.
Heavily colored organics, though, must be quickly removed. If
allowed to penetrate into the material, they may cause permanent stains. Some manufacturers feature a special laboratory
grade plastic laminate for which detailed information on chemical
and heat resistance is published. Some of these are not much
higher priced than the kitchen variety. Most laminates today
have a satin fmish, as opposed to the high gloss used in the past.
This minimizes the visibility of smface scratches at the cost of
slightly poorer cleanability.
Compressed Wood Fiber
Countertops of compressed \\7ood fiber have the advantage of low
cost. Although their resistance to chemicals and some liquid spills
80
CHOICE FACTORS
Some laboratory planners insist on using the same type of work
tops throughout. Like the Mikado, a prudent planner will"let the
punishment fit the crime" and thereby cut costs substantially. In
81
82
Contact \\rith even quite mild chemicals over a long period of time
will damage most counter tops. Drips running dO\\TJ1 the sides of
reagent bottles have left rings on many laboratory shelves, and
drips from burets containing IN acids and alkalies have eventually etched ceramic tile. A prudent laboratory operator can prolong
the life of any \vork top, however, b~y taking a few precautions.
Inexpensive plastic dishes can be placed under reagent bottles.
There should be beakers beneath burets when they are not in use.
Some laboratories cover their reagent shelves \\rith thin sheets of
ribbed polyethylene, \\rhich is available in rolls at a reasonable
price.
For the ultimate protection from chemicals, certain work areas
may be covered with thin sheets of self-adhering Teflon, available
in roll form. One version is sandwiched with a thin sheet of
aluminum foil, which increases heat resistance by conducting heat
away from high temperature spots.
FUME HOODS
83
Hood Construction
Installing a hood with its own fan against an outside wall rather
than in the roof could result in considerable savings. The exhaust
must then go through the wall in a place where it will not be objectionable in the area outside the building. Not all odors are unpleasant, of course, as workers in an industrial laboratory next to a
84
potato chip factory discovered. Every time the wind blew from
the south, they were treated to tantalizing aromas. They threatened to demand free handouts if the situation was not corrected.
Even when a hood has an hltegral fan with guaranteed performance, the installer will check the face velocity. For some types of
work, laws may require minimum velocities. A highly visible
draft gauge should be installed on a hood to inform personnel
about its operation. This is especially important where remote or
very quiet fans are used.
Ductless Hoods
Ductless hoods are equipped with built-in fans and filter systems
which trap the volatiles being removed. In this manner, the spent
air can be returned to the laboratory, thereby eliminating the
need for exhaust ducts. The filter system must be tailored to the
types of fumes to be removed. Its use is therefore limited and
85
must be strictly controlled. Since it is independent of a permanently mounted duct system, a ductless hood can be moved to
a new location in the laboratory if required. Its mobility also
makes it well suited for use with modular laboratory furniture.
MODULAR FURNITURE
Several manufacturers now offer modular furniture. Each module is complete with base cabinet, work top, and utilities, such as
sinks and electrical outlets. The modules can be placed in banks as
required and then hooked up to rough plumbing and wiring. With
modular furniture, it is easy and inexpensive to change a laboratory arrangement as requirements change. They are most often
seen in research laboratories for that reason. Their main disadvantage is their high cost.
A less expensive variation of modular furniture is in use in some
European laboratories. The bench frames are built ofpermanently installed steel channels complete with tops. Modules containing
combinations of drawers and cupboards can be hooked into the
system and changed as needed, but utility outlets are fIXed.
Utility Outlets
MOUNTING OUTLETS
Utilities may be mounted behind work benches and brought
through the tops where needed, or they may be mounted above
the benches. The fIrst method conceals wires and pipes, which
gives a neat and uncluttered appearance. Its disadvantage is that
repairs and modifications may be difficult. In one laboratory
building at a large state university, some of the base cabinets did
not have removable backs, so a hole had to be cut in order to
repair a water leak. The building manager now insists on having
all utility outlets mounted above the work benches whenever any
of the laboratories are being remodeled. Even though most
laboratory benches do have removable backs, work on utilities
mounted behind them still takes some crawling and handling of
tools in cramped spaces.
86
Utility Outlets
87
88
Utility Outlets
89
90
Utility Outlets
91
GAS
Inexpensive plug-type valves may be use for hook-ups to appliances that have their own gas flow adjustment. For those that do
not, needle valves are recommended for precise control.
COMPRESSED AIR
Compressed air is often required in the laboratory. In some cases,
it comes from a compressor beneath the work bench, while in
others, the compressor may be at some remote location in the
building.
Compressed air invariably contains water and usually oil from the
compressor. It is also likely to pick up dirt and rust from the distribution line. For use in the laboratory, the air must be clean,
particularly if it is to be used in instruments. One laboratory operator suggested the use of corrosion resistant pipes for the air distribution system in a building. This was turned down because of
its high cost. The result was a heavy load of rust which began to
accumulate in air filters after only a few months of operation.
Another laboratory cleaned the air in two stages. First, it went
through an inexpensive commercial filter with easily replaceable
92
ELECTRICAL OUTLETS
Electrical outlets can be installed in one of several ways. Small
pedestals holding two or more outlets are often placed along the
rear of wall-mounted work benches. They may also be put along
the center of peninsulas or islands. Wiring is from below the
countertop, which makes modifications difficult, just as with
plumbing. While easy to reach, pedestals clutter the top and
interfere with cleaning.
Some benches have an integral lo\\r shelf to the rear along the
wall. The solid front of such a shelf is an excellent location for out-
Utility Outlets
93
COMPRESSED GASES
Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrous oxide, acetylene, or other compressed
gases are often used for laboratory instruments. If a gas is used in
only one location, the cylinder is usually brought to that spot.
However, there are many cases ,"There a gas is required in more
than one room. It \\ill then be more practical to distribute it from
one central location, preferably close to a building entrance. It
must be where the cylinders will not block an emergency exit in
case of an accident. One large laboratory had a separate room
with direct access to the outside for gas cylinders. A ventilation
fan kept air circulating in the room at all times.
94
Time has now come to transform the preceding plans into reality.
All ideas and suggestions have been turned into drawings and
specifications from which the laboratory can be built. Or have
they? This is up to the laboratory operator to determine by carefully checking over all details so that corrections can be made
before construction starts. Since the typical laboratory operator
will usually not be familiar with many of the architectural terms
and symbols, he should ask questions whenever something is not
quite clear. No detail must be taken for granted. The case of the
suspended ceiling will illustrate this:
In order to provide easy access to overhead utilities for repairs or
modifications, the laboratory operator had specified a suspended
ceiling, which to him meant one with large pop-out panels. On the
plans, the designer defrnitely indicated a suspended ceiling, but
the matter was never discussed in detail. When the ceiling was installed, the laboratory operator was out of town on other
business. Upon his return, he found a solid ceiling anchored to a
steel grid, which, though suspended, allowed no access. Five
months later, it had to be torn into in order to modify the ventilation system. Such misunderstandings are not uncommon, even
among professionals of the highest caliber.
95
96
97
CONSTRUCTION
Construction will be supervised by the architect, designer, engi..
neer, or general contractor. This does not mean that the laboratory operator can now relax or take a vacation. On the contrary, he
must be available at all times, ready to handle the crisis of the day
and send out distress signals whenever something does not seem
to be right. To some, this may seem as if he is interfering with the
work of building professionals, but he is really not. After all, he is
the person who is going to live with the laboratory when it is
firtished and be criticized for anything that does not turn out as it
should.
Misunderstandings
It must be pointed out that problems are rarely caused by people
not doing their jobs right, but rather by misinterpretation and
lack of communication. Many unexpected details will come up as
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99
ing facilities have been taken into account, some things do not
show up until construction is under way. A concealed pipe, for example, which is shown on the original drawing of the building,
may not be there. There might also be good news, such as in one
laboratory where the sewer pipe was in the "wrong" place, which
made it possible to connect it to two sinks instead of one. It even
had a capped-off T just where it was needed. Such a discovery
could not have been made until after work actually had started.
Sometimes unused electrical conduit has been found inside walls,
resulting in savings on installation cost. On the negative side,
things such as leaking water pipes and heavily corroded sewer
lines have also been found on occasion.
Safeguarding Equipment Information
Some contractors do not leave behind the information packed
,vith equipment they install. Mter all, they probably think, what
use will the laboratory people have for installation instructions?
This material, often separate from use and maintenance instructions, will be very helpful down the line when repairs or modifications have to be made. The laboratory operator should collect all
such information and file it away with care. He may never look at
it again, but there could be a day ",~hen it will be urgently needed.
An installer may even inadvertently toss away warranty information that comes with a piece of equipment. In one such case, an air
conditioner broke down less than one year after installation. It
took phone calls to the designer, the general contractor, and the
sub-contractor to get matters straightened out. Meanwhile, the
July weather was getting hotter by the day.
In conclusion, it may be said that the laboratory operator must be
on deck at all times during construction. No matter how good the
architect, designer, or contractor may be, when construction
begins, Murphy's Law will surely prevail: Anything that can go
,wong, will.
10
Equipment and Supplies
The laboratory is built, work benches are in place, and utilities are
hooked up. All is now in readiness to receive the equipment and
supplies to begin operation.
EQUIPMENT SOURCES
Laboratory equipment and supplies are available from several
sources, such as laboratory supply houses, manufacturers' representatives, mail order houses, and local retail stores.
Factory Direct
Much equipment is now sold directly by the manufacturer
100
101
102
103
days of the electron tube. Solid state devices develop very little
heat, \vhich \vas a problem in older equipment. However, many
solid state devices are sensitive to sudden voltage fluctuations, or
they may suffer damage if the line po\ver fails and suddenly
comes on again. Much of the newer equipment may be connected
to data processing systems, very important \\There a high volume
of \vork is performed.
Selecting the right equipment has become quite difficult today because of the tremendous variety available. In addition, the planner must look into the future. Will a certain piece of equipment be
suitable for future work? Here is a typical example: A forwardlooking laboratory operator insisted on p1ITchasing a pH meter
that also could be used for specific ion determinations, even
though such work was not being done at the moment. It took
some time to get management approval for this more expensive
instrument, but within 6 months specific ion determinations were
started. A study of catalogs will show new trends in equipment
design, which will soon make older types obsolete, even though
they have not yet been discontinued.
SELECTING SUPPLIES
A new laboratory will need a start-up supply of a variety of consumable items. How much should be purchased? While it may be
tempting to buy large amounts of items such as glassware and reagents while managment is still in a spending mood, it may also be
unwise. First of all, there is storage to consider as well as the fact
that many reagents have limited shelf lives. On the other hand,
prices at start-up could be very favorable, since supplies will come
as part of a general bid. Such pros and cons must be carefully
weighed. Note also that management may have definite limits on
inventory of supplies.
COST ESTIMATES
Starting up a new laboratory means preparing a long and detailed
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ORDERING
The manner in which orders are placed varies from one laboratory to another. In a large organization, the laboratory operator
will prepare a requisition, which goes to the purchasing department, often via a department head for approval. Copies of the requisitions should be kept in the laboratory, which should also
receive copies of actual purchase orders. In a small laboratory the
operator may do the ordering himself.
Obtaining bids from two or more suppliers is highly recommended for larger orders at start-up. The prices quoted may come as a
pleasant surprise, since a supply house will put its best foot forward when bidding on equipment for a new laboratory. If they
105
get the business, they will have a foot in the door when it comes to
orders for future day-to-day supplies, which is their bread and
butter. Bids should be gone over in detail, not only for correctness, but also for possible substitution of some items.
A laboratory supply house will require credit information before
accepting an order from a new customer. This is generally a simple procedure.
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CAPITAL EQUIPMENT
As equipment and supplies arrive, the laboratory operator will be
contacted by the accountant, who will want to know which items
are to be capitalized and how they are to be amortized. This is
very important for tax purposes. Rapid amortization will usually
offer many advantages, but IRS will question write-offs that
seem to be too quick.
Capital equipment is durable and not consumed during operation.
107
In time, of course, it will suffer wear and tear and eventually become unusable. Its life will also be shortened by obsolescence, a
very important factor. A 50 year old two-pan analytical balance,
for example, may be in perfec.t working order, but its value is only
that of an antique. The cost of equipment will also determine
whether or not it should be capitalized. Rules for this will vary
from one laboratory to another.
It is up to the laboratory operator to estimate the effective life of a
piece of equipment. He must be able to justify such an estimate in
case of a challenge from IRS. This calls for detailed knowledge of
the equipment and its use, plus some idea of how soon it may become obsolete.
EQUIPMENT IDENTIFICATION
All laboratory equipment of any appreciable value should carry
some type of identification. This should be arranged for as soon as
the equipment arrives. It is particularly important for capital
equipment in order to keep accounting records straight. Permanently attached metal tags with numbers are often used but may
be hard to attach to some types of laboratory equipment. Smaller
items of relatively low value could also carry some type ofidentification. They are easily marked with an engraving tool available
from hardware stores. Many police departments will loan engraving tools at no charge as part of their theft prevention program.
Laboratory equipment is sometimes stolen. Most popular are
smaller items of relatively high value, such as electronic balances.
Permanent identification marks definitely discourage theft. One
stolen microscope was quickly returned to its owner when it appeared on the used equipment market. It was easily identifiable
because its owner had engraved marks not only on the body, but
also on objectives and eye pieces. The thief, fortunately, had ignored them.
11
The Laboratory in Operation
109
By word of mouth.
A newspaper ad, particularly in a paper with wide circulation, will
no doubt reach the most people. In this or the other written job
announcements, the employer should al\vays give name and address along with a brief job description. Sometimes, for one
reason or another, a company chooses not to reveal its identity.
Such blind ads, however, usually have the effect of discouraging
the best qualified applicants. This practice is frowned upon by the
American Chemical Society and most newspapers. Listing a
phone number, where one can call for an application or further information about the job, will help screen out most unqualified applicants.
If the position is listed with an employment agency, the agency
personnel should be given as many details about the job qualifications as possible and be instructed not to send people for interviews who do not meet the requirements.
For professional level positions, a professional journal is a good
place to advertise nationally. A notice can also be placed with a
local or regional division of the society.
Universities and colleges operate placement services for their
graduates, usually at no charge. College science students also
mal{e excellent temporary or part-time laboratory workers while
still going to school. They are eager to get experience in the field
which will help them get a permanent job when they graduate.
Some of the best job openings never reach a newspaper or employment agency. These are the ones spread by word of mouth
from one laboratory to another or by people who have heard of
the new laboratory about to open.
Application Forms
Larger companies have their own application forms, carefully
edited to meet all legal requirements. An applicant must not, for
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Resume or Letter
An applicant with some experience may prefer to supplement the
form with a resume. Even an inexperienced applicant should be
required to write a letter accompanying the application fonn. The
way in which such a letter is written will give a prospective employer a better idea about the applicant. It should be noted that
reasonably good writing ability is needed for almost any job. Professionally written resumes are easily spotted by a person going
through a stack of applications. What would such a person have
written by himself or herself?
The Interview
An interview must be conducted privately in a relaxed atmosphere. It takes skill to conduct a good interview. A typical applicant may be quite nervous. In a larger organization it is often performed by the personnel department in the presence of the potential supervisor. At the end of the interview, the applicant should
have a chance to ask questions about the job and the employer.
A promising applicant should be given a tour of the facility. During such a tour, he or she will be introduced to current workers,
whose comments should not be overlooked.
Details about salary, benefits, and vacation policy must be carefully explained. In a larger company, these may be discussed in a
brochure. Some companies offer profit sharing plans and retirement plans, which may be attractive to many applicants.
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Final Selection
After reading applications and conducting many interviews, the
laboratory operator faces the crucial decision. He checks references, but they may only shed partial light on an applicant. After
all, one will only give references that will be favorable. Checking
with past employers may bring about interesting information,
but it may be misleading. There was the case when an employee
was fIred for drinking. Feeling sorry for him, tJle employer gave
him good recommendations.
Credit references could be very informative when evaluating a
prospective employee.
Final selection is the result of weighing many factors. First of all,
the qualifications must be right. Will the applicant fit into the atmosphere of the laboratory? Is there evidence showing that he or
she will get along with the existing staff? Finally, does the applicant want a permanent position or just a stop-gap proposition?
Notifying Applicants
The successful applicant will, of course, be notified by mail or
phone about the decision. All the others must also be told as soon
as possible. A simple form letter is all it takes. An applicant goes
through much work preparing an application and deserves the
courtesy of a reply. Far too many employers, often smaller ones,
ignore this. Often such a letter includes the sentence: "Your application will be kept on file in case future openings should materialize." Such encouraging words should not be used unless the
employer really means them. If an employer indeed does keep an
active fIle of applications, the letter should clearly state the length
of time such applications will be held.
Job Responsibilities
Each laboratory worker should be clearly instructed as to duties
and responsibilities. A written job description outlining such mat-
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ters in detail may be very desirable. However, it must be amended in writing should any changes come up. CertaiJl menial tasks
which must be performed should be everlly distributed.
Staggered working hours may often be of advantage, provided
that this does not cause undue hardship on workers. If an employee prefers to come in early and leave early, such a request should
be taken advantage of, as it will extend the laboratory's effective
working day.
REPORTS
A typical laboratory will produce many types of reports. If a computer is available, these will come forth almost automatically. If
not, they will have to be typed. In a typical case, an analysis report, for instance, will be written up by hand, taken to the office
for typing, and returned for checking and signature. Typing a report in the laboratory will save time and effort but, unfortunately,
many professionals consider it beneath their dignity to operate a
typewriter, though not a computer, which uses essentially the
same techniques. Longer reports will usually be typed by a
secretary, often from hand written notes.
ORDERING SUPPLIES
Ordering initial equipment and supplies has already been de-
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SUPPLY SOURCES
~-'or day-to-day supplies, a good relationship must be established
with a supply house, preferably a local one. If one company does
not handle all the items needed, more than one will have to be
used. A long-term relationship with supply houses offers many
advantages. First of all, significant discounts may be offered. An
outside salesman will drop by periodically and become familiar
with the laboratory's operation. Based on such information, he
may be helpful with r~commendations.
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LABORATORY HOUSEKEEPING
A clean and orderly laboratory improves performance and productivity. It also enhances morale and has a beneficial effect on
safety. Unfortunately, housekeeping in many laboratories leaves
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Janitorial Services
A large organization will have its own in-house janitors. For
smaller facilities, janitorial services will usually be taken care of
by a contractor. The exact work to be done by such a contractor
should be spelled out in writing, where no details must be left out.
Unfortunately, the degree of cleanliness is hard to define in exact
terms.
Usually, a new janitorial service will start work over a weekend.
On Monday, everything shines. In many cases, the quality of
work will gradually taper off. One laboratory had to change services twice during one year for this reason. A potential contractor
116
should give references, which must be checked out, and show evidence of liability insurance.
A janitor surrounded by sensitive instruments may be like a bull
in a china shop. In one laboratory, the janitors were not allowed to
clean anything above floor level, including windows, without supervision by laboratory personnel. Janitors should not be allowed
to handle containers of flammable or hazardous waste. Laboratory personnel should clear the floors completely when the janitor
announces that it is time for floor waxing.
Cleaning Materials
A distributor of laboratory supplies will offer a number of cleaning products. For most jobs, however, home-type cleaners are satisfactory and lower priced. In some cases, though, an instrument's warranty may be voided if the cleaning materials
recommended by the manufacturer are not used.
Abrasive cleaners are often needed for laboratory jobs, such as
removing pencil markings from etched spots on glassware. No
glassware should be put away with such markings. Liquid cleaners of this type may not be as effective as powders, but their
gentler abrasives are less likely to cause scratching.
Self-adhering labels are often used for temporary identification.
They are easy to peel off but may leave a sticky residue. This is
easily removed with isopropyl alcohol.
Cleaning brushes of all sizes and shapes are found in catalogs
from laboratory supply houses. A generous supply of the types
needed should be kept on hand.
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118
LABORATORY ETHICS
Anyone working in a laboratory will have access to information
that is not public. If the employer is engaged in development
work, for instance, news of such work should be confidential. A
new employee may be required to sign a secrecy agreement
under which all developments made by the employee become the
company's exclusive property. When signing such an agreement,
the author made certain that some formulation principles which
he had developed prior to employment with that company were
excluded.
In an analytical laboratory, there must be complete confidence
between laboratory and client. All results belong to the client and
must not be disclosed to others. There was a case, for instance,
where some special methods were developed in connection with a
nutritional study. This involved an analysis of monkey feces. The
laboratory did not announce that it had newly developed methods, since these really belonged to the client.
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12
Laboratory Records
LABORATORY NOTEBOOKS
The use of loose sheets of paper for even minor observations or
120
Laboratory Records
121
122
Analytical Laboratories
A typical analytical laboratory handles a large number of samples, usually for routine tests. Keeping track ofthese samples is of
major importance. Reporting results for the wrong sample could
Laboratory Records
123
Sample Recording. A good way of recording is to keep all incoming samples on a designated table until they can be properly
marked. Materials requiring refrigeration or freezing can be put
into special sections of the refrigerator or freezer where nothing
else should be kept. A note left on the sample table will assure
that the refrigerated or frozen sample will not be overlooked.
Each sample must be given an identification number, which will
be used in all analytical records. Self-adhering labels or labeling
tape are commonly used. The ink should be waterproof. Regular
masking tape works well for this purpose and is inexpensive. Labels with pre-printed numbers may also be obtained. Mter labeling, samples are duly recorded in the main record book, which is a
running account of all work performed in the laboratory, or they
may be recorded in a computer. The record must completely identify the sample, its origin, and what tests are to be performed.
Records of Tests. Either of two methods may be used for recording routine test results. In the fIrst, measurements and calculations are recorded in the individual worker's notebook and then
transferred to the main record book. In the second method, a separate work book is kept for each routinely performed test. Whoever does the testing enters the results in the book and initials it.
The pages should be lined with columns to suit each test's requirements.
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hO\\7"-
Laboratory Records
125
PURCHASING RECORDS
In a small laboratory, purchasing records will usually be kept in
the general office files. In a larger organization, they will probably
be kept in the purchasing department. In either case, there
should be copies in the laboratory, where they can serve many
purposes. Reference to an old purchase order, for instance, will
often make re-ordering quicker and simpler. At budget time, records of past purchases enable a laboratory operator to estimate
future supply needs, making allowance, of course, for changing
prices.
PERSONNEL RECORDS
In a large organization, personnel records are kept in the personnel department files. In a small laboratory, they may be somewhere in the general files. Such information should be considered
confidential, with steps taken to limit access.
MAINTENANCE RECORDS
Laboratory equipment has to be maintained on a regular basis. A
record should be kept of the date and the type of maintenance
performed. This should be placed in the file for the instrument involved. If the maintenance is done on an in-house basis, the report
should be initialed by the person who performs it. If done by a factory representative, there will be a receipt which should be filed.
More than once, good maintenance records have saved an analytical laboratory from litigation when a client claimed that its results
were incorrect.
126
RECORDS OF PROCEDURES
Procedures used in a laboratory must be recorded for easy reference, down to the smallest detail. An analytical laboratory will
often use standard procedures from official publications, but to
these must be added references to specific types of equipment
used. As a result, a laboratory needs its own procedure manual to
use in day-to-day work. Every operation should be described in
detail, with references made to official methods where applicable.
It takes thought and skill to write such a manual in a manner that
will make is useful to all workers. Safety measures, where needed, must be included. Simple operations, such as the preparation
of reagent solutions, should be specified.
Many laboratories use a numbering system for their procedures
for easy reference. Procedures should always be dated, since they
will son1e day be superseded by new versions. At that time, the
outdated ones should be carefully filed. There may be cases
where reference will have to be made to them in the future. One
person should be in charge of the methods books and make sure it
is kept up to date.
A suitably sized ring binder with a sturdy cover is recommended,
preferably covered with plastic. This procedure manual must be
kept where all who use it will have easy access to it. More than
one copy may be needed in a large laboratory. Just in case an accident should take place, an extra copy must be kept in a safe spot.
For durability and protection from spills each page can be inserted in a vinyl sheet protector. No pages must ever be "borrowed"
from the book even on a temporary basis.
PAPERWORK REDUCTION
Laboratory Records
127
Analytical laboratories may have the greatest amount of paperwork. Samples come in, are recorded and analyzed, and reports
must go out. Copies must be kept of all reports. Billing information or reports on time charges for in-house work must be generated.
In one company's quality control system, one piece ofpaper served
many purposes. A copy of a purchase order went to the receiving
department. When merchandise arrived, it would be physically
checked and the copy would be signed by a receiving clerk. The
material would then be placed in quarantine, and the copy would
be forwarded to the laboratory as notification that something had
arrived. The laboratory would perlorm the required sampling
and testing and then enter results in its own records. The purchase order copy would be signed by an authorized person in the
laboratory and then go to the warehouse, thus authorizing the removal of the material from quarantine for transfer to the regular
storage area. Finally, the copy would go to the office for processing by accounting a11d inventory control. All this with one piece of
paper!
The only problem with this system was in cases where partial deliveries were made. For such situations, special paperwork had to
be generated, but it was rarely necessary.
In a manufacturing company, the laboratory was responsible for
generating manufacturing instruction sheets for all batches to be
made. The sheet would go fIrst to inventory control, where it
would be ascertained that all ingredients were on hand. Ifnot, the
sheet stopped there and was held until the situation was corrected. It then went to the manufacturing department, where it was
used as a work sheet. Finally it was submitted to the laboratory
with a sample of the finished product. After testing, the
laboratory would sign the sheet and release the batch. Again, all
on one piece of paper. Afterwards, it went back to inventory control for posting of withdrawals and to cost accounting. It finally
ended up in the production manager's files.
In another industrial laboratory, the company required a sepa-
128
rate analysis sheet for every sample tested. The control chemist
of a branch plant saw his files increase in volume by the day.
Finally, he devised a report form which would hold data for about
twenty samples. Besides reducing paper volume, this system
made it possible to scan a large number of samples for trends in
analytical results by looking at a small number of sheets of paper.
In an analytical laboratory, two copies of each report went to the
laboratory manager. On this, he would show the charges to be
made for the \vork done. He alone was able to justify extra
charg-es for some samples and reduced charged for others. One
copy \vas retained for the laboratory files and the other was used
for billing-. The notations with regard to charges were easily
blocked out should more copies of a report be needed.
COMPUTERIZED RECORDS
In laboratories today, computerized records are common, particularly where large scale analytical work is being performed. Many
instruments are designed to \vork with computers but may require interfaces, which are sold separately. One laboratory doing
a large amount of commercial analysis work is now feeding all instrument data into its computer, which does all the calculations,
even though this meant replacing an expensive instrument that
\vould not feed into a computer. All reports from this laboratory
are printed out by the computer in the form requested by the individual clients. The manager, though, insists on keeping a human
touch. Each report is personally signed by the authorized person
with a blue pen to make the signature stand out from the computer print-out.
For many P1U1loses, high speed dot-matrix print-out is satisfactory. In other cases, such a presentation may not be proper.
Letter-quality printers are now available for computers at affordable prices. In addition, many newer typewriters may be hooked
up to computers for high quality print-outs. These may be slower
than the computer printers, but the cost of such a typewriter is
Laboratory Records
129
CONCLUSION
No attempt has been made in this chapter to report the many
ways a computer may serve in laboratory record keeping. What
has been shown here are some of the types of records required in
various kinds of laboratories and suggestions for han'dling them.
Above all, the message of this chapter is a call for unfailing accuracy in keeping laboratory records, regardless of the method
used.
13
The Laboratory Handyman
Among the many hats worn by the laboratory operator is sometimes that of general handyman. This is often true in a small laboratory, where assigned repair and maintenance personnel are
not available. Here the operator soon becomes an electrician, a
plumber, a painter, and an equipl~ent rebuilder. In a larger institution, union rules may prohibit a laboratory worker from touching even the simplest hand tool. In cases, though, where union
technicians are unfamiliar with the peculiarities of the laboratory
equipment, an agreement is sometimes made under which nonunion laboratory personnel may perform certain types of specialized repair work that would otherwise require an outside contractor. If properly done, such in-house work can save substantial
amounts of money over a short period of time.
LIMITATIONS
A good handyman must be able to recognize his limitations and
employ professional assistance for work he is not completely familiar with. In the long run, this will prove less expensive. Too
many hazardous wire connections and improper plumbing repairs
have been observed in laboratories. One OSHA inspection of a
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131
large testing laboratory uncovered a myriad of electrical problems, which were corrected only at considerable cost. In another
case, an improperly installed sink drain caused flooding of the laboratory and a potentially hazardous situation.
RELATED EXPERIENCE
There are no college courses on how to be a handyman. This is
learned through experience, often in connection with a hobby,
such as woodworking or electronics. Many times it is acquired
through repair and maintenance tasks performed around the
house. Such experience is directly transferable to the laboratory,
although some repair practices that may be acceptable in the
home are not permissible in the laboratory. This is particularly
true in case of wiring. All laboratory equipment, for example,
must be connected with a grounded wire and a three-prong plug.
Most building codes require metal conduit for industrial \\Tiring,
whereas nonmetallic cables are considered satisfactory for most
home use. The common, though unsafe, home practice of patching
a damaged cord must never be resorted to in the laboratory. Likewise, many home-type plumbing repairs may not stand up under
the heavy-duty requirements of the laboratory.
132
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Where does one obtain infonnation on adapting handyman expertise to the more rigid requirements of the laboratory? For the
simpler jobs, the public library has many books of the "how-to"
type. Such a reference could also be purchased, making a useful
addition to the laboratory library. Local fIre and building departments are more than willing to pass on infonnation regarding
their requirements, which vary from one community to another.
Equipment manufacturers, too, often have special instructions
pertaining to repairs and maintenance not found in the regular
operator's manual.
133
Tool Storage
Tools have a habit of "\valking away." This may not mean somebody has stolen them. They could have just been left at the point
where they \\tere last used. Replacing a lost or missing tool, even
an inexpensive one, could mean costly do\vn-time for an instrument. To avoid such problems, there must be some kind of system
whereby it can be ascertained that all tools are returned to proper
storage immediately after use. A formal check-out system is
recommended in any situation where more thaI1 a very small
number of workers will have access to tools. BOITo\\wg tools for
weekend use at home should be prohibited or at least carefully
controlled.
Tool Rental
If the laboratory lacks the right tool for a one-time highly specialized application, it would be impractical to buy it. There are tool
rental firms which have just about anything that might be needed: heavy duty sanders, large capacity drills, power saws, electrical conduit benders-the list goes on and on. Best of all, the prices
are quite reasonable. Such services should certainly be considered.
134
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is a never-ending task. Equipment manufacturers
are normally very specific about periodic care of the products
they sell, but many maintenance tasks are similar to those performed around the home. Minor repairs done in time will often
prevent the development of unsafe conditions, as well as keep
equipment in good working shape.
Faucets
Even the best water faucet will eventually start to leak. Repairs
are usually quite simple, requiring parts available at the nearest
hardware store. Caution n1ust be exercised in tool selection, however, since the improper wrench will damage chrome plating,
while the wrong size screwdriver will ruin the screw holding the
new washer in place.
Sink Traps
Disassembling a sink trap may require a special wrench. It also
requires caution, as the trap might contain toxic or corrosive materials or small pieces of broken glass. More than one lost item,
such as a magnetic stirring bar, has been found during this process. If even the slightest sign of corrosion or other physical
damage is discovered, the trap must be replaced.
Wires
When damage to a wire is close to the end, the wire can simply be
shortened. Otherwise, any damage to the insulation calls for replacement of the wire. The new wire must have the same or higher current capacity and an equivalent type insulation. Connecting
a ne\\l wire to an instrument is an interesting project vvhich requires careful attention to detail. No shortcuts are permissible.
135
Electric Plugs
When there is an electrical malfunctioning, a faulty plug is often
the culprit. It should be replaced 011ly by a plug able to stand up
under industrial use. A clamp should be used to hold the plug to
the \\rl.re. This \\rill avoid strain on the connection in case the plug
gets pulled out by the wire. If possible, \\tire ends should be coated \\ith solder before beh1g attached.
Light Bulbs
Replacing a light bulb is a simple task, but it should be noted that
the ne\\T bulb must 110t be of higher wattage. When replacing fluorescent tubes, special care must be used, since serious injury
could result from breakage. It is not advisable to mix tubes of different colors \\Then replacement becomes necessary.
EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
No laboratory equipment is maintenance free. Some requires regular servicing by the factory representative or by an expert with
special tools or skills. Much maintenance, though, can be performed on an in-house basis by carefully following the instructions
given in the manufacturer's manual. This would include jobs such
as cleaning, lubrication, adjustments, and replacement of fuses,
lamps, or switches. The slightest malfunctioning of an electrical
switch, for example, calls for immediate replacement. All drive
belts, such as those found on vacuum pumps, must be regularly
inspected for signs of failure and for proper tightness. The
vacuum pumps themselves need periodic oil changes, and many
motors require lubrication, some with a specific lubricant recommended by the manufacturer. In fume hood fans, the most common cause for failure is lack of lubrication. All of these are important tasks that can be performed by laboratory personnel
MAJOR PROJECTS
A tour of laboratories will reveal much ingenuity on the part of
136
137
price \vould have been \vay outside the budget. Fortunately, the
laboratory operator el1joyed \voodworking as a hobby. He went
to \vork building a double-walled cabinet with insulation between
the "ralls. An appliance parts house furnished a heating element
of the right size, a laboratory equipment supplier a thennostat,
and an electronic parts supplier a quiet and efficient circulating
fan. The rest, including a fuse holder and an on-off indicator light,
came from a hardware store. Both exterior and interior surfaces
of the cabinet were carefully f1l1ished \vith paints ofgood chemical
resistance for a professional look. This was a lengthy project, and
the builder's impatient \vife "ranted to know how soon the
"monster" \vould get out of the house. It frnally did go to the laboratory, "There it performed well for many years, retaining the
name "Monster" forever after.
Careless Workmanship. One laboratory operator combined a variety of equipment for a distillation procedure and finally came up
with something that met his needs. In other words, it worked
-but he had a tangle of wires, water hoses, and blocks of scrap
wood for support. With less than one day's additional work, he
could have improved both performance and safety features.
Dangling Cords. In another case, a "temporary" light duty extension cord was used to hook up a new piece of equipment with
an adapter to by-pass the three-wire grounded outlet. A year
later, the equipment was still there and so was the cord, now
hanging from a hook in the ceiling.
Poor Quality Materials. One laboratory built an extension to an
existing work bench. The idea was both logical and practical. But
why did they use the cheapest grade lumber available, full of
138
knots and-knot holes? For this type of project, the extra cost of
good materials would have been minimal. The addition was left
unfinished, making it look still worse. A little spackle, sandpaper,
and paint would have given the project a finished look.
139
14
A Case History
140
A Case History
141
PRELIMINARY PLANNING
The planning and design were carried out by the engineering frrm
who also built the plant and who had on its staff a designer \vith
long experience in laboratory planning. They worked in close cooperation with the laboratory operator.
The total floor area available was a little under 1500 square feet,
part of which would be taken up by a fIrst aid room and by a stairway and hallways. This would leave about 1250 square feet for the
laboratory itself.
The laboratory operator's estimate of bench space needed showed
that the space was adequate. Twice as much space as that needed
for fIXed equipment was requested, but it took time to convince
management that this was in no way extravagant.
It was then decided that there should be a large main room and
two smaller rooms, one for instruments and another for future microbiological work. The latter was hard to justify to management,
so it was planned as a utility room for testing laundry products
and working with dusty samples. It could be converted if the
microbiological work came about. Meanwhile, the room was
there, complete with utilities. In addition, there was to be an office, a closet area, and the fIrst aid room mentioned above.
Many different arrangements were considered and rejected
before a plan was developed that would be both practical and economically feasible.
Room dimensions finally settled upon were roughly as follows:
Main room
22x37 feet
142
Utility room
llx14 feet
Instrument room
10x22feet
Office
9xll feet
8xll feet
A Case History
STAIRS TO
PLANT AREA
STORACE AND
D1 WATER TANKS
"'>
ttlEZZANINE
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143
SINK
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SINK
SAFETY
SHOWER
DO
WASHER
Ol-'FICE
4;
DRYER
UTILITY ROOM
INSTRUMENT ROOM
SINK
144
UTILITY REQUIREMENTS
The laboratory needed the usual hot and cold water, electric
power, gas, and sewer. In addition, there would be a need for DI
water. Plant equipment was serviced with clean compressed air,
which could be piped into the laboratory and be used with only
minor further purification.
Except for the sewer, all utilities could be easily piped into the
area. A water heater would have to be istalled, however, since the
nearest one in the building was some distance away and already
used to capacity. The concrete floor would have to be broken up to
accommodate the sewer. A sewage mixing tank would be installed beneath the floor with access for sampling by a waste
water inspector.
The building had an ample supply of electric power. It was just a
matter of bringing the right amount to where it would be needed.
The laboratory operator made careful estimates of what was
needed and submitted his figures to the electrical designer, who
added what was required for other items, such as lighting, and
came up with a recommended number of circuits. The laboratory
operator then added to this a separate circuit to be used exclusively for instruments using low but steady power, a matter the
designer had not considered. In addition, the laboratory operator
requested a breaker box that could accommodate several more
A Case History
145
VENTILATION
The laboratory area had no ventilation, and the system used elsewhere in the building was unable to handle the extra load. As a
result, a separate system had to be installed. At the laboratory
operator's insistence, this was to be a system with no recirculation of air. There was considerable resistance from management
due to the higher cost for both installation and operation. To make
matters more difficult, the heating engineer had never seen a
need for such a system on previous jobs. One argument finally
settled the situation. It was pointed out that fragrance evaluations would often have to be performed as part of product evaluation. This would be difficult if much of the air were recirculated.
There were plans to build a small office for production personnel
on part of the mezzanine, so the system had to be able to handle
this, too.
The engineer recommended a heat pump for both heating and
cooling mounted on the building's roof. To augment the heat
pump in cold weather, electric heaters were installed in the ducts.
The laboratory operator requested an on-off switch for the system with a pilot light mounted directly inside the laboratory door.
Instead, a cumbersome timing device was mounted on the mezzanine, a "standard" procedure. It would have to be set for manual
operation whenever somebody came in on a weekend. Nor was
provision made for slow speed ventilation at night, as requested.
In retrospect, it can be said that the system had more than its
share of problems. First of all, management refused a request for
a maintenance contract, arguing that this system would work for
a long time without maintenance. It did not. Mter about one year,
146
the crucial reversing valve broke down. The unit was still under
warranty, but this covered only parts. Labor charges were substantial. Two years later, the valve broke down again, but management still refused to consider a maintenance contract. Finally,
one of the two fan motors ceased to operate, possibly because of
lack of maintenance. This resulted in another big bill. On the
positive side, it must be said that the thermostat system worked
very well, although the installation of electric duct heaters may be
questioned. They were probably not required in the mild California climate.
LIGHTING
A designer of lighting systems was called in. He recommended
surface mounted fluorescent fIXtures, which he considered more
efficient than the recessed ones. The laboratory operator scanned
all work areas with a light meter after the j ob was completed. The
light was even and well within recommended levels. Furthermore, there were never any problems with the fixtures themselves, except for an occasional change of tubes.
A Case History
147
148
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Figure 3: Plan for main laboratory room showing furniture modules with
catalog numbers.
A Case History
149
Faucets chosen by the engineering fIm1 were equipped with antisiphoning devices. The laboratory operator had specified their locations but had failed to check whether the local code required the
expensive anti-siphoning type. The bench-mounted outlets installed for use with condensers and similar devices, however,
were not of the anti-siphoning type, even though in this particular
laboratory, the latter would be far more likely to draw water back
into the system in case of pressure failure.
The engineering frrm insisted on heavily plated metal valves for
DI water. They had never used plastic, which the laboratory
operator had successfully employed in a previous installation.
Management agTeed with the engineers. The water was distributed to all sinks by standard PVC pipe, which worked very well
after thorough flushing.
Two DI units were employed in series and placed in the large
closet next to the main laboratory room, where the indicator
lights could be easily observed. This location was poor, since service personnel had to wheel replacement tanks through the laboratory, and mopping up was always required after exchanging
tanks in the cramped quarters. Ideally, they should have been
placed in the plant area with remote indicator lights mounted on
the laboratory wall. At the time, such remote lights were not offered.
150
the fact that both the engineering fUin and the painting contractor claimed that a latex paint "ras \vhat the~y al"rays used for such
applications. He also gave the painting contractor a narro\v choice
of high quality brands. While the job ,,as undenvay, one of the
painters remarked that it \vas nice to ,,;-ork \vith a good paint for a
change.
Acoustical tile \vas specified for all ceilings, \\;th the engineering
fIrm selecting the appropriate t)rpe. PerfOlinanCe \\as good, the
tiles seemed to have a lo\\? dirt pick-up, and dust deposits near the
ventilation outlets "Tere minimal.
FURNITURE INSTALLATION
The installer engaged by the furrliture supplier did a truly professionaljob. It was finished sooner than expected. There was some
fear that the monolitllic countertop slabs, which were pre-fabricated at the factory, might have size discrepancies. They did not,
due to very careful measurements taken when the order was
placed. The plumbing contractor chosen by the e11gineering fIrm
did excellent work. The electrical contractor was pleased with the
way circuits had been planned, and the planner in turn was highly
satisfied with his installation. At the laboratory operator's request, all information regarding installation and maintenance was
saved and later filed. The contractors admitted that this was not
their common practice, but they were all in favor of it.
A Case History
151
152
Several home-type appliances \vere required, including refrigerator, dishV\Tasher, washing machine, and dryer. A local appliance
store provided them at a good price, much lower than if they had
been purchased individually.
The company had declared surplus two secretary chairs because
they did not match the decor of the new offices. They were in excellent condition and very comfortable. One V\ras placed at the analytical balance, the other at the desk in the main room.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
In case of an emergency, there were t\VO ways to escape from the
laboratory: through the main door or through the fIrst aid room.
The main dra\\rback of this arrangement was that both doors
opened into the same plant area. A better choice would have been
to have installed a door from the instrument room to the office
area.
Work areas were laid out in such a \\ray that flammables would not
be handled near either door. Upon arrival, cartons containing
samples or supplies went \\rhere they would not interfere with
traffic. Approved warning signs \vere posted where needed.
A combination safety shower and eye wash station was installed in
the laboratory. Although the engineering company recommended
a very expensive chrome-plated unit, a much lower priced one
which used plain galvanized pipe was chosen. Its perfonnance
was the same. The pipe was later primed and painted to match
the laboratory furniture, another Saturday job for the laboratory
operator.
The building's sprinkler system, already in place, was extended
to the laboratory area by a properly certified contractor.
The fIre department was consulted with regard to the proper
number and placement of fITe extinguishers. They were most
A Case History
153
CONCLUSION
As with any other project, there were things that could have been
done differently and better a second time, but overall it must be
said that, in spite of occasional differences of opinion, this laboratory installation worked out well. It was the cooperative effort of
'tnany people, each one doing his or her best with an eye for the
future. No dramatic changes had to be made as work began or
when new assignments came in. The laboratory became a place
where creative and productive work could be performed with minimum interference.
Index
Accidents
chemical spills - 44
electrical hazards - 93, 135137
emergency treatment of - 45
legal aspects of - 42
mechanical hazards - 48-49
Air conditioners - 35
American Chemical Society
LabGuide - 102
safety publications of - 39
supplier listing - 73
Balances, analytical
in educational laboratories 10
mounting of - 23
Building regulations
for anti-siphoning devices - 88
for compressed gas storage 94
for doors - 19-20
for plastic drains - 91
for safety measures - 39, 42
Ceilings
acoustical treatment of - 69
suspended - 69
Chemicals, resistance to
of flooring materials - 64-66
of paints - 68
of work tops - 79-82
Cleaning (see also Housekeeping)
materials for - 116
services, janitorial - 115-116
Clean-up of spills - 44
Clothing
chemical spills on - 45
protective - 52
Clients
agreements with - 118-119
development work for - 121124
Colors, choice of - 71-72, 75
Communication, importance of
between laboratory and other
facilities - 14
between planners - 3
during construction - 98
Compressed air - 32, 91-92
Computers 120, 128-129
Corrosion
in compressed air pipes - 91
in fume hood systems - 83
paints resistant to - 68
ventilation, importance of - 33
154
Index
Cost
as location choice factor - 14
of operation - 116-118
of start-up - 103-105
Cup sinks - 90
Customers (see Clients)
Doors - 19, 49
Drains - 89-91
Drying ovens - 22
Earthquake preparedness - 48
Electricity
failure of - 50-51
outlets for - 92-93
requirements for - 31
repair and maintenance of 134-135
Emergencies (see also Accidents)
Chemical spills - 44
earthquakes - 48
equipment for - 24-25, 45
fire - 47-48
utility failures - 50-51
Equipment - 6-11,100-107
(see also individual items)
check-out of - 13, 133
fire damaged, salvaging of 138-139
heat producing - 22
identification of - 107
installation instructions for 99
laboratory-built - 84, 136137
maintenance of - 125, 134135
mechanical hazards of - 49
space requirements of - 6-11
warranties for - 99
Ethics, laboratory - 118-119
Expansion, planning for - 8-9,
11,145-146
Eye protection - 51-52
Eyewash station - 45
155
Fans
for compressed gas cylinders 93
for fume hoods - 83
Faucets - 87 -88
Files, storage of - 114
Fire doors - 20
Fire drills - 4 7 -4 8
Fire hazard - 58
Fire regulations - 41-42
Flammables
disposal of - 59
handling of - 23, 43
storage of - 43
Flooring materials - 64-67
Food, contamination of - 53
Fume detectors - 42-43
Fume hoods
construction of - 82-85
corner-fitted - 22
in educational laboratories - 10
electrical outlets for - 93
space requirements of - 8
for toxics and flammables - 23
Fumes
air polluting effects of - 56
monitoring of - 42-43
paints resistant to - 68
Furniture, laboratory
cabinets - 74-76
chemical resistance of - 75
modular units - 85
Gas
plumbing for - 30, 91
pressure failure - 50
Gases, compressed - 94
Glassware
mechanical hazards of - 49
storage of - 12
Government agencies, records
for - 122
Government regulations for
waste - 55-63
Hair protection - 53
156
Location selection
environmental considerations
of - 15-16, 140
relation to other work areas 14
utility access - 16
zoning regulations - 16
Maintenance and repair - 13, 117
contracts for - 145
of equipment - 134-135
of fire damaged equipment 138-139
records of - 125
Material Safety Data Sheets - 3941
Needle valves
for gas flow adjustment - 91
for low water flow - 88
Noise, effect of - 16
Notebooks, laboratory - 120-121
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), 39,46
Office space - 23-24
Operations, listing of - 5-6
Ordering supplies and equipment 104-105,112-113
Packing list - 105
Paints - 67 -68
Paperwork reduction - 126-128
Peninsulas - 21-22
Personnel
records for - 125
selection of - 108-111
training of - 111-112 (see
also Record keeping)
Planning (see also Laboratory,
layout of)
case history - 140-153
catalog numbers - 77
preliminary - 4-16
Pollution, control of - 55-63
Index
Plumbing (see also Sinks)
access to - 16, 28
for compressed air - 32, 91
for deionized water - 29
fixtures - 87, 134, 147
for gas - 30, 91
placement of outlets - 86, 91
for sewer connection - 31-32
Procedures manual - 126
Purchasing, records of - 125
Quality control, records of - 124
Reactions, chemical - 45-46
Reagents
disposal of - 61
storage of - 12-13, 48
Record keeping - 120-129
Reports - 112
Research and development,
records for - 121-122
Safety - 36-54,152
check of completed layout 25
conductive flooring - 66-67
housekeeping, effect of 114
information sources - 38-39
as site selection factor - 14
ventilation, effect on - 32
Safety shower
in educational laboratories 10,25
location of - 24-25
standards for - 45
Safety signs - 54
Samples
disposal of - 114
labeling of - 122-123
receiving of - 23
storage of - 114
Scale drawing - 18-19
Sewage mixing tank - 144
Sewer connection - 31-32
Sinks
corner fitted - 22
157
158
Ventilation
safety aspects of - 42-43
systems - 32-35, 145
Vibration - 15
Warranties - 106
Waste disposal - 55-63, 114
Waste holding tank - 90
Wastewater regulations - 57
Water, deionized
outlets for - 88-89
placements of units - 149
properties of - 28-29
Water, distilled - 29-30