Overcoming

Overcoming
A Study Guide for the Book of Revelation
Steve Singleton
Copyright 2010 by Steve C. Singleton

All rights reserved.
For more copies, call (972) 272-9648 or order
from DeeperStudy Bookstore, DeeperStudy.com
Unless otherwise noted, all quotations of scripture
are from the New International Version and used
by permission of the International Bible Society.
Prologue
he Book of Revelation! The Apocalypse! People either love it or hate it; they fear it or avoid it
altogether. Many who wade in at the shallow end soon find themselves sinking over their heads
in hot water. They immediately climb out and run to the far end where they think it is again
shallow and comfortably warm. When the Apocalypse comes up in conversation, some close their
minds and their mouths and switch on blank stares. Others show by their animated and opinionated
jabbering that long ago, their minds were setin concrete! Still others look around, frantically searching for an escape route.
Let me reassure you. I intend for this study guide to open your mind and calm your nerves about
the Book of Revelation. The Apocalypse was not meant to create terror and dismay but to engender
confidence and hope. And despite what you may have heard to the contrary, its messageeven down
to many of the detailscan be understandable to the modern reader. In fact, the phrase, The time
is near that occurs in the opening paragraph of the Book of Revelation is a key to understanding the
prophecy as a whole. Once you grasp the concept of viewing it from the perspective of the original
reader, most of the hard work of interpreting it is done.
I have designed this material to be usable in a number of ways. You can get
Nothing will help you more than
a quick overview, which will guide you to the essential parts of the Introducactually reading the text of Revelation and the 40,000 Feet view of each chapter. You can compare the various
tion. It is the only book of the Bible
schools of interpretation, or study a particular passage. The annotated bibliogthat pronounces a blessing on the
raphy can guide you to a more extensive inquiry.
Of course, nothing will help you more than actually reading the text of Rev- person who will read it (Rev. 1:3)....
elation. It is the only book of the Bible that pronounces a blessing on the person As you read, focus on the main
message of Revelation.
who will read it (Rev. 1:3). The best way to start is to read it in its entirety all at
once, and if possible, aloud. This takes about 90 minutes. Then, of course, you
should read each chapter again as you go through this study guide. You should also read those parts
of the Old Testament that form the main sources for the concepts and imagery in the Apocalypse,
particularly Ezekiel and Daniel.
s you read, focus on the main message of Revelation; it is easy to slog through the swamp of
the details and never look up to see the mountains towering in the distance. But surely those
mountainsthe holy influence of a godly life, the resurrected Redeemer, and the ultimate victory of Godare your final destination. My hope is that you will make it safely through that swamp
and explore those thrilling heights. Perhaps this study guide can serve as a compass.
Those of us who study Revelation can be Overcomers in two senses. First we can overcome all
of the obstacles that time and misinterpretation have created that hinder understanding this powerful
part of Gods Word. Second, we can actually experience what the original readers of the Apocalypse
didwe ourselves can become Overcomers.
My thanks to the many students through the years whose questions and comments have helped
me to focus on what is important and to de-emphasize what is not. I am grateful to my family, my wife
Cindy and my children, Jonathan, Michael, and Jennifer, without whose enthusiastic encouragement
this study guide would still be only a vision. I have learned more from you than you have from me.
Thank you, Cindy, for constantly reminding me to keep it practical. I hope someday that the word of
my testimony is as courageous as yours.
Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation
Pr0logue
He Arose!
Some say Jesus is a mystery
lost behind a solid wall.
Some say Jesus is a legend,
and He never lived at all.
Some say Jesus is a concept,
ever changing as it grows.
I say Hes our only rescue, and I know
that He arose.
In that age before all ages,
when the Father formed His plan,
He knew He would need an answer
to the sinfulness of Man.
Then the Logos made His offer,
and His path He freely chose.
He came down to be our ransom, and He died,
but He arose.
If youd lived back in the old times,
when the Romans ruled the land,
You could trace right where His sandals
made their footprints in the sand.
You could meet the risen Jesus,
place your fingers in the holes.
Then youd say, My Lord was murdered, but I know
that He arose.
I once thought I was so worthless,
there was nothing left to save.
Then they told me of the Master
and the love He freely gave.
In the water I could feel my
sinful life draw to a close.
Then I died there with my Savior, Jesus Christ,
but we arose.
When the world has stopped its spinning,
and when God puts out the sun,
When all humans stand in judgment,
facing all weve ever done,
Then the one thing most important
will be that His image shows,
For the Sovereign of all ages gave His life,
but He arose.
To the tune of The Rose, lyrics by Amanda McBroom.
Above lyrics by Steve C. Singleton. Copyright 1996. All rights reserved.
Introduction
ou may be wondering why we should spend so much time introducing the Apocalypse rather
than just jumping into the text. Cant we pick up what we need to know inductively as we read
along? That was certainly possible for the original readers of the Book of Revelation, believers in seven congregations of the Roman province of Asia some time during the last half of the first
century after Christ. They shared with the human author of Revelation the same language, thought
patterns, knowledge of the Old Testament, historical background, and cultural
background.
Overcoming first has to mean
Unfortunately, we are separated by time, space, language, and culture from bursting through the barriers of our
both that original audience and the human author of Revelation. We must
assumptions about the Apocalypse,
attempt to throw bridges over these chasms by careful gathering and analysis
then overcoming the culture shock
of information and by a close examination and refinement of our operating
of reaching back to an alien time
principles. If we believe the Apocalypse teaches one thing and not another, we
and place as we attempt to read
should attempt to explain the basis of that belief.
Revelation as they would have read
To make matters a hundred times worse, we as modern readers of the
it only two or three generations afApocalypse have inherited 20 centuries of teaching about Revelation, much of
ter the cross and the empty tomb.
it confusing and even contradictory. For most of us, it is necessary to unlearn
what we have been taught, or at least to set aside our entrenched preconceptions before approaching the text of the last book of the Bible. To read Revelation critically, analytically, but with an open mind to new ideasthat is the formidable challenge that confronts us.
Overcoming must first mean bursting through the barriers of our assumptions about the Apocalypse, then overcoming the culture shock of reaching back to an alien time and place as we attempt to
read Revelation as they would have read it only two or three generations after the cross and the empty
tomb.
f you are willing to make the attempt to understand,
if you are willing to take the trouble to lay aside what
you may have been taught all your life, then you will
find Revelation opening up for you. You will begin to discover what it means to overcome ignorance and confusion. You will find yourself listening to the Lamb Himself
as He speaks to you about the challenges you face, those
that you can overcome by His help.
1. Hermeneutics
As we begin our study of Revelation, we must consider what principles we are going to use to
interpret the book. The development and application of interpretive principles is called hermeneutics
(from the Greek word meaning to translate, to interpret), and each principle is called a hermeneutic.
First, we must consider the hermeneutics applicable to every biblical text (general hermeneutics). Second, we will look at principles that specifically apply to Revelation (special hermeneutics).
a. General Hermeneutics
The following principles apply to any biblical text you are studying, whether Revelation, or Mark,
or First Samuel:
1. Interpret the Bible as you would any other book. Go with the simple and obvious meaning.
2. Assume the writer employed the right combination of words and forms to get his point across the
way he wanted it.
3. The meaning of any text is limited and controlled by its internal context, that is, the paragraphs
and sentences leading up to and following the target text.
4. The meaning of any text is limited and controlled by its external context, that is, its geographical,
cultural, and historical background (see Figure 1).
5. Assume that the author is consistent; assume that he will not contradict himself, or other biblical
writers. This is the canon of the analogy of Scripture: use a clear passage to interpret an obscure
passage, not the other way around.2
The Various Contexts of Any Passage

External
Context
Internal
Context
Target
Text
Figure 1. To understand every passage of Scripture, you must take its context into consideration, and
context includes its relation to the surrounding text, spiralling outward to the entire Bible, and its external
context, which includes the place, time, and circumstances in which it was written.
Introduction: 1. Hermeneutics
6. Recognize the genre of the document, and do not interpret it as if it were a different genre. The
variety of biblical genres includes: didactic, homily, narrative, poetry, epistle, and apocalypse.
Each genre has its own set of special hermeneutics, in addition to, and not in contradiction of the
general hermeneutics.
7. Interpret each text in the frame of its own philosophical presuppositions.
8. Recognize the reality of progressive revelationnot that the early authors understood less than
the later ones, but that we understand more about what the early authors intended in the light of
what was revealed later.
b. Special Hermeneutics for the Book of Revelation

1. The Literal vs. Figurative Hermeneutic
We must carefully distinguish within the Book of Revelation between the vision and the explanation, applying a different hermeneutic to the one compared to the other.
In the explanation sections of the book (e.g., Rev. 1:111, 1920; 2:1 3:22; 7:1317; 13:910, 18;
14:1213; 17:7 18; 19:8b10; 22:621), the literal hermeneutic applies: assume what is being described is literal unless the text indicates otherwise.
In the vision sections of the book (e.g., Rev. 1:1218; 4:1 7:12; 8:1 13:8; 13:917; 14:111;
14:14 17:6; 18:1 19:8a; 19:11 21:5), the literal hermeneutic is reversed: assume you are dealing
with symbols unless you have good reasons to believe otherwise. The text itself prompts us to impose
this reversal, because here and there in the text occur explanations that indicate certain details of the
vision are symbolic. These explanations, unfortunately, are few and far between, but are nevertheless
suggestive of the approach we should take in interpreting the vision sections of Revelation.3
The Literal vs. Figurative Hermeneutic
Apply Figurative
Hermeneutic here
SI
O
N
12I turned around to see the voice that was speaking to me.
And when I turned I saw seven golden lampstands, 13and among
the lampstands was someone like a son of man, dressed in a
robe reaching down to his feet and with a golden sash around
his chest. 14His head and hair were white like wool, as white as
snow, and his eyes were like blazing fire. 15His
5His feet were
re like
like
bronze glowing in a furnace, and his voice was like the
t sound off
rushing waters. 16In his right hand he held seven stars, and out
of
o hiss mouth came a sharp double-edged sword. His face wass like
like
kee
the
th sun
su shining
shin
h ing in all its brilliance.
17When
17W
When
en I saw him, I fell at his feet
e as though dead. Then
The
T n
he
he placed
place
laced his
hi
h s riright
ght hand on me andd ssaid:
aid: Do not be afraid. I
am
dead,
am the
thhe Firstt and the Last. 18I am the Living One; I was dead
ead,
and
an behold
beholdd I am alive forever and
an ever! And I hold the keys of
death
deathh and Hades.
de
Ha
19Write,
19
9Write, therefore, what you have seen, what is now
ow and what
will
wilill take
wwi
take place
place later. 20The mystery
e of the seven stars that you
saw
saw inn my
my right
rig handd and of the seven golden lampstands is this:s:
The
The seven
Th
sev stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the
seven
sevenn lampstands are the seven churches.
VI
-V
IS
IO
Revelation Chapter One

1The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his
servants what must soon take place. He made it known by sending his
angel to his servant John, 2who testifies to everything he saw--that is,
the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ. 3Blessed is the one
who reads the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear
it and take to heart what is written in it, because the time is near.
4John, To the seven churches in the province of Asia: Grace and
peace to you from him who is, and who was, and who is to come, and
from the seven spirits 5before his throne, and from Jesus Christ, who
is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of
the kings of the earth.
6To him who loves us an has freed us from our sins by his blood,
and has made us to be a kingdom and priests to serve his God and
Fatherto him be glory and power forever and ever! Amen.
7Look, he is coming with the clouds,
and every eye will see him,
even those who pierced him;
and all the peoples of the earth will mourn because of him.
So shall it be! Amen.
8I am the Alpha and the Omega, says the Lord God, who is, and
who was, and who is to come, the Almighty.
9I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom
and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of
Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus.
10On the Lords Day I was in the Spirit, and I heard behind me
a loud voice like a trumpet, 11which said: Write on a scroll
what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus,
Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea.
Apply Literal
Hermeneutic here
Figure 2. It is not a matter of taking Revelation either literally or figuratively, but both. If in the vision parts,
take it figuratively, if in the non-vision parts, take it literally. The text itself leads us to this principle.
It is amazing how often those seeking to explain Revelation disregard these two principles. Some
ignore the distinction between vision and explanation and seek to explain everything literally. Others
are quite arbitrary in switching back and forth, taking some things literally, some figuratively.
It is true that in some places, the two overlapunexplained symbols occur in explanation sections
(e.g., bring her to ruin and leave her naked; they will eat her flesh and burn her with fire in 17:16)
and explanations are embedded within a vision (e.g., the prayers of all the saints in Rev. 8:3)but
these are relatively easy to untangle.4 What you want to avoid is making the explanation into another
symbol that requires a further explanation beyond what the text provides.5
2. The Hermeneutic of Original Intent
We must seek to limit our interpretation to those objects and events that were well within the
authors sphere of experience.6
This means that we would be mistaken, for example, to expect the 666 riddle to be solved in a way
that depends on the English language or the ASCII code, for both are totally alien to the authors time
and culture. Many other modern explanations of Revelation are guilty of making this same mistake.7
3. The Hermeneutic of Original Audience
In studying Revelation, we must first try to understand what is being said from the perspective of
the original readers.
As the original recipients of Revelation, the Christians of the Roman province of Asia were presumably the readers John had in mind when he wrote the book. What were their concerns? What
dangers and challenges did they face? How could he encourage them not to give up their faith in Jesus
Christ? Only after determining what Revelation would mean for them can we leap across more than
19 centuries and ask what it means for us today.8
4. The Time-Frame Hermeneutic
We must take seriously the time references in the book, rather than ignoring them or explaining
them away.
At the beginning and the end of Revelation are carefully worded statements regarding when the
predictive prophecy will be fulfilled. Recognizing these as part of an explanation section (see Special
Rule 1), we should take these time frames literally. Assuming that Revelation is genuine prophecy
inspired by the Holy Spirit, we should look to its fulfillment soon after the predictions were made.
In addition to the time frames at the beginning and the end of the prophecy, John also uses verb
tenses (past, present, and future) as he explains what the visions mean. These tenses should be understood from the perspective of the original readers, not from a modern readers perspective, for we
have undergone a time shift compared to them. Their past is in our remote past. Their present is in
The Time-Frame Hermeneutic

Original Readers
Future
Past
Modern Readers
Future
Past
Time Shift
Figure 3. For any piece of ancient literature, including the Bible, todays reader must recognize that a
time shift has taken place: references to past, present, and future are displaced and may not mean the
same now as they did when originally written. Their present is our past. Their future may be past to us.
our past. Even a great deal of their future is in our more recent past.
If we disregard the time-frame hermeneutic, then we will assume that no shift has taken place:
things described in the present tense we would understand as being present for us, while things
described using the future tense we would interpret as still future for us. This hermeneutical error
wreaks havoc on the interpretation of the Book of Revelation.
Note that the time-frame hermeneutic, as regarding verb tenses and time references, applies only
to the explanation sections of the book. In the vision sections, past, present, and future tenses occur
with reference to what the apostle saw in his vision (with the past tense predominating). These tenses
do not necessarily correspond to what is in real time the past, the present, or the future, either for the
original readers or for the modern reader.
5. The Old Testament Background Hermeneutic
When choosing between two interpretations, the interpretation should be preferred which depends on the Old Testament for its symbolism or meaning.
This hermeneutic is based on rules 2 and 3, for the Old Testament was an outstanding component
in the mind-set of both the author and his original readers. In fact, the Old Testament is the most important source for the symbolism found in the Book of Revelation. In fact, the Old Testament provides
the key to Revelations numerology, its symbolic colors and animals, as well as symbolism based on
the Jewish cultus, the Exodus, and the cosmic catastrophe symbolism found in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Joel, and Zechariah (see below: Sources of the Symbolism of Revelation on pp. 7074).
6. The Historical Background Hermeneutic
In a way similar to Special Rule 4, when choosing between two interpretations, the interpretation
should be preferred which depends on the historical background for its symbolism or meaning.
This rule is reasonable because the author and his original readers share a knowledge of history,
perhaps obscure to most modern readers, which influences both what the author states and what the
readers understand.
7. The Modern Application Hermeneutic

Once we have determined the meaning of the text for the original readers, we can identify the
significance of the text of Revelation for modern readers. The modern relevance depends on whether
a particular prophecy has been fulfilled in the years since Revelation was first written. If it remains
unfulfilled, we must sort through the alternative explanations available to us (see the section entitled,
Understanding Biblical Predictive Prophecy on pp. 1621). If we determine that the prophetic prediction still awaits fulfillment in our future, then the application for us is the same as for the original
readers.
If, however, the prophecy has already been fulfilled, then the meaning for us depends on how successful we are at drawing valid analogies between the situation of the original readers and our own.9
The resultant significance for modern readers tends to consist of general, time-transcendent principles rather than specific, one-for-one correspondences.
For instance, the mark of the beast of Rev. 13 apparently found fulfillment in the immediate
future for the Christians of the first-century Roman province of Asia: they could not buy or sell without confronting the blasphemy of the Roman emperor, for His divine claims were embossed on their
coins. By analogy, modern Christians face a similar challenge of reconciling their need to earn a living
with the pervasive corruption of business and government. Like first-century Christians, we sometimes have to make hard choices, even sometimes sacrifice career advancement for the sake of personal integrity. Revelation reassures us that God appreciates such sacrifices and rewards His servants
who make them.
As we go through the text of the Apocalypse, I will point out such analogous situations and the
principles we can derive from them. With the approach to Revelation that I am convinced is the correct one, these spiritual principles constitute the primary, practical value for studying the book.
2. Internal Contexts
At the beginning of the study of such a difficult book, it can only help to examine what is involved
in studying the context. In doing so, we will begin with the sentence as a bite-sized lexical unit,10
moving ever outward in widening spirals.
a. Immediate Context Sentence, Paragraph, Book

Look for the punctuation that begins and ends the sentence, trying to understand what the sentence means isolated from the sentences around it. Then recognize this sentence as a part of a paragraph. Here it really helps to have a Bible that does not make each individual verse its own paragraph
but divides the text into paragraphs according to sense.
Watch out for the chapter divisions. They sometimes interrupt the flow of thought, sometimes
breaking up a paragraph. (At Rev. 13:1, for example, the chapter break should have been one verse
later.) The main function of chapter divisions is to break up the text into chunks of roughly equal size
so that we may find passages more readily.
One of the best ways to catch the flow of thought of a book is to read through it rapidlyseveral
times, if you can. You will start to get an overview, seeing the entire forest rather than just examining
the bark of an individual tree. Once you have a clear understanding of the book as a whole, the individual chapters and verses will fall into place.
A rapid reading of Revelation uncovers a definite structure to the book, the main blocks of which
we can diagram as in Figure 4:
A closer look discloses that two large sections of the book are missing from this outlinechapters
12 through 15 and chapters 17 through 20. If you re-read these two sections, you will find they seem to
be as important to the book as they are mysterious. We will look at them in detail later. Also, a closer
B O O K
O F
R E V E L A T I O N
So
no
fM
an
Vis
7C
ion
hur
che
so
fA
sia
At
He
ave
ns
Thr
one
7S
eal
so
fa
Sc
rol
7T
l
rum
pet
so
fW
arn
7B
ing
ow
ls o
fW
ara
Ne
th
wJ
eru
sal
em
Prologue:
Soon!
(1:1-8)
Epilogue:
Soon!
(22:6-11)
23
67
811
C H A P T E R
8
16
Figure 4. These are the obvious divisions of the Book

of Revelation. Two portions
remain, however: chapters
1215 and 1720.
Introduction: 2. Internal Contexts
look will reveal a pattern with the seals/trumpets/bowls sequence: the first six follow one another
in rapid order, but there is a pause before the seventh finally makes its entrance. This pause has the
effect of heightening the suspense as we await the final seal, the final trumpet, and the final bowl. It
also serves to give a strong emphasis on the thing done during the pause. This sequence of 1-2-3-4-56-Pause-7, 1-2-3 serves to interlock the sections like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
b. Remote Contexts Authors Other Writings, New Testament

Assuming that the Apostle John is the author of Revelation (see section on Authorship, pp.
6466), what does Revelation have in common with Johns other writingsGospel of John and
Johns Epistles? The chart below summarizes the main points.
Revelation and Johns Other Writings11

Topic
Book of Revelation
Fourth Gospel/Epistles of John
Christ as The Word
19:13
John 1:1, 14; 1 John 1:1
Christ as The Lamb
5:6, 8, 12, 13; 6:1, 3, 5, 7, 16; 7:9, 10, 15, 17;

12:11; 13:8, 11; 14:4, 10; 15:3; 17:14; 19:7, 9;
21:9, 14, 22, 23, 27.
John 1:28, 35
Christ as Shepherd
7:17
John 10:1; 21:15-17
Figures of Speech:
water, springs
manna
light vs. darkness
7:17; 21:6
2:17
21:23-25
John 4:9-15
John 6:30-63
John 1:4; 3:19-20; 8:12; 1 John
1:5-7; 2:8-11
John 1:9, 14, 17, 47; 3:21, 33;
4:18, 23, 24; 5:33; 6:32; 7:18, 28;
8:40, 44-46, 55; 14:6, 17; 15:26;
16:13; 17:17; 18:23, 37, 38; 1 John
1:6, 8, 10; 2:4, 8, 21, 22; 3:18, 19;
4:1, 6, 20; 5:6, 10, 20; 15:1; 17:3;
19:35; 21:24; 2 John 1-4; 3 John 1,
3, 4, 8, 12
true vs. false or

truth vs. lie
2:2; 3:7, 9, 14, 17; 6:10; 14:5; 15:3; 16:7, 13;

19:2, 9, 11, 20; 20:11; 21:5, 8; 22:5, 15
No need for temple
21:22
John 4:21
Use of 7 in series
churches, seals, trumpets, bowls
7 days at opening of ministry

7 signs to inspire faith
7 days of the Passion
Figure 5. Despite some differences in grammar, vocabulary, and theme, Revelation has remarkable
resemblances to Johns other writings. They help provide a background for understanding the Book of
Revelation.
The similarity between Revelation and the rest of the New Testament centers mainly on passages
involving Gods wrath (e.g. Mark 13 and parallels, 2 Thess. 1:810; 2 Peter 3). See also passages concerning resurrection (e.g. 1 Cor. 15; 1 Thess. 4 5). These and other parallels will become evident as
we go through Revelation verse by verse.
c. Remote Contexts Old Testament

The Old Testament is by far the most important source for the structure, message, and symbolism
of Revelation. A study of the Old Testament passages lying behind each part of Revelation will richly
repay any student who makes the effort. Primary Old Testament books include Ezekiel, Daniel, Joel,
Exodus, Isaiah, Psalms, Jeremiah, and Zechariah (see Figure 6). Because of the importance of these
books for the understanding of Revelation, we will take the time to look at each of the first three more
closely.
Main Old Testament Backgrounds for the Book of Revelation

Revelation
Exodus
Psalms
Isaiah
1:48
3:14; 19:6
89:27, 37
11:2; 44:6
1:920
25:31-40;
34:29-35
chap. 2
chap. 3
32:3233
69:28
22:2; 60:14; 43:4;

65:16
29:1; 96:7
6:15; 24:23
20:4
141:2
11:12, 4, 10; 53:7
2:910
2:2
13:10; 34:4; 2:10,19
14:21
49:10; 25:8
9:46
chap. 7
chap. 8
9:2326;
7:2021;
10:21-23
chap. 9
10:1215
11:20
2:9
chap. 13
20:11
21:9; 51:7; 34:10
14:1420
15:1; 40:35
16:19
9:8; 7:2021
16:1011
10:2122
16:1216
8:56
16:1721
9:2324
chap. 17
86:9
6:4
136:3
21:9; 13:1922; 40:2
4:2, 10
4:10
2:31
2:1, 30
10:56; 12:7;
8:26; 12:4, 9
37:10; 40:3
7:21
1:67,
15;
2:111
3:12
7:7; 8:10 ; 10:13
15:2
3:56 ; 7:28,
2021, 25; 11:36
51:78; 25:15
4:30
3:13
7:13
3:12
13
10:7
10:4
51:69,
1213
16:3941;
23:2529
51:8; 50:39
43:2
1:8-12;
6:1-8
6:5
51:34
51:6, 45;
50:15, 29
18:919
18:2024
24:8; 23:8
19:110
115:13
34:10
19:1121
2:9
11:35; 63:13
51:6364;
25:10
4:23,
1114
10:5
26:1617; 27:23,
1213, 22, 28-36
26:13
1:1; 39:1720
38:2,1416,
18,2122
21:18
65:1719; 43:1819;
55:1
37:27
21:927
54:1112; 60:15,
11,1920; 52:1
40:13, 5; 48:30
35; 48:16
chap. 22
40:10; 55:1
47:1, 67, 12
Psalms
Isaiah
7:24; 2:47
8:17
chap. 20
Exodus
7:910; 4:34
4:1314; 7:10
12:1
18:18
Revelation
4:2
2:8; 3:13
63:3, 6
chap. 15
4:34; 7:9, 13; 8:

17-18; 10:512;
12:7
5:23
66:78
Zechariah
1:12, 14
115:45, 7
2:1, 5;
115:13
9:4
Joel
12:1014
10:2
1:10
chap. 11
Daniel
7:13
48:35
9:15
chap. 10
14:113
1:3, 28; 3:12, 14,

22; 8:1; 33:22; 37:1;
40:1; 43:2
41:4; 44:6; 48:12;

49:2
62:2
chap. 6
chap. 12
Ezekiel
2:79
chap. 4
chap. 5
Jeremiah
Jeremiah
10
Ezekiel
7:9-10, 2122,
26; 12:1
8:8
14:7
Daniel
Joel
Zechariah
1. Ezekiel
Because Ezekiel has some of the closest parallels to Revelation of any of the Old Testament books,
an overview of its message will help us to understanding Revelation better. Ezekiels prophecy concerns events leading up to and flowing from the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
In the first half, Ezekiel tells the first wave of exiles that they might as well settle down in their
new country, because their exile from the land of Israel will last a long time. He has to burst the
bubble of their unrealistic optimism by telling them that God will destroy Jerusalem for the peoples
sins. The people thought that because Jerusalem housed the Lords temple, he would surely defend it
and not permit it to be destroyed. But Ezekiel points out that the people have defiled the temple, polluting it with their idolatry. He pictures the glory of the Lord as forsaking the temple and waiting on a
nearby hill for the destruction.
Finally the news arrives that Jerusalem has fallen. From then on, Ezekiel faces the opposite
problem. He has to convince the exiles, now plunged into despair, that God will restore the fortunes of
the Hebrew nation. In highly figurative language, Ezekiel portrays God as the defender of His people,
bringing them victory against impossible odds. Then he pictures the restored Jerusalem with its new
temple, to which Gods glory returns. The entire country is transformed into a land flowing with milk
and honey, abundant with produce and free from all threats of invasion (see Figure 7).
The parallels with Revelation are striking. In fact, so many sections line up with each other that
it would be nearly impossible to deny some kind of literary dependence. Consult Figure 8 and note
that with only two exceptions (marked with shading) the sequences are in chapter-and-verse order for
both Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation (see Figure 8).
Overview of Ezekiel
Figure 7. Ezekiel provides perhaps the most important Old Testament background to the Book of Revelation.
Revelation closely parallels its basic structure (revelation of glory, judging the saints, then offering them
hope, concluding in a glorious picture of renewed relationship with God. Revelation, however, has a much
greater focus on hope than Ezekiel.
11
Parallels Between Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation12

Throne vision (1:428)
Scroll (2:910)
Four plagues (5:1217)
Slain beside altars (6:4, 13)
Wrath comes (7:2, 56, 27)
Foreheads marked (9:4)
Throne again (10:1)
Coals scattered (10:2, 67)
No more delay (12:25)
Scroll eaten (2:9 3:9)
Cup of wrath (23:3035)
Jerusalem the whore (chap. 23)
Laments for Tyre (26:15 27:36)
Supper for birds and animals (32:46)
Throne vision (4:111)

Scroll (5:15)
First four seals (6:18)
Fifth seal: martyrs under altar (6:911)
Sixth seal: earthquake (6:12 7:1)
144,000 sealed (7;28)
Multitude before throne (7:917)
Seventh seal: coals throne on earth (8:15)
No more delay (10:17)
Scroll eaten (10:811)
Cup of wrath (14:612)
Babylon the whore (17:16)
Laments for Babylon (18:924)
Supper for birds (19:1721)
Dry bones resurrection (chap. 37)
First resurrection (20:1-6)
Gog from Magog (chap. 38)

Gog and Magog (20:710)
Judgment (39:21)
Judgment (20:1115)
Temple vision (chap. 40)
New Jerusalem (21:18)
Temple walls and gates (chap. 40)
City gates and walls (21:921)
Gods glory returns to the temple (43:16)
Gods glory in new Jerusalem (21:22-23)
Ever-deepening river (chap. 47)
River of life (21:22 22:5)
Figure 8. The parallels between Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation are remarkable. It is even more
amazing that with the exception of the eating of the scroll (see shaded cell above), all of the parallels
are in order. These alignments are too synchronized to be unintentional.
2. Daniel
Daniel is the second most important Old Testament book for the understanding of Revelation. Like
Ezekiel, Daniels prophetic ministry took place away from the promised land during the Babylonian
Exile period (about 597 to 539 B.C.). Daniel served as a government official, first for the Babylonians
and then for the Persians, while steadfastly continuing his devotion to the Lord. He set a sterling
example of how to maintain faithfulness despite being under the political domination of wicked overlords. The situation in his day was similar to what the Christians of the Roman province of Asia faced
in the first century.
The first half of Daniels book (chapters 16) is a biography of Daniel with two glimpses as three
of his friends, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, better known by their Babylonian names, Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego. They faced one test after another, all aimed at making them give up their
loyalty to God for the sake of career advancement or personal safety. They met every challenge with a
rock-solid determination to serve the Lord alone, refusing to compromise with idolatry.
Interspersed among these narratives are three predictive prophecies: Nebuchadnezzars dream of
a statue composed of four metals (chapter 2), his dream of the great tree cut down (chapter 4), and the
writing on the wall during Belshazzars feast (chapter 5). Although the first prophecy is the most significant, predicting as it does world history for hundreds of years into Daniels future, the theme of all three
prophecies is the same: God is the ruler over the kings of the earth (2: 3738, 47; 4:3,17, 2526, 32,
3435; 5:18, 21). In fact this message recurs in every one of the first six chapters of Daniel (see also 1:2;
12
3:26, 2829; 6:2627), establishing a firm base for the rest of the book, a series of predictive prophecies
extending from Daniels day until at least the Roman destruction of Jerusalem 600 years later.
Nebuchadnezzars dream in chapter 2 seems to provide structure to the rest of the book (see
Figure 9). The metals in the image represent successive kingdoms that would arise, beginning with
Nebuchadnezzars own (Babylonian, the head of gold). The other kingdoms, symbolized by the silver,
the bronze, and the iron, are undoubtedly Medo-Persian, Greek, and Roman. The images feet, composed of iron mixed with clay, apparently represents the first-century Roman empire (partly strong,
partly weak), during which Gods kingdom would be established. Gods kingdom is represented by a
rock that demolishes the statue and then grows into a mountain that fills the whole earth.
Overview of Daniel
CHAPTER
IN DANIEL
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
PAST: EXAMPLES OF FAITHFULNESS FUTURE: BE FAITHFUL THROUGH TOUGH
THE LORD GOD RULES OVER THE KINGS OF THE E ARTH
1st Kingdom
(Babylonian)
2nd Kingdom
(Medo-Persian)
1:1
1:21
3rd Kingdom
(Greek)
4th Kingdom
(Roman)
Gods
Kingdom
OVERVIEW: DREAM OF FOUR-PART STATUE

HEAD
2:3638
CHEST/ARMS
2:39a
BELLY/THIGHS
2:39b
LEGS/FEET
2:4043
ROCK/
MOUNTAIN
2:4445
Whole Chapter
Whole Chapter
5:129
5:30
Whole Chapter
OVERVIEW: DREAM OF FOUR BEASTS
LION
7:4
BEAR
7:5
LEOPARD
7:6
TERRIFYING SON OF MAN

7:78,11, 19 7:910, 1314,
21; 2325
22, 2627
Overall Explanation: 7:17-18

8:1
9:12, 25
8:34, 20
8:514, 2125
70 SEVENS ARE DECREED
10:1, 13, 20a
10:20b
11:12
11:335
9:2627
11:3645
12:1, 4,
12:23, 13
913
Figure 9. One of several ways to diagram the Book of Daniel is to view it in terms of the five kingdoms
the book describes. These kingdoms are together described in Nebuchadnezzars dream of chapter
2 and in Daniels vision of chapter 7. Note that the focus of attention in Daniels prophecies slowly
shifts forward through time. At first it concentrates on the prophets own time, then moves further
and further in to the future. Revelations visions seem to have a similar forward shift.
12
The book of Daniel, therefore, concerns five kingdoms: Babylonian, Medo-Persian, Greek, Roman, and Gods. In the second half of the book (chapters 712), Daniel learns what will happen in the
future. After chapter 7 provides an overview parallel to that of chapter 2, the spotlight of the succeeding prophecies falls now on one kingdom, now on another, but with a definite future-shift toward the
time when Gods kingdom would be established (see the chart on page 14).
The book concludes with a time-frame which provides a stark contrast with the ones at the beginning and end of the Book of Revelation. Daniels learns that his prophecies concern the time of
the end (Dan. 12:4, 9), and therefore must be sealed and closed up. In other words, his predictions
13
stretching centuries into his future were of no practical relevance to his own generation.
In contrast, an angel tells John, Do not seal up the words of the prophecy of this book, because
the time is near. Revelation was practical and relevant for the first-century believers who first received it. It prepared them to be faithful through a horrendous persecution about to break out upon
them. It taught them lessons similar to those of Daniel: Be steadfast in your stand against paganism
(Rev. 2:1416, 20; 9:2021; 14:45; 21:27; 22:1415). The Lord is the ruler over the kings of the earth
(Rev. 1:5; 17:14; 19:16). John himself, like Daniel, sets an example of faithfulness through trials (Rev.
1:9).
The parallel sections Revelation shares with Daniel, though not as numerous as with Ezekiel, are
still very important (see Figure 10).
Parallels Between Daniel and the Book of Revelation

Daniel
God as ruler of the kings of the earth (1:2;
2:37-38; 4:17, 25, 32, 34-35, 37; 5:18-21, 26;
6:25-27; 7:13-14, 22, 27)
Son of Man (7:13)
Lion, bear, leopard (7:4-6)
10 horns (7:7)
Time, times, and half a time (7:25)
Revelation
Christ as ruler of kings of the earth (1:5; 2:26-27;
5:10; 11:15; 12:10; 19:1-2, 6, 15-16; 22:5)
Son of Man (1:13)

Lion, bear, leopard (13:2)
10 horns (12:3; 13:1; 17:3, 12-14, 16-17)
Time, times, and half a time (12:14)
(=42 months 11:2; 13:5;
or 1260 days 11:3; 12:6)
10 + 1 - 3 (=8) horns (7:8)
7 + 1 (=8) heads (17:11)
Seal the book (12:4, 9)
Dont seal the book (22:10)
CONTRAST
Righteous will stay righteous;
Wicked will stay wicked;
wicked will stay wicked (12:10)
Righteous will stay righteous (22:11)
Figure 10. Although parallels between Daniel and Revelation are extensive, note that unlike those
with Ezekiel, they are not in order. They are significant, however, and some are almost quotations.
3. Joel
The Nations
Repent!
suffering warning signs:

locusts, plague, drought
(1:212, 1520; 2:19, 11)
1:1314; 2:1, 1217, 32
Gods Sinful People
nt
mna
Re
tent 829
Peni 2:1
Stubborn, Willful
Disobedience
Gathering Against God

3:214
2:32 3:1, 11, 2021
Apocalyptic Calamities
Time of
Writing
DELIVERANCE!
DOOM!
DOOM!
for the wicked,
godless nations
The Day of the L ORD
Overview of Joel
Figure 11. Starting out with a description of the warning signs of impending doom, Joel makes a bold call
for the people to repent, followed by a promise of spiritual revival and material renewal if they respond to
the call. The alternative--destruction as certain as their current woes--the prophet leaves unstated.
14
Although not nearly so important as Ezekiel and Daniel, the Book of Joel also provides significant
parallels to the Book of Revelation. Joel, a prophet of Israel in the eighth century B.C., declared that
the drought and locust plague the people were suffering were only the advance signals that a greater
punishment would soon come. He warned his contemporaries to repent before Gods wrath descended upon them in force. He promised that if they did repent, God would not only take away the drought
and the locusts, but He would also bless them agriculturally and send His Spirit down on them all. He
would judge the nations and provide His people with security (see Figure 11).
Figure 12 lists suggested parallels between Joel and the Book of Revelation. Two of these, the
army of locusts and the double harvest, are stronger parallels than others.
Parallels Between Joel and the Book of Revelation

Joel
Call to repentance (2:14)
Trumpet as warning of wrath (2:1)
Army of locusts (2:211)
Gathering of the army (3:912)
Wheat harvest & grape vintage (3:13)
Defeat of opposing army (3:1416)
Jerusalem holy, safe, & secure (3:12)
Fountain from temple waters valley (3:18)
Revelation
Call to repentance (2:5, 16; 3:3; chaps. 19 20)
Seven trumpets (chaps. 8 9)
Army of locusts (9:311)
Gathering of the army (16:16)
Wheat harvest & grape vintage (14:1420)
Defeat of opposing army (19:1921)
Jerusalem new, holy, & secure (chaps. 21 22)
River of life (22:12)
Figure 12. Third in significance after Ezekiel and Daniel, Joel supplies the background for understanding the locusts and the symbolism of wrath as a wheat harvest and grape vintage.
4. The Exodus from Egypt

Another important Old Testament background to consider for Revelation is the Exodus of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage. Figure 13 below summarizes the parallels:
Parallels Between the Exodus from

Egypt and the Book of Revelation
The Exodus from Egypt
Water turned into blood (Exod. 7:1424)
Plagues on Egyptians (Exod. 7 12)
Song of Moses (Exod. 15:118)
Thunder, lightning, & earthquake at Sinai
(Exod. 19:18; 20:18)
Priests linen & sash (Exod. 39:2729)
Glory of LORD fills tabernacle (Exod. 40:3435)
Three tribes camp on each side of tabernacle
(Num. 2)
Ground swallows up rebels (Num. 16:2234)
Hundred-pound hail (Josh. 10:11)
Revelation
Water turned into blood (11:6)
Trumpets & bowls of wrath (chaps. 15 16)
Song of Moses & the Lamb (15:3)
Lightning, thunder, & earthquake
(4:5; 8:5; 11:19)
Elders wear linen & sash (15:6)
Glory of God fills temple (15:8)
Three tribe-gates on each side of walls
(21:1214)
Ground swallows river (12:16)
Hail as punishment (11:19)
Figure 13. The Exodus provides significant background material for understanding the symbolism of
the Book of Revelation, especially the 10 plagues, as well as the sights and sounds of Sinai.
15
5. The Jewish tabernacle/temple worship

Closely related to the Exodus is the tabernacle/temple with its furnishings and priestly service. All
of the Jewish tabernacle-centered worship began at the foot of Mount Sinai and continued with a few
interruptions for at least 1300 years. Much of this recurs in Revelation as symbols of heavenly realities
(see Figure 14).
With the skill of a master weaver, the authorship team of one human author and the triune divine
Author wove together all of these elements and more from the Old Testament to encourage the Asian
Christians and us. Anyone reading Revelation today should do so with a cross-reference Bible, watching for significant Old Testament passages.
Jewish Tabernacle/Temple Worship as Background

for the Symbols of the Book of Revelation
COURTYARD
HOLY OF
HOLIES
Table of Shewbread
HOLY
PLACE
Bronze Sea
Bronze Altar of
Burnt Offering
4:6; 15:2
6:911
Golden Altar
of Incense
Ark of the
Covenant
11:19 and references to

the Throne of God
Golden Seven-Branched
Lampstand
8:3
1:4; 4:5
Tabernacle, 15:5
Temple & courtyard, 11:12
Figure 14. In keeping with the pervasive theme of Revelation that Christs followers are the true Israel,
Revelation employs imagery based on the details of the Jewish tabernacle/temple. All of these also emphasize Gods holiness and that His actions in behalf of His saints are holy acts.
6. Understanding biblical predictive prophecy

Referring to various passages in the Old Testament is not all that is involved in the Old Testament
background of Revelation. We must also consider the nature of predictive prophecy. Not all prophecies should be interpreted in the same way. Here is a quick survey of the variety of ways that biblical
prophecies can find fulfillment. Look up the example passages to understand each category more
thoroughly.
Although we tend to make prophecy and prediction synonymous, not all true biblical prophecies
were predictive. At times, a prophet of God merely points out the guilt of his people and calls them to
repentance. Old Testament examples of this type of prophecy include Micah 6:1-8 and Isaiah 1:1-20.
Even if a prophecy includes any number of predictions, we must try to distinguish between shortrange fulfillment, long-range fulfillment, and dual fulfillment. Unfulfilled predictions fall into three
categories: aborted predictions because of unfulfilled conditions, spiritual fulfillments, and predictions whose fulfillments are still in our future.13 Each deserves a closer examination.
Short-range fulllment
Many biblical prophecies were intended by the prophet to be fulfilled in the immediate future
certainly within the lifetime of the prophets contemporaries (this generation on Figure 15, based on
Jesus time frame in Mark 13:30 and parallels, I tell you the truth, this generation will certainly not
pass away until all of these things have happened).14
Given the time frames at the beginning and end of Revelation (1:1-3; 22:6, 10), we should expect
16
Short-Range Fulllment
Meaning for
us only by
analogy
Present
Moment
Ce
hi
T
ur
nt
ne
ie
Ge
Time of
Writing
r
te
La
n
tio
ra
Figure 15. Some biblical predictions were short-range, fulfilled within the lifetime of the original hearers. Meaning for modern readers is only by analogy. Examples: 2 Kings 7:120; Jer. 25:1114; Luke
21:33; Acts 11:2728
many or all of its prophecies to fall into this category. For example, Jesus predicts that the Christians
of Smyrna will suffer a persecution that will expose them to imprisonment and even martyrdom.
Doubtless this prediction was fulfilled within the lifetime of the original readers. It is not a prediction of something still future to us. Likewise, Jesus promises the Philadelphians that they will escape
persecution. This had a short-range fulfillment in what happened to the original readers from that city
of Roman Asia.15
Long-range fulfillment Other predictions, however, extend beyond the immediate situation and
audience. They concern events in the remote future, sometimes centuries removed from the prophet
and his contemporaries. A good example is Gods prediction to Abraham of the Egyptian bondage
(Gen. 15:13-16). This prophecy began to be fulfilled nearly a hundred years after the death of Abraham, continuing to unfold over the next 400 years.
Some of the predictions in Revelation may have long-range fulfillments, but we would have to find
strong contextual and historical evidence to persuade us to leave behind the short-range fulfillment
category.
Long-Range Fulllment
Meaning for
us only by
analogy
Present
Moment
tio
r
te
La
ra
ne
Ge
s
ie
ur
s
hi
nt
Ce
Time of
Writing
Figure 16. Some biblical predictions were long-range, fulfilled long after the lifetimes of the original
hearers. Meaning for modern readers is still only by analogy. Examples: Gen. 15:1316 (fulfilled in Exod.
12:4042); Dan. 2:3743 (fulfilled in Acts 1 and 2).
17
If the prediction has already taken place in our past, despite its long-range nature from the perspective of the original audience, we can make application of the prophecy only by analogy. From our
point of view then, as far as getting a practical lesson for us, prophecies with long-range fulfillments
are just like prophecies with short-range fulfillments. The fulfillments of both are in our past, though
they were in the future for the original audience, whether the immediate or the distant future.
Dual fulllment
Other prophecies prove to be a combination of short-range and long-range fulfillment. These, in
other words, have a dual fulfillment.16 To the original audience of the prophecy, it would seem to be
short-range, with a fulfillment perhaps taking place soon after the prophecy was made. But another
fulfillment occurs centuries later. Many of the messianic prophecies fall under this category, such as
the betrayal of Jesus by Judas. Isaiahs prediction of the virginal conception of Jesus apparently is an
example of dual fulfillment, for the context of Isaiah 7 seems to demand an immediate fulfillment (a
natural conception), while the New Testament clearly speaks of Marys conceiving Jesus while still a
virgin (a supernatural conception).17
Dual Fulllment
Meaning for
us only by
analogy
Present
Moment
ne
ie
Ge
ur
nt
hi
Ce
Time of
Writing
r
te
La
tio
ra
Figure 17. Some biblical predictions had dual fulfillments: one within the lifetimes of the original hearers and another as much as hundreds of years later. Meaning for modern readers is only by analogy.
Examples: Ps. 69:25; 109:8 (see Acts 1:20); Isa. 7:14 (see Matt. 1:2223).
Again, some of the predictive prophecies in Revelation may have a dual fulfillment, but such is
hard to prove without further revelation to point out the second fulfillment. To resort to the dual fulfillment explanation without contextual support or further revelation to confirm it is irresponsible.
Unfullled prediction due to unmet conditions

Not all genuine prophecies have been fulfilled, however. Some prophecies have not yet been
fulfilled and, in fact, never will be fulfilled. This is because all along they were conditional prophecies, and because the conditions were not met, the prophecy aborted. This can be true whether the
prophecy is for doom and destruction or for the dawning of a new golden age. God taught Jeremiah
that conditions are a part of virtually every predictive prophecy,18 for human beings, whether as individuals or as governments, are like clay in the hands of the master Potter (Jer. 18:1-10). Because the
prophet Jonah was aware of the conditional nature of predictive prophecy, he got on a ship bound in
the opposite direction from Nineveh. He knew that if he preached to the Ninevites that they had only
40 days to live, they might repent and avoid the disaster God had in mind for them. This, in fact, is
exactly what happened.
18
Unfullled Due to Unmet Conditions
Meaning for us:

examples of the results of faithfulness
& unfaithfulness
Ce
hi
T
Present
Moment
nt
ur
s
ne
ie
Ge
Time of
Writing
r
te
tio
La
ra
Figure 18. Some biblical predictions were never fulfilled, not because they were not genuine prophecies,
but because they were conditional and the conditions were not met. Meaning for modern readers is only
general lessons regarding the results of faithfulness and disobedience. Examples: Jer. 18:110; Jer.
26:1619; Jonah 3:110.
Yet note that the condition was not stated in the prophecy itself. Jonah merely preached, Forty
more days and Nineveh will be destroyed (Jonah 3:4). The people repented, assuming that the
prophecy was conditional, and God spared the city of Nineveh for another hundred years. Of course,
the Bible records a few prophecies that proved to be unconditional, such as the death of Davids infant
son (2 Sam. 12:13-23) and the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem (Jer. 7:1-20). But these appear to
be exceptions to the general rule that predictive prophecies are conditional.
Clearly some of the predictive prophecies in Revelation are in this category. Consult for instance
the Spirits letters to the Seven Churches of Asia (chapters 2 and 3). Christ reveals the consequences
they will suffer if they do not repent (e.g., 2:5: I will come to you and remove your lampstand from
its place) and the blessings they will enjoy if they do (e.g., 2:7: the right to eat from the tree of life,
which is in the paradise of God). These two prophecies are alternate futures; both cannot be true. The
conditions of the one were met and the prediction fulfilled; the conditions of the other went unmet
and the prediction aborted. We should watch for more examples of conditional predictions in Revelation, keeping in mind that the conditions may be present though unstated.
Unfullled literally but fullled spiritually

Other prophecies, which appear to be unfulfilled actually ought to be regarded as fulfilled prophecies, because their fulfillment was not literal but spiritual. Both Old Covenant and New Covenant
prophets used a great deal of figurative language in their predictions (e.g., Deut. 28:13, 23, 44b). We
should seek to recognize the hyperbole and the metaphors and not take them literally. Even prophetic
language that appears to be literal may in reality have a spiritual fulfillment. For example, when
the prophet Nathan promised David that he would never fail to have a descendant on the throne of
Israel (2 Sam. 7:16), that prediction has not been literally fulfilled in the sense that a monarch sits on
a literal throne ruling over Israel today. Yet the spiritual fulfillment in King Jesus (Col. 1:13; 1 Cor.
15:2528; Rev. 19:1116) is greater by far than any literal fulfillment would have been.
It is certainly possible that some of the predictive prophecies in the Book of Revelation have had
or will have a spiritual fulfillment. But like the discerning of dual prophecies, discerning whether a
prophecy has a spiritual fulfillment is very difficult in that it involves highly subjective judgments.
19
Spiritual Fulllment
Meaning for
us only by
analogy
Ce
Present
Moment
ur
nt
hi
T
ie
Ge
Time of
Writing
tio
r
te
ra
La
ne
Figure 19. Some biblical predictions were short-range, fulfilled within the lifetime of the original hearers.
Meaning for modern readers is only by analogy. Examples: 2 Kings 7:120; Jer. 25:1114; Luke 21:33;
Acts 11:2728
Only further revelation validates the correctness of such an interpretation. Lacking such further revelation, we should content ourselves with drawing analogies between the situation first-century Asian
Christians faced and what we face today, applying some of Johns prophecies to our situation only
in principle. Those who seek spiritual fulfillments for most of the prophecies of Revelation are hard
pressed to explain why John went into so much detail, and why their explanation is any more suitable
than an alternative spiritual fulfillment.
Unfullled prediction still awaiting fulllment in our future

The last category of unfulfilled predictive prophecies are those that await a literal fulfillment in
Prediction Awaiting Future Fulllment
Meaning for
us same as
for original
readers
nt
Ce
Present
Moment
tio
r
te
La
ra
ne
Ge
s
ie
ur
hi
Time of
Writing
Figure 20. Some biblical predictions remain unfulfilled, awaiting a literal fulfillment in the future. Examples: John 5:2829; Rom. 8:1825; 1 Cor. 15:5154; Phil. 3:2021; 2 Thess. 1:510.
20
our future (see Figure 20). Certainly most modern Christians would agree that we still await the final
resurrection (1 Cor. 15:5153), the ultimate punishment of wickedness (2 Thess. 1:6-10), and the
transformation of creation (Rom. 8:1825). Granted, some would claim that these have had spiritual
fulfillments, and there may be some who would hold that they will never be fulfilled because of unmet
conditions. But most of us are still looking for the dawning of the eternal Day with an undiminished
hope.
The tendency, however, is to lump together all unfulfilled prophecies into this category. Rather
than recognizing the other two possibilities (unmet conditions, spiritual fulfillment) and searching
for clues to guide us in sorting out the alternatives, we just assume that someday, somehow, a literal
fulfillment awaits. This is a grave hermeneutical error that plagues students of both Old Covenant and
New Covenant prophecy.
In the case of predictions in Revelation, we face a wide diversity of opinion regarding whether
predictions have been fulfilled, and if not, whether they await a fulfillment in our future. Most Christians believe, for example, that the judgment depicted in the latter half of chapter 20 and the coming of the New Jerusalem described in chapters 21 and 22 are still in our future. I will not deny that
possibility, given the sequence of what John saw in those chapters. But other explanations are also
possible, as we will see.
Attempt to classify each prophecy you encounter We cannot interpret any predictive prophecy in the Bible until we have determined where it fits among this range of outcomes. Was it fulfilled
shortly after the prediction occurred (short-range fulfillment) or hundreds of years later (long-range),
or both (dual)? If it remains an unfulfilled prophecy, is it an aborted prophecy due to unmet conditions, a prophecy fulfilled spiritually but not literally, or is its fulfillment still in our future?
Such careful analysis is fundamental to proper interpretation of biblical predictive prophecies.
Without it, we will not overcome the confusion and despair that much of the teaching and preaching
on biblical prophecy has caused.
Rethink Biblical Prophecy?

The approach I just outlined is certainly a lot
more involved than the one you may have heard
on television or at church, or read in commentaries or end-times novels. It may seem at first that
I am throwing away the relevance of the Bible for
our time, since only one out of six possible interpretations is a literal fulfillment still future to us.
I respond by pointing out that so many of the
claims of Todays headlines in Bible prophecy
over the past 35 years have been overturned by
the unfolding events of world history. For instance,
Russia has not invaded the Middle East, Armageddon did not happen within a generation of the
1948 founding of Israel (defining a generation as
40 years), and we have not witnessed the rebuilding of a Jerusalem temple. What damage does a
growing pile of failed predictions do to the credibility of biblical prophecy in the minds of listeners?
Rather than ignoring missed predictions and
then, in a revised edition, recalculating (such as
defining a generation as lasting 70 years), students of prophecy ought to question whether they
are being methodical in identifying fulfillments
and analyzing what methodology they employ.

In particular, consistently applying the literal
hermeneutic (an approach too often defended
as the hallmark of biblical orthodoxy) is too simplistic. To be sure, some prophetic predictions are
literal and of these, some are still future to us.
But we should explain what in the text leads us
to understand them as literal, why they are longrange rather than short-range, and on what basis
we should regard them as unconditional.
Usually, so-called prophetic experts avoid all of
this hard work and make their new sensationalist
predictions to crowds of listeners who are unaware
of past blunders and never told of alternative explanations. The predictions keep coming and flopping, but the sensationalism doesnt seem to lag.
Each fulfillment category has relevance for us,
but it varies according to the category. What we
need is more awareness of the possibilities, more
sophisticated understanding of the indicators in
each context, and more appreciation for the richness of Scripture. That is not mishandling prophecy but taking it as seriously as it deserves.
21
Geography of the Book of Revelation19
Figure 21. The seven cities of Revelation were all within the Roman province of Asia. The list as it occurs in Rev. 1:11,
repeated in the order of the letters of chapters 2 and 3, is in geographical order. Other biblical cities of the province
of Asia include Troas, Assos, Adreamyttium, Miletus, Hierapolis, and Colossae.
22
3. External Contexts
a. Geographical and historical backgrounds20
survey of Revelations geography helps to anchor this prophecy to a particular place, and examining its historical background links it to a particular time. As with other biblical books, we
are not reading fairy tales but the struggles real people faced in the real cities where they lived.
In the 13th century, B.C., Mycenaean Greeks came to the western shores of Asia Minor (modern
Turkey) in a series of raids that included the famous siege of Troy described in Homers Iliad. Soon
after, they settled in towns along the coast, a region that came to be called
Ionia. During the eighth to sixth centuries B.C., this region came under the
control of the powerful and wealthy kings of Sardissee Herodotus for the
detailsthen known as Lydia. In 547/546 B.C., Cyrus defeated Croesus, the
most famous king of Lydia, and captured Sardis.21
The Persians ruled Lydia for two centuries until Alexander the Great
defeated them and liberated the region. At Alexanders death in 323 B.C.,
members of his general staff (known as the Diadochoi, The Companions
or The Successors) divided his empire. They included Antipater, Eumenes,
Perdiccas, Antigonus (The One-Eyed), Lysimachus, Ptolemy, Leonnatus,
and Seleucus. For the next 40 years, they fought each other for control of
portions of Alexanders legacy, with the Ionian region changing hands several
times. By 281 B.C., when Seleucus, the last of the Diadochoi, died, all of Asia
Minor was firmly in the hands of the Seleucids under Antiochus I.
Lysimachuss treacherous treasurer, Philataerus, ruled Lydia for Antiochus. Philataerus selected Pergamum over Sardis as his capital. His brother
Attalus I succeeded him. Attalus was the first of a six-king dynasty (called
Attalid after him) that ruled the kingdom for the next 150 years. During the
Figure 22. By conquering all the
territory between Greece and Inreign of the Attalid kings, the entire region enjoyed great prosperity. In 133
dia, Alexander changed the course
B.C., when Attalus III, the last Attalid king, was about to die without an heir,
of world history. To the Ionians, livhe bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans.
ing on the west coast of Asia Minor, his victories over the Persians
ecognizing the fantastic windfall they were receiving, the Romans
were a liberation.
accepted the gift and soon reorganized the Attalid territories into the
Alexander
province of Asia, retaining Pergamum as its capital. (When we speak

of Asia in connection with the Book of Revelation, it is to this Roman province that we are referringroughly equivalent to the western most third of what is now Turkeynot
to the immense continent of the same name that stretches from the Hellespont to the Pacific Ocean.)
The province was regarded as one of the richest sources of revenue in the empire, and a choice plum
for a provincial governor.
Asia continued under Roman rule until Byzantine times. It fell to the Muslim invaders in the
seventh century A.D. and eventually became part of the Ottoman Empire. After World War I, Greeks
gained British support for their claims for Ionia against the counterclaims of Turkey. By 1922, negotiations had broken down, leading to a bloody conflict in which the Turks drove out or exterminated
all of the Greek and Armenian Christian residents. Estimates put the number of slain in Smyrna alone
23
Introduction: 3. External Contexts
at well over 100,000. Since 1922, the population within the area that once was the Roman province of
Asia has been almost 100% Muslim.22 Today, much to the dismay of the Turkish government, artifacts of the Roman province of Asia are distributed in museums located not only in Turkey, but also
in other countries throughout the world, including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Australia,
and the United States.23
Four east-to-west river valleys watered the province of Asia. In ancient times, their names were,
from north to south: the Caicus, the Hermus, the Cayster, and the Meander. The Lycus is a tributary
of the Meander, joining it one hundred miles upstream from its mouth. The entire area was rich in
agriculture and commerce, serving as the gateway to the rest of Asia.
See Figure 23 for the position of the island of Patmos from which the Apostle John wrote Revelation and for the locations of the seven Asian cities whose Christian communities comprised its original recipients. The map also shows other cites of
the province of Asia, including those mentioned
in the Book of Acts: Troas, Assos, Adramyttium, and Miletus. Though Acts does not mention Patmos, it does refer to several of the other
islands off the coast of Asia Minor, including
Samothrace, Chios, Samos, Cos, and Rhodes.
Lesbos is not mentioned, but Acts does refer to
its principal port, Mitylene.
Of the seven Asian cities mentioned in Revelation, Pauls letters refer to two, Ephesus and
Laodicea. It is possible that at one time or another he visited all seven. The most likely time
for such visits was during his three-year stay in
Ephesus at the beginning of his Third Missionary Journey (Acts 19). The author of Acts reports that during that period, all the Jews and
Greeks living in the province of Asia heard the
word of the Lord.... the word of the Lord spread
widely and grew in power (Acts 19:10, 20). A
careful tracing of Pauls subsequent journey
to Greece suggests that he probably traveled
through Smyrna and perhaps Pergamum (Acts
20:1-2; 2 Cor. 2:12-13).
If Paul himself did not found churches in
these cities, they arose soon after his time, for
they were already well established at the time
of the writing of Revelation (see Rev. 2:4-5, 13,
19). For more, see comments on the individual
cities, below.
Patmos26
Figure 23. Patmos, a 34 sq. km. (13 sq. mi.) island in the Southern Sporades, is the undisputed site of the Revelation visions.
1. The island of Patmos24
Situated about 60 km. (37 mi.) west-southwest of Miletus, Patmos is an island composed
of rocky, volcanic hills about 16 km. long and
9.5 km. across at its widest point (10 mi. x 6
mi.). According to Tacitus, the Romans used such small islands of the Aegean Sea as places of political
banishment.25
This fits what John himself says: I was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and
the testimony of Jesus (Rev. 1:9). An early tradition says that the Emperor Domitian banished John
24
to Patmos in A.D. 95 and that he was not released until Nerva succeeded Domitian 18 months later.27
Whether this tradition corresponds to what actually happened is in dispute, however, because internal evidence seems to support an earlier dating for the writing of Revelation (see Date of the writing
of the Book of Revelation, pp. 6768). A monastery founded in A.D. 1088 stands over the traditional
Cave of the Apocalypse, where John is thought to have written his apocalypse.
2. Ephesus28
Ephesus lay at the mouth of the Cayster River, astride an important north-south trade route and
at the end of an east-west one. It was probably built before Ionian times, which means that in the
first century A.D., it was more than 700 years old. At the time of the writing of the Book of Revelation,
Ephesus probably had a population of about 250,000, making it the fourth largest city of the Empire
(after Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch of Syria).
Today, it is known as Efes and lies about two miles from the Turkish city of Seluk (2008 population: 27,555).
Ephesus was famous for its temple of Artemis (the Diana of the Romans), built in the fifth century
B.C. on the site of an earlier cult site, probably devoted to Cybele, the mother goddess. The original
structure, destroyed by fire in 356 B.C., was rebuilt entirely of marble on a grand scale: 110 m. long and
55 m. wide (328 x 180 ft.), with 127 pillars, each 18.3 m. (60 ft.) high. This was the largest structure in
the Greek world and was included among the Seven Wonders of the World. The Artemision (as it was
called) had the privilege of sanctuary, which means that criminals remaining within its bounds were
safe from capture or prosecution.
Of the Seven Cities, Ephesus is one of the most thoroughly excavated. The site is confusing, however, because second-century and even Byzantine structures stand among ruins of the first century
(see Figure 24). Nevertheless, many buildings dating back to the time of Revelation are available for
examination, including a gymnasium, a stadium, luxurious baths, the agora (marketplace), a brothel,
29
Plan of Ancient Ephesus
Figure 24. The city of Ephesus was

built on and around Mount Pion and
next to the Aegean Sea. As the Cayster
River continued to carry silt down from
the highlands, however, the shoreline
kept moving farther and farther out
to sea. Shortly after New Testament
times, Ephesus acquired an artificial
harbor to connect it to the coast, but
even this measure proved inadequate:
the artificial harbor required constant
maintenance to prevent it from silting
up. Eventually, the expense of keeping
the harbor open outweighed its benefit, and Ephesus lost its prominence.
25
and the theater in which the riot of Acts

19 occurred.
Ephesus also featured a huge temple
and altar to the emperor Domitian,
built on a terrace 100 m. long and 50 m.
wide (328 x 164 ft.). Domitians temple
included a colossal statue of the emperor,
four times larger than life size. After
Domitians assassination, the citizens of
Ephesus apparently tore down the statue,
but its head and forearm have survived.
Maintaining the navigability of the
Cayster was a constant challenge, as the
river deposited more and more silt at its
mouth. At one time, the waters of the Aegean washed against the docks of Ephesus. Today, its ruins are separated from
the sea by 6 miles of cotton fields. Shortly
after the time of the Apocalypse, during
the reign of Hadrian, the city diverted
the river and built an artificial harbor,
but it was only a temporary solution. The
struggle to keep the waterway dredged
continued for generations until the effort
was recognized as futile, and Ephesus
found itself landlocked, its former importance vanishing.
The city did continue to survive for
centuries. In A.D. 431, Ephesus was host
to the church council that resolved the
Nestorian controversy regarding the divine and human nature of Jesus Christ.30
According to Acts 19, Paul spent
more than two years in Ephesus. Near
the end of his time there he stated that a
great door for effective work has opened
to me, and there are many who oppose
me (1 Cor. 16:9). The opponents even
started a riot, endangering Paul and the
lives of the other Ephesian Christians.
Shortly after the riot, Paul left Ephesus,
Figure 25. Uncovered by excavations that be-gan in 1960, the two Terperhaps never to return. The next spring
race Houses (also called Slope Houses) reveal how wealthy people
he did manage to stop at nearby Miletus
of first-century Ephesus lived and are thought to be typical of the westto meet with the elders of Ephesus, warnern insula of the ancient city. House A covered an area of about 370
sq.m. (3,983 sq. ft.) but stairs in the southwest corner indicate the
ing them of troubles to come, even from
house had a second floor. House B was considerably larger, at 650
their own number (Acts 20:17-38).
sq.m. (6,997 sq. ft.). Its stairs on the southeast wall indicate that it
All of this was nearly twenty years
also had a second floor. Both houses are open to Ephesus visitors.
before the writing of Revelation (assuming the middle date of about A.D. 75). In
about 63 Paul wrote to the Ephesians from Rome where he was under house arrest (Acts 28:30-31;
Eph. 6:20). Released from his first Roman imprisonment, Paul traveled about, perhaps visiting Ephe-
Terrace Houses at Ephesus
26
sus again. His First Epistle to Timothy (c. 65) was also apparently intended for the Ephesian congregation (see 1 Tim. 1:3; 3:14-15). Timothy was probably still in Ephesus when he received Pauls second
epistle a year or two later (see 2 Tim. 1:16-18; 4:19).
Many scholars also believe that Johns three epistles originated from or concern the Ephesian
church, though their date is uncertain. If we also include the Fourth Gospel, this means that a considerable portion of the New Testament involves the church of Ephesus, over a period extending from the
early 50s to perhaps as late as the 90s.
3. Smyrna31
The original site of Smyrna lies at the northern end of the Gulf of Izmir in a section now known
as Bayrakli. It featured a temple dedicated to Athena and was one of the first Greek cities with streets
laid out in a north-south, east-west grid pattern. As Figure 26 depicts, a considerable portion of the
population lived outside the city walls. When the Lydian conquerors came through the area, Smyrna
resisted and suffered a total destruction (600 B.C.).
Legend says that Alexander rebuilt Smyrna, which
would have been about 340 B.C. A more likely view
32
is that Alexander ordered its reconstruction, but his
successors actually carried out the plan, which would
date the founding of the new city around 300 B.C. The
rebuilt city, located about 5.7 km. (3.5 mi.) southwest
of the former one, was very beautiful, with straight
streets and rectangular blocks. Her acropolis featured
such beautiful temples that Apollonius of Tyana called
them a crown of porticoes and pictures.33 She lay at
the mouth of the Hermus River, had a good harbor,
and was at the end of a trade route.
Of all the Asian cities, Smyrna was the most faithful to Rome, even before Rome became the superpower it was in Johns time. Smyrna was the first city
in Asia Minor to erect a temple for the cult of the city
of Rome (195 B.C.). Although ten other cities of Asia
competed with her for the honor of becoming the host
for a temple to the emperor cult, Tiberius selected
Smyrna. Smyrna was also the center of the worship of
Cybele.
The Smyrnan church and its overseer Polycarp
Figure 26. Smyrna was originally built northeast of the
first-century city and was one of the first Greek cities with
were the recipients of letters from Ignatius, the overregularly spaced streets conforming to a grid oriented to
seer of the church in Syrian Antioch, written while
north, south, east, and west. It was burned to the ground
Ignatius was on his way to martyrdom at Rome some
in about 600 B.C.
time during the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98117). Only a
few years later, in A.D. 155, Polycarp suffered martyrdom in the citys stadium. His testimony at the stake inspires virtually all Christians who learn of it:
For eighty-six years I have served Him, and not once has He hurt me. How then am I able to blaspheme my King who has saved me?34
Today the modern Turkish city of Izmir (population in 2008: 2,672,126) covers most of Roman
Smyrna. The original city has been excavated, but only the agora of Roman Smyrna has been excavated. An agora was a marketplace in which much of the commerce of the city took place. Think of it
as the ancient equivalent of a shopping mall, often with the added feature of the county courthouse.
Smyrnas agora is assumed to be a square of 128 m. (420 ft.) per side. The vendors displayed their
wares in the shade of covered colonnades surrounding the square. Middle-eastern bazaars are similar.
Smyrnas agora was complex, with two or three levels and a large public building on the north side.
Original Site of Smyrna
27
The location of a centuries-old

cemetery over much of this area
prevented the over-build that hides
most of ancient Smyrna. In addition,
the recent destruction of a school by
fire made additional space accessible.
The site, however, is incomplete;
modern buildings still cover a portion of the agora on the southern and
eastern sides. The public building
on the north edge of the agora is in
remarkable condition and is still being restored. The triple portico on the
western edge is one of the best preserved Greek porticoes in the world.
Only the basement level, however, has
survived virtually intact. The Izmir
city government has turned the agora
Figure 27. The agora (marketplace) is almost all that archaeolinto a museum.
ogy has been able to recover of the first-century Smyrna. Figure
The Hellenistic/Roman citys
27. The agora (marketplace) is almost all that archaeology has
acropolis was built on the Pagos
been able to recover of the first-century Smyrna.
(the hill), which rises 186 m. (608
ft.) above the harbor. Almost nothing remains from Graeco-Roman times; the fortifications atop the
hill are medieval, though some scholars believe that the lower courses of the tower on the southwest
corner go back to Hellenistic times.
Just north of the Pagos is the site of the ancient theater, but it is almost completely covered by
modern houses. The latest theater built on the site is thought to date back to the rebuilding after the
earthquake of A.D. 178. It was the largest in the province of Asia: 150 m. (492 ft.) in diameter, seating
20,000. Plans are underway to purchase the houses and conduct a thorough excavation of the theater.
Several significant inscriptions have been found on site.
Even though it is completely covered by modern buildings, the site of the ancient stadium in
Smyrna is historically significant, because it is the location
35
where Polycarp, a bishop of the church in Smyrna, suffered martyrdom in A.D. 155. Archaeologists hope someday
to excavation the stadium, though the expense of buying
up all of the properties involved remains a formidable
challenge.
Because of silting deposits from several rivers in the
area, the coastline has extended beyond its ancient limits,
so that neither of the ancient cities is connected to the sea
any longer. Izmir has two excellent archaeological museums, the Izmir Archaeological Museum and the Izmir
Agora Open Air Museum.
Agora of Roman Smyrna
Theater of Smyrna
4. Pergamum36
Figure 28. The site of the theater, partially covered by

modern houses, is probably a succession of theaters, the
latest being built shortly after the earthquake of A.D. 178.
It was 150 m. in diameter and seated about 20,000.
Located 64 km. (40 mi.) north of Ephesus and 24

km. (15 mi.) inland on the Caicus River, Pergamum was
the capital city of the Attalid kingdom from 231 to 133
B.C. When Attalus III, the last Attalid king, lay dying (133
B.C.), he willed the city to Rome along with the rest of his
kingdom. The Romans immediately made Pergamum the
28
provincial capital, and she remained

the capital of Asia until A.D. 130. At
the time of the Apocalypse, she had a
population of approximately 120,000.
37
Ancient Pergamum (or Pergamon) is partially covered over by the
modern city of Bergama, Turkey (2008
population of 57,947). Among the
remains lying beneath the modern city
are a theater, a stadium, and a large
public building (known as the Red
Basilica). The ancient citys acropolis
and its Aesklepion, however, are not
covered and have received considerable
attention by generations of archaeologists.
The Pergamum acropolis is a masterpiece of city planning, built over a
period of more than 150 years (283-133
B.C., with a few later additions). The
buildings were arranged in a series of
concentric ovals around the theater,
apparently with the purpose of securing the best view of the surrounding
lands as well as presenting each building in the most impressive way possible
Figure 29. Pergamum was capital of a Hellenistic kingdom before the Rofrom the lower city. The relative spaces
mans inherited the province of Asia. Most buildings on its acropolis were
devoted to cult purposes vs. public
built during its earlier heyday. The Trajaneum came in the2nd century.
gatherings indicates that the builders considered social functions to be of
higher priority than religious ones. Pergamums acropolis resembles that of Athens in several particulars, though Athens makes the Parthenon, a temple of Athena, its central focus.38
Prominent on the acropolis is its theater. Its three sections of 80 rows seated 10,000 on the
steepest cavea in the ancient world. In front of the theater was a Doric stoa of shops with a length of
246 m. (807 ft.). The section facing the theater was one story high, but the back, facing the lower city,
was three stories. At the north end of this theater terrace stood the temple of Dionysus. Several other
theaters were also built in Pergamum.
Higher up on the acropolis was Pergamums famous library of 200,000 volumes, so rivaling the
library of Alexandria that the Egyptian ruler cut off Pergamums supply of papyrus. Pergamum did
not let this stop the growth of her library; the city substituted parchment as an alternativeindeed,
superiorwriting material.39 Despite the fact that the word parchment comes from Pergamum,
Pergamenes probably did not invent parchment as the story claims, for it is known to have been used
in other places in Asia Minor and Egypt at an earlier time. In the first century B.C.., Marc Antony
transported much of the Pergamene library to Alexandria as a gift to his lover Cleopatra.40 The scrolls
that remained in Pergamum were destroyed during the Muslim invasion in the sixth century A.D.
The Altar of Zeus, originally located just south of the temple of Athena, is also in the same Berlin
museum. The Altar of Zeus, about 27.4 m. (90 ft.) square and 10.6 m. (35 ft.) high, is one of the best
examples of Hellenistic art extant. Once a prominent feature of the acropolis of Pergamum, the altar
was transported to Berlin, where it was reconstructed as the main attraction of the Pergamon Museum. (I have replaced the museum walls and ceiling with sky to recapture the feeling of the altars
original location.) The altars resemblance in shape to a gigantic armchair has led some scholars to
Pergamum
Acropolis
29
speculate that it is what Revelation 3:13 calls the

throne of Satan. The lack of a temple to Zeus on
the acropolis suggests to some that the altar had
more political importance than cultic: it was a
commemoration of the great victories Attalus I
won against the Gauls in 233 and 228 B.C.
The adjacent temenos of Athena Nikephoros
(Bearer of Victory), to which the Altar of Zeus
is aligned, seems to have a similar significance.
Directly behind the theater was the temple of
Athena with its sculpture of The Dying Gaul at
the rotunda, commemorating Attalus Is victories
over the Gauls in 233 and 228 B.C.
The propylon to the Athena temenos now
resides in the Pergamon Museum of Berlin,
Germany. The propylon is the entrance to the
temenos of the temple of Athena. Originally on
the acropolis of Pergamum, the propylon was
dismantled and transported to Berlin, where
it was reassembled in the Pergamon Museum.
The inscription identifies Eumenes (II: 197-159
B.C.) as the builder and recognizes the goddess
as being responsible for the military victories
Figure 31. This huge altar (27 m. or 90 ft. square) was a prominent
the
Attalid kings experienced, such as the great
feature of first-century Pergamum. The German archaeologists
who discovered it reconstructed it in Berlin, making it the center- victories Attalus I won against the Gauls in 233
piece of the Pergamon Museum.
and 228 B.C.
The frieze below the crowning gable contains
motifs of garlands of oak and olive leaves looped alternately over bucrania [cow-heads] and eagles,
while over the garlands owls alternate with phialai. The symbols and attributes recall Athena and
Zeus, as do the dedications in the sanctuary. The balustrade of the second storey is carved with armour and weaponry captured in wars, including (right) a very rare representation from Greek antiquity of the spring frame of a ballista.... The military theme broadcasts the power and the successes of
the Attalid kings under the auspices of their patron goddess.41
Partway down the hill from the acropolis lay a complex of buildings that included three gymnasia,
two sets of baths, and four templesone each for Hera, Athena, and Aesklepios, and one for Hermes
and Herakles, and later for the Roman emperor. The temple devoted to Demeter (7.95 14.1 m., 26 x
46 ft.) stood northwest of the gymnasia. The gymnasia were for the use of young males, separated by
age: upper for the young men, middle for the Ephebes (ages 18-20), and lower for the boys. On the
north side of the upper gymnasium was a theater that seated 1,000. Even farther down the hill was a
royal palace (The House of Attalos) and the Lower Agora. Northwest of the Lower Agora was a Hellenistic peristyle house.
An area on the west side of ancient Pergamum was dedicated to Aesklepios, the god of healing,
one of dozens of such temples throughout the Hellenistic world. Those seeking healing would walk
807 m. (2,690 ft.) down the impressive colonnaded street (The Sacred Way) and, after drinking a
hallucinatory potion, would pass through the tunnel, in which they would hear encouraging whispers
from the Aesklepian priests stationed at openings in the tunnels ceiling. Upon entering what is now
known as the Temple of Telephorus (the son of Aesklepios), they would bathe in a sacred pool and
then lie down in an assigned place to sleep and dream. The sanctuary had many harmless snakes,
whose ability to be reborn as they shed their skins came to symbolize the healing of the patients. The
god was thought to contact such a subject by dreams, which a priest would interpret the next morning
as instructions for therapy.
Pergamums
Altar of Zeus
30
According to Alice Walton, The earliest

form of the cult was a worship of Asklepios, and
a consultation of dreams, at first for any purpose,
and eventually for health. At this time there were
no physicians; then the oracle became more famous for its success in performing cures and the
priest aided in interpretation of dreams by his
practical knowledge of simple remedies. Third,
some priest gave all his attention to observance
of ritual, while a colleague or assistant devoted
himself to the cures, which were effected by surgical operations, magnetism, drugs, or applications of the dogs or serpents. The last state was
reached [in about the first century B.C.] when a
school of physicians called Asklepiadae became
a recognized factor in the temples, and the cult
and the oracle were divorced. The cures were not
the work of a night, but the result of an extended
course of treatment.42 Galen (A.D. 131-210), a
famous physician of ancient times and a native
of Pergamum, served as a physician here for two
short periods.
Adjacent to the Aesklepion to the north was
a small theater (capacity, 3,500). At its northeast
Figure 32. Here was a healing center as well as a place of worcorner was a room for the imperial cult.
ship for the god Asklepios, revered for his ability to heal. Because of its association with snakes, which Gen. 3 associates
Although the majority of the Seven Cities was
with Satan, some scholars believe that the phrase throne of
connected with the imperial cult,43 Pergamum
Satan in Rev. 2:13 refers to the citys Asklepion.
was one of the first to acknowledge the rulers of
Rome as gods, erecting a statue to Julius Caesar
in 63 B.C. and in 29 B.C. building a temple to the divine Augustus, the first in all of Asia.
Asklepion
in Pergamum
5. Thyatira44
Thyatira was situated on the road between Pergamum and Sardis in the valley that connected
the Caicus and the Hermus valleys. It was founded as a
military outpost to protect the entrance to Pergamum,
45
the Attalid capital city. The citys strategic purpose was
to stall the enemy long enough for Pergamum to organize its defenses. Thyatiras fate, in other words, was to
be destroyed again and again so that Pergamum could
be preserved.
Later on, the city became a center of commerce. It
had a large number of trade guilds (see Figure 33), as
vital to ones career as unions are today. Ancient writers
mention Thyatiras trades: wool dyers, linen workers,
makers of outer garments, dyers, leather workers, tanners, potters, bakers, slave dealers, and bronze smiths.
Lydia, the host of the earliest Philippian congregation, as
Figure 33. Reverse of coin of Thyatira from time of the
recorded in Acts 16:1415, 40, was a merchant of purple
late 2nd-century emperor Commodus portrays Hephaescloth from Thyatira. Typically, trade-guild meetings
tus, the smith of the gods, finishing a bronze helmet as
Athena, the presumed recipient waits expectantly. This
were held in a banquet room adjoining a pagan temple.
scene seems to commemorate Thyatiras bronze indusSuch meetings always started and ended with idolatrous
try, one of many tade guilds in the city.
Thyatira Coin
31
sacrifices, and often degenerated into drunken orgies.

The ancient city is
(Modern Akhisar)
covered by the modern town
of Akhisar (2008 population: 88,423). An excavation
conducted in downtown
Akhisar from 1969 to 1971
(Tepemezari) uncovered
a 100-meters-long colonnaded street leading up to a
monumental entrance and a
large civic basilica (10 40
m. or 30 140 ft.), probably
dating from the fifth or sixth
century A.D. (see Figure 34).
Nearby, on the grounds of
what is now the State Hospital, is a small hill assumed to
be the ancient citys acropolis. A Hellenistic sarcophagus is on display there. Not
far away is the Ulu Camii
(Great Mosque), the oldest mosque in Akhisar. Its
building has only been a
Figure 34. Ancient Thyatira lies hidden almost entirely beneath the modern Turkish
mosque since the 1400s.
city of Akhisar. A few remains have been discovered at what may have been its acropoBefore that it was probably a
lis on the grounds of a hospital, and downtown, at a site now known as Tepemezari, reByzantine church, and even
mains of a portico and public building have been uncovered. The citys oldest mosque,
The Ulucami, is an ancient building that was originally a Roman temple, then a public
earlier another civic buildbuilding, then a Byzantine church, before becoming a mosque.
ing, converted from an even
earlier Roman temple.
A small archaeological
museum stands adjacent to the Tepemezari site, but many of the other finds from ancient Thyatira are
in the archaeological museum of Manisa, about 48 km (30 mi.) southeast of Akhisar.
Thyatira
6. Sardis46
Located 80 km (50 mi.) east of Ephesus on a spur of Mount Tmolus, Sardis overlooked the
Hermus River valley. She was at the western end of a road that stretched 2500 km (1600 mi.) to the
Persian city of Susa. Famous as the ancient capital of King Croesus,47 Sardis was the first city to mint
gold and silver coins and claimed to be the first to discover the art of dyeing wool.
Because her acropolis was built on a hill with perpendicular walls 457 m. (1,500 ft.) high, Sardis
was long thought virtually impregnable to attack. Nevertheless, her defenders overconfidence and
inattention twice caused her to fall to enemies.48
As the capital of the kingdom of Lydia, Sardis fell to Cyrus in 546 B.C. Later, she passed to the
Seleucids, then to the Attalid kings (whose capital was Pergamum). At last, in 133 B.C., Attalus IIIs
will gave Sardis to Rome along with the rest of the Attalid kingdom. An earthquake destroyed Sardis
in 17 A.D., but aid from Tiberius refinanced her reconstruction.
The acropolis of Sardis, with its nearly perpendicular slopes, seemed impossible to scale. Yet its
composition was not solid rock, but detritustightly compressed gravel that crumbles at the touch. In
later centuries, her impregnable fortress was cast down, not by armies, but by the various earthquakes
32

49
Sardis Synagogue
Figure 35. On the SE corner of gymnasium complex is the largest ancient

synagogue found outside of Palestine. Although not a synagogue in the first
century, it testifies to Jewish influence in Sardis.
in the area. Hemer describes the site as it appears

to a modern visitor:
The erosion of these
precipices has produced a
theatrical landscape of
extraordinary strangeness.
The main hill is flanked by
isolated earthen pinnacles,
each several hundred feet
high, and capped each with
a solitary tree or fragment
of masonry. It appears that
the roots and stones have
formed a resistant apex,
yet it is scarcely conceivable that erosional features
of such size could have
formed in geological time
so short as to be related to
the life-span even of a
succession of trees. There
is however other evidence of erosion on a remarkable scale. It has certainly affected the extent of
the summit-site, for at its least exposed side the
late Byzantine fortifications are in places overhanging an abyss. [T]he present summit is a
mere fragment. Most of the original Sardis has
surely fallen over the edge.50
Archaeologists have excavated part of ancient
Sardis, uncovering a magnificent gymnasium complex,
beside which is a beautiful synagogue built in classical
Greek style. With dimensions of about 18 60 m. (59
197 ft.), it is the largest ancient synagogue so far discovered outside of Palestine, with the capacity for 1,000 worshipers. Its entry room had a reflecting pool surrounded by graceful columns, and
the synagogue itself had a central aisle, flanked by large blocks of hewn stone and featuring a central
niche to hold the sacred scrolls. Excavators have concluded that the building was probably not used
as a synagogue before the second century; at the time of the writing of Revelation, its plain walls may
have surrounded lecture halls or dressing rooms for the gymnasium.
South of the gymnasium complex about 1.25 km (three-quarters of a mi.) stand the ruins of the
citys temple of Artemis, which was about 48.7 91.4 m. (160 300 ft.), the fourth largest Ionic
temple in the world.
A few other remains of ancient Sardis have been discovered, including a theater, a stadium, an
altar of Cybele, and a Roman villa, as well as a number of tombs along the Pactolus River. Sardis is
adjacent to the Turkish village of Sartmustafa, near the city of Salihli (2008 population: 94,076).
33
7. Philadelphia51
49
In the same broad valley as Sardis and

Smyrna lay Philadelphia, about 30 miles westnorthwest of Sardis, but upstream. Several trade
routes converged in Philadelphia, including routes
to Mysia, Lydia, and Phrygia. The Roman postal
route from Rome through Troas passed through
Philadelphia on its way to the central plateau. She
was known as gateway to the East. References to
Philadelphia in the first and third chapters of the
Book of Revelation are the only biblical references
to this city.
Philadelphia was founded in the second century B.C. by Attalid kings and given the honorific title
of Attalus II. Philadelphia was particularly prone
to earthquakes. By the fifth century A.D., however,
she had so many temples that she was known as
little Athens. The Dionysus cult flourished in
this vine-growing district.
When the Pergamene king Eumenes II
founded the city in 189 B.C., he named it BrotherLove to honor the loyalty of his brother Attalus
Laodicea on the Lycus
Figure 37. The site of Laodicea liest just on the north edge of
Denizli, a major city of western Turkey. Only a little excavation
has been done, and much of what lies on the surface, such as
the stadium and the two theaters, are in poor condition.
34
Coin of Philadelphia
Figure 36. This coin of Philadelphia in Lydia depicts the image of the sun god Helios within a
Greek-style temple. The word neokoron beneath the image means that Philadelphia was
caretaker of this temple.
II. When the last king of that same dynasty
died heirless in 133 B.C., he bequeathed the
Kingdom of Lydia, including Philadelphia,
to the Romans, who four years later organized the Roman province of Asia.
The area around Philadelphia is geologically unstable, making it prone to earthquakes. In A.D. 17, for example, she was leveled by the same earthquake that destroyed
Sardis. Tiberius Caesar granted Philadelphia
five years of tax relief, as reported by Tacitus
and Strabo.38 Many other earthquakes have
followed in the citys long history.
Today Philadelphia is covered by the
modern Turkish town of Alaehir (2008
population: 46,544). The main archaeological attraction of ancient Philadelphia are
the ruins of the Basilica of St. John, an early
7th-century Byzantine church. The three
squat, red-brick columns that remain once
supported the dome of the church. At the
northern edge of Toptepe Hill, site of the
ancient citys acropolis, is a small Roman
theater and ruins the locals call The Old
Palace. Byzantine walls that once surrounded the old city have virtually disappeared,
though a few remains of the walls are visible near the bus station at the northeast
edge of the city.
8. Laodicea52
In the middle of the third century B.C., the Seleucid Antiochus II founded Laodicea to command
the gateway to Phrygia. He named it after his wife, as he did eight other cities throughout his realm.
The city was situated at the crossroads of two important trade routes, 40 miles southeast of Philadelphia. The city was built on an almost square plateau several hundred feet high, overlooking the Lycus
River valley. The road from Pergamum to the Mediterranean port of Attalia passed through Thyatira,
Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Hierapolis (six miles north) and Colossae (10 miles east) were her
sister cities. Laodicea is mentioned in Col. 2:1; 4:13, 15, 16.
Laodicea was the wealthiest city in Phrygia, known for her production of black and glossy wool,
for her banking, and for products made from Phrygian powder mixed with oilear ointment and eye
salve. Aqueducts delivered mineral water from hot springs, six miles to the south. By the time these
waters reached Laodicea, they would have cooled off to a lukewarm temperature, and their taste, because of the high mineral content, was consistently nauseating.
The ruins of Laodicea lie near the modern Turkish city of Denizli (2008 population: 479,381). It
was first excavated by a Canadian team (1961-63), followed by a Turkish team (2000 to present).
9. Rome
At the end of the seventeenth chapter of Revelation, the great prostitute labeled Babylon is identified as the great city that rules over the kings of the earth (Rev. 17:18). The verb is rules (present
tense) not will rule (future tense), identifying the city ruling at the time of the writing of Revelation. This, combined with the explanation of the
seven heads of the dragon as representing seven
hills on which the woman sits (Rev. 17:9) make
virtually certain the identification of Babylon as
the city of Rome as it existed at the time of the
writing of Revelation (see 1 Peter 5:13 for another
reference to Rome as Babylon, in the view of
most scholars). Even in ancient times, Rome was
known as the City of Seven Hills (for references, see below at comments on Rev. 17:9-11).
At that time, Rome was the largest city of the
known world, with a population of some 1.2 million, of which about one-third were slaves.
Rome53
10. Jerusalem
Although the Holy City was not one of the cities addressed as the original recipients of Revelation, the city that murdered the prophets and
stoned those sent to her is still prominent in the
book. Assuming the middle date for the writing
of Revelation (during the reign of Vespasian, A.D.
6979, see Rev. 17:9-10), Jerusalem would have
just fallen a few years before (A.D. 70). Her terrible destruction would serve the Gentile Christians as an example of how God punishes those
who oppose Him. Johns portrayal of the New Jerusalem would serve to console Jewish Christians
still mourning the loss of the city, and perhaps
appeal even to interested non-Christian Jews.
Figure 38. First-century Rome had already become famous as

the City of Seven Hills, and it is still known by that designation today. At the time of the writing of Revelationm the capital
of the empire was the largest city in the known world, with a
population of 1.2 million.
35
11. The Roman emperors and the rise of the emperor cult54
After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 45 B.C., the Senate honored his memory by proclaiming
him a god. Octavian, Caesars adopted son, rose to power, becoming in 27 B.C. the first Roman emperor, Caesar Augustus. Even during his lifetime, some of the new emperors subjects began worshiping him as a god, especially in the
provinces, where deifying
Julius Caesar eastern
kings was a long-established tradition. At his death in A.D. 14, the
Roman senAugustus
ate officially
deified him,
and temples
sprang up all
over the empire to the divine Augustus.
Tiberius
The custom of deifying each emperor
after his death continued, though in the case
of Nero, who reigned from A.D. 54 to 68, the
Senate so abhorred the tyrant that it refused
him the honor. As early as Gaius, also known
as Caligula, some of the emperors began
demanding that divine honors be conferred on
Gaius
them
while
they
still
lived.
Gaius went so far as to order that his image
(Caligula)
be set up in the temple in Jerusalem, which might have started the war
with the Jews nearly 30 years early had not the refusal of a courageous
commander and the death of Gaius prevented an uprising.
None of the previous emperors except Nero had persecuted Christians. The historian Tacitus reports that Nero made them his scapegoat for the great fire of Rome in the summer of 64.55 Tacitus says the Christians were already
hated for their evil practices. Perhaps Tacitus is referring to a pagan misconception that eating
Christs flesh and drinking His blood involved cannibalism. This may have been confirmed
Claudius in the minds of many citizens of Rome when they observed Christians again and again rescuing abandoned infants from the city dumps. So, this is how
they supply themselves with victims for their blood sacriNero & His
fices! they might have concluded. In reality, of course, the
Mother Agrippina
Christians were saving the babies from either certain death
from exposure or from being raised to staff the brothels by
taking them home and raising them as their own children.56
Nero killed hundreds and maybe thousands of Christians, feeding them to wild animals or dipping them in tar
and setting them ablaze to light his gardens. His persecution
probably caused the martyrdoms of both Peter and Paul.
It eventually reached such levels of cruelty that the citizenrys
animosity toward Christians changed into pity. No one knows how
long the persecution lasted, but certainly it did not outlive Nero,
who committed suicide about four years after the fire. Although
the persecution apparently did not extend beyond the city of
Rome, it certainly put all Christians everywhere on alert that the
government could become a servant of Satan at the whim of an
emperor.
36
From A.D. 6869, four men, Galba, Otho, Vitellius,

Galba, Otho, & Vitellius
and Vespasian, struggled to be Neros successor, embroiling the empire in what was essentially a bloody civil war.
The winner, Vespasian, was a man who had faced his
own mortality many times on the battlefield. He refused
to be worshiped as a god during his lifetime, though he
was promptly made one at his death. His son Titus, also a
career soldier, refused the honor during his lifetime.
When Domitian, Tituss spoiled younger brother, succeeded him to the throne,
however, he demanded to be addressed as our Lord and god and
Vespasian
commanded that the offering of sacrifices to himself become a test
of loyalty to Rome. It is probably this audacious blasphemy that lies
behind Domitians persecution of Christians (see Rev. 13:11-15). They
acknowledged only one God and one Lord
(see 1 Cor. 8:6;
Titus
Eph. 4:5-6), and
Domitian
their refusal to offer
sacrifices to the
divine Domitian
was regarded as
rebellious and subversive to Roman
rule. This was true
despite the direct
commands of Christ
that His followers pay their
taxes (Mark 12:17
and parallels) and cooperate with the Roman
occupation of Palestine
(Matt. 5:41). Also,
both Peter and Paul commanded Christians
to submit to the government
as a religious duty (1
Peter 2:13-17; Rom. 13:1-7).
Nevertheless, the persecution of Christians under Domitian had this
pretext of treason, and the emperor cult, which flourished nowhere in the
empire as well as it did in the province of Asia, enforced worship of Domitian with the threat of capital
punishment (Rev. 13:15).
12. The eruption of Vesuvius

In A.D. 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the city of Pompeii in ash and the city of Herculaneum in hot mud. Many interpreted this event as an omen, though opinions varied as to its meaning.
Revelation may refer to the eruption of Vesuvius in its imagery of a mountain of fire falling into the
sea (Rev. 8:8). If Revelation was written during the reign of Vespasian (A.D. 69 to 79, see below under
Date of the Writing of the Book of Revelation), then this may be a prediction of the event. Of course,
it is also possible that the image, which has strong parallels with Jer. 51:2526, has only a coincidental relationship to the historical eruption.
37
13. Parthian Empire

Parthia began in a revolt against the Seleucid kingdom by one of its governors, Arsaces I, in about
250 B.C. (The kingdom is named Arsacid after him.) By 200 Arsaces Is successors had firmly established a small kingdom on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. Over the next century, the Parthians
expanded southward and eastward until they controlled all of Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau
and were advancing into northern Syria. It was Mithradates II the Great who, in 92 B.C., made the first
Parthian treaty with Rome.
The Romans regarded themselves as the legitimate successors of Alexander
Crassus
the Greats empire. They coveted Mesopotamia as theirs by right and desired
to expand even farther east. This explains their repeated invasions of Parthian
territories.
For example, in 54 B.C., Marcus Licinius Crassus, a rival of Julius Caesar,
invaded Parthia with the objective of conquering it for Rome. In the following
year, however, the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat at the battle of Carrhae
(Harran). The Parthians killed Crassus and massacred 20,000 of his troops.57
As a result of their victory, the Parthians established their border at the Euphrates, opposite
Marc Antony
the Roman province of Syria. At the same time,
Armenia, which had been conquered and made a
client state in 66 by the Roman general Pompey,
defected to the Parthians.
In 36 B.C., Marc Antony, apparently having
the same objective as Crassus, invaded Media
by way of Armenia. Although Antonys invasion force consisted of 16
legions (about 80,000 men), no sooner had he entered Media than the
Parthians attacked his siege train, killing 10,000 Roman soldiers. Antony was forced to retreat, continually hounded by the Parthians. By the
time he had finally reached Armenia, he had lost 20,000 legionnaires,
4,000 cavalry, and an undetermined number of light troops. Forced to
abandon Armenia in the dead of winter, Antony lost another 8,000 on
his march back to Syria.58
After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.), Augustus replaced Antony as
the leader of Rome, and wisely dropped Roman expansionist plans, choosing instead to combine a
show of force with diplomacy to settle with the Parthians. In 20 B.C., Augustus took advantage of disorder in both Armenia and Parthia to install
a pro-Roman king on the throne in ArmeCorbulo
nia, supported by an army. He then made a
Parthian Archers
treaty with the Parthian king Phraates IV.
Its terms were that to the north Armenia,
ruled by a king appointed in Rome, would
serve as a buffer state between the two
empires, while to the south Rome would
acknowledge the Euphrates as the western boundary of the Parthian Empire. In
return, Parthia would hand over the Roman
standards it had captured, as well as all
surviving Roman prisoners.
Augustus advertised this diplomatic
Figure 39. As this coin depicts,
resolution as if it were a major victory, even
Parthian soldiers relied on the
minting coins bearing the legend, Citizens
bow, which they often used on
and standards returned and commemorathorseback, riding at full gallop.
38
Breastplate of Augustus
ing the event on his ceremonial

breastplate (see Figure 39). The
new status quo he had negotiated
lasted for the next three generations.59
In A.D. 54, however, the Parthian King Vologases I broke the
treaty by installing his brother
Tiridates as king of Armenia.
Over the next nine years, the
Romans, led by the famous general Cnaeus Domitius Corbulo,
and the Parthians, led by King
Vologases I, fought a series of
battles, punctuated by diplomatic
maneuvers. In 58, the Parthians
attacked first, winning the first
skirmish of the conflict. In 62,
they managed to avoid a Roman
pincer movement by setting a
trap for one of the two Roman
armies, composed of two legions,
and forcing a humiliating surFigure 40. The scene on the abdomen of the ceremonial breastplate of Augustus
render. The Romans struck back
shows a Roman soldier receiving a legionary standard that the Parthians had
the following year, managing to
captured when they defeated Crassus. The successful negotiation was hailed in
end the conflict by a stalemate
Rome as if it were a military triumph. The breastplate is on a 2.04 m. high statue
of Caesar Augustus discovered in 1863 at the villa of his wife Livia in Prima
that re-established the Augustan
Porta. It is now on display in one of the museums of the Vatican.
status quo.
The Romans, however, hailed
the new treaty as a great victory;
Nero heaped honors and rewards upon Corbulo. Within three years,
however, he would order the celebrated general to commit suicide, and
Trajan
he dutifully complied.60
The Parthians were the only warriors who had defeated the Romans in battle. Their archers, armed with short bows (mirrored by
the First Horseman of the Apocalypse, Rev. 6:2), even at a full gallop
could pick off enemy soldiers, guiding their horses with their knees.
The Romans feared an invasion from the Parthians, and this may lie
behind references to an army assembled at the Euphrates (Rev. 16:12).
These fears were all the more heightened when rumors spread
that Nero had not committed suicide but had escaped to Parthia. The
rumors said he would invade with a formidable army to regain his
throne. A Nero pretender, in fact, did temporarily enjoy the patronage of Parthia, but whatever ambitions he had came to nothing. This
return of Nero may lie behind the symbolism of the beast having
received a mortal wound that then healed (Rev. 13:3, 12, 14).61
The emperor Trajan, second after Domitian, determined to put an
end to the Parthian threat once and for all, invading Mesopotamia in A.D. 116. He was able to conquer
all lands in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, adding them to the Roman Empire as the province of Mesopotamia. Trajan, however, soon died of an illness, and his successor, Hadrian, abandoned all of the
conquered lands.62
39
b. Literary and Cultural Background

Yet another step farther away from the target text is another nevertheless important component
in the external context: the literary and cultural background. In our attempt to understand Revelation
from the point of view of the original readers, we must try to enter their worldnot only their physical spot on the planet and their moment in history, but their literary heritage and their unquestioned
assumptions about the nature of the world. All of this is a step further away because our knowledge of
literary and cultural background of the Graeco-Roman world is quite fragmentary, and reconstructing
it involves both painstaking research and considerable second-guessing.
We must recognize that a great deal of literature available to a Christian in Roman Asia did not
survive to the 21st century. Likewise, our appreciation and feel for their culture is only hit and miss
at best. Despite these acknowledged limitations, the literature and culture of the times have a great
deal to contribute toward the illumination of the text of Revelation. We must recognize, however, the
tenuous nature of the evidence and be humble enough to admit that we cannot be absolutely certain
of our conclusions if they are solely based on such evidence. In other words, in our struggle at Overcoming, we must overcome our own ignorance of the first-century world, as well as our arrogance in
assuming we have drawn accurate conclusions.
1. Revelation and Other Apocalyptic Literature

Revelation is a prime example of a larger body of ancient apocalyptic literature. Old Testament
books having apocalyptic-like elements include: Isaiah 24-27, Ezekiel 38-39, Daniel, Joel, and Zechariah 9-14. In the New Testament, apocalyptic sections are found in Matthew 24, Mark 13, Luke 17 and
21, 2 Thessalonians 2, and 2 Peter 3, as well as Revelation. For the extra-biblical Jewish and Christian
examples, see the chart (Figure 41).
Apocalyptic Literature: Biblical & Extra-Biblical
63
Figure 41. Apocalyptic literature flourished in the period just before, during, and just after the first century. If you want to study these documents further, most of them are available in English translation at
my website, http://www.deeperstudy.com/link/studylinks5.html and studylinks8.html.
Revelation has many characteristics in common with other apocalyptic literature. These include:64
1) dualism a cosmic struggle continues between Satan and God, with man suffering as a result;
2) eschatology the present age is under the power of evil with the righteous in a helpless state, but
40
God will soon intervene, ushering in a future golden age; 3) vision a chosen
person receives revelations from God in the form of a vision; 4) Messiaha Godsent savior comes to rescue the saints; 5) angelology & demonology each side in
the cosmic struggle has its messengers and warriors; 6) animal symbolism beasts
of bizarre character often represent realities in the human world; 7) numerology
mystical meaning is often attached to various numbers; 8) predicted woes often
a time of great distress is predicted to come just before the redemption arrives; 9)
reassurance to the righteous saints are strengthened just before or during an extreme persecution; 10) poetic sections praise often takes poetic form, especially
involving parallelism and irony.
Despite all of these similarities with the rest of the Judaeo-Christian apocalyptic literature, there are three ways in which the Book of Revelation is unique. 1) No
pseudonym Many other apocalyptic writers tried to lend credence and authority
to their work by writing it in the name of some ancient spiritual hero, but John
needed no such device to give his book authority (see on Authorship, pp. 6466).
2) Better organization Although other apocalyptic writings are often disjointed,
with an apparently haphazard choice of symbols, Revelation maintains a great continuity from image to image, establishing great, meaningful contrasts. 3) Not past
vs. present, but present vs. future John does not reveal wisdom hidden from the
ancient past, but gives predictions directly related to the present for the immediate
future.
2. Clash of Various Religions65
Isis-Demeter
Figure 42. Many in the first

century were attracted to
mystery religions such as the
worship of Isis (associated
with the traditional goddess
Demeter). Her cult involved
secret rituals, ecstatic visions, and a resurrection
myth.
The first-century Christians lived in a religious culture similar to our own: it

was filled with a variety of philosophies and religions, each competing for converts. There was Judaism, of course, itself fragmented into numerous sects. Its monotheism was attractive to the Gentiles,
but its food restrictions, Sabbath regulations, and especially the requirement of circumcision repelled
many of would-be converts.
Both Greeks and Romans had traditional religions. The Greeks believed that one must be released
from rationalism in an ecstatic experience
in order to come under the influence of
the gods. They sought this ecstasy in a variety of ways: through wine, drugs, or sex.
The Romans held that if the prescribed
ritual were carefully followed, it would
obligate the gods to bless.
Philosophers of various kindsStoics,
Epicureans, Neopythagoreans, Cynics,
etc.called people to a contemplative
life. Some of them were agnostics, some
atheists, and some pantheists. Some held
to a kind of monotheism similar to later
deism: a supreme god who created the
universe but is now aloof from the affairs
of humankind.
Many people, however, were moving away from these traditional religions
Figure 43. According to legend, the Persian god Ahura- and philosophies, experimenting with
Mazda created a wild bull. With the help of a raven sent by new ideas. Thousands were turning to
the sun, Mithra captured the bull, dragged it to a cave, and
killed it. From its blood sprang life and grain. Mithraism was the mystery religions from the East: Isis,
popular throughout the Roman Empire of the first century.
Mithra, Serapis, Astarte, Adonis, and Cy-
Mithra and the Bull
41
bele. Others, refusing to make a choice among the variety of mind-sets and cultic practices available,
opted to create their own religio-philosophy, often an eclectic blend of mysticism and asceticism, not
unlike todays New Age religions.
Into this confusing maze of worldviews came Christianity. Regarded at first as just another sect of
Judaism, Christianity slowly emerged as distinct from its elder sister, especially after the Jewish War
(A.D. 67-70), in which the Christians refused to participate. In the next few decades Jews everywhere
were excommunicating Christians from their synagogues.
This clash with Judaism lies behind Revelations labeling the Jews in Smyrna and Philadelphia as
a synagogue of Satan (Rev. 2:9; 3:9). In the sense that true children of Abraham share in the faith
of Abraham (John 8:31-44; Rom. 4:16), the apostle is denying the non-Christian Jews all claim to the
title, Jew (see Rom. 2:28-29). Conversely, he calls the Christian community a kingdom and priests
(Rev. 1:6; see Exod. 19:6), describes its members as the servants of God from all the tribes of Israel
(Rev. 7:3-8), pictures them as worshipers in the temple (Rev. 11:1) and as standing on Mount Zion
(Rev. 14:1). Throughout Revelation John employs imagery from Jewish temple worship to portray
the holiness of the saints. The entire book has this message: The Jews have rejected you as heretics
and ejected you as outcasts. But they themselves are the rejected ones in Gods sight. You are the true
Israel, they the true Gentiles.
Conflicts with other religions besides Judaism were also inevitable. The Greek traditional religion, along with many of the mystery religions, sanctioned gluttonous and drunken banquets, as well
as sexual immorality. Some even maintained cultic prostitution.66 Christians in the province of Asia
faced these challenges daily. John warns them to avoid both idolatry and sexual immorality (Rev.
2:14, 20-23; 9:20-21; 13:14-15; 16:2; 21:8; 22:15). He also denounces the prophetess of Thyatira,
who was teaching mysteries (secrets), perhaps as the secrets of God, though he calls them Satans
so-called deep secrets (Rev. 2:24). Christianitys mystery was hidden in past ages, but since the
ascension of Christ has been openly declared to all people everywhere (see Eph. 3:7-11; Col. 1:26-27; 1
Cor. 2:7-13).
Christianity had all the best elements of the other religions and philosophies. It avoided and denounced their worst characteristics. And it had what none of them could credibly offer: a living Savior,
who championed the cause of His followers against all their foes. The Jesus revealed in Revelationas
Savior (1:5), Sacrifice (5:5-6), Judge (2:23), and Avenger (19:11-16) (see Figure 44 below)was and is
the heart of Christianitys glad tidings to the world.
Figure 44. Not only is the Book of Revelation something that Christ reveals, but
it is also a revealing of Christ Himself. In
contrast to the christology of much of the
rest of the New Testament, Revelation
definitely takes a cosmic view of Christ.
42
4. The Various Interpretations of the Book

The various interpretations can be categorized according to how they treat the millennium mentioned in Rev. 20:1-7 in relation to the Second Coming of Christ. Will his coming be before the millennium (Premillennial), after the millennium (Postmillennial), or completely without regard to any
literal millennium (Amillennial)?67
Figure 45. As you can see, a diversity of opinion exists concerning how to interpret Revelation. One interpretation is not necessarily better than its rivals just because it is more popular. I am driven to amillennialism (preterist-Rome) because of its advantages over the others.68
a. Premillennialism: Christ will return before a literal, 1,000-year reign.

The two main premillennial positions involve when Christ will return in relation to a period of
extreme suffering which they call the Great Tribulation. Since Dispensationalists believe He will
return before this period, they are known as pre-tribulational.69 Because Chiliasts have concluded He
43
Introduction: 4. Interpretations
will return after the Great Tribulation, they are post-tribulational. There is also a mid-tribulational
position, but we will skip over it and look more closely at the other two.70
1. Dispensationalism (also called Pre-tribulational Premillennialism)71
Figure 46. There is always a danger in attempting to represent someone elses understanding of Scripture. I have tried to be fair, comparing my understanding with those who teach Dispensationalism as Bible
truth. Its safe to say that Dispensationalists disagree among themselves regarding the details.
A modern movement
Dispensationalism is currently the most visible form of premillennialism. The popularity of Hal
Lindseys 1970 best seller, The Late Great Planet Earth, Charles Ryries Ryrie Study Bible, and Tim
LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins Left Behind series of novels have done much to promote this view.72 In
addition, many celebrity evangelists have preached Dispensationalism from their television and radio
pulpits. As a result, many people think that Dispensationalism is the only premillennial view, or even
that it represents the consensus of biblical scholarship regarding the end times. Such is certainly not
the case.
Although many Bible students since the first century have taught the importance of understanding human history as a series of dispensations, the main features of Dispensationalism were developed beginning around 1830 by John N. Darby, a prominent preacher of the Plymouth Brethren
movement.73 They were further refined and popularized by several other 19th and early 20th-century
teachers, including Lewis Sperry Chafer, Arno C. Gaebelein, and Harry A. Ironside. C. I. Scofield
popularized the teaching in the notes of his Scofield Reference Bible, first released in 1909 and still being published today. More recent Dispensationalists include Charles L. Feinberg, J. Dwight Pentecost,
John F. Walvoord, Tim LaHaye, and Thomas Ice.74
44
Introduction: 4. Interpretations

Main features of Dispensationalism
Dispensationalism is not just one interpretation of the Book of Revelation, but a way of organizing
the entire history of Gods dealings with human beings. It divides all of history into seven dispensations, in each of which Gods demands and expectations were distinct:
1) Innocence dispensation (Creation to The Fall).
2) Conscience or moral responsibility dispensation (The Fall to the Flood).
3) Human government dispensation (The Flood to Abraham).
4) Promise dispensation (Abraham to Moses).
5) Law dispensation (Moses to the Cross).
6) Church dispensation (The Cross to the Armageddon)
7) Kingdom dispensation (Armageddon to the beginning of eternity)
During the Law dispensation, God made many
promises were made to the Jews through the prophets
concerning future prosperity and blessing under the
Messiah.73 Because none of these promises have yet
been fulfilledand God must keep His promisesthey
must be fulfilled in the Kingdom dispensation.
Dispensationalists claim that the Church was not
predicted in the Old Testament. They believe that the
Church dispensation forms a parenthesis in the prophetic timetable. It stands between the first time God
offered the kingdom to the Jews during the earthly
ministry of Jesus Christan offer they rejectedand
the second time He offers it when Christ comes with his
saintsan offer they will accept.
Furthermore, many Dispensationalists believe
that the Church dispensation involves seven periods
represented by each of the seven churches of Asia in
sequence (see Figure 53):75
1) Ephesus period lost love and legalism
(A.D. 33100).
2) Smyrna period persecution (A.D. 100
312).
3) Pergamum period compromise with the
world system (A.D. 312590).
4) Thyatira period counterfeit Church (A.D.
Figure 53. Making the seven churches of Asia symbolic
5901517).
of seven ages of world history has no support whatso5) Sardis period dead orthodoxy (A.D.
ever from the text and violates Dispensationalisms own
15171750).
hermeneutic of literalism. The theory has become more
6) Philadelphia period revival and evange- complicated through the years as Dispensationalists
modified it in response to criticisms. Now, the last four
lism (A.D. 17501925).
periods overlap. Disagreement exists about starting and
7) Laodicea period compromise and aposending events.
tasy (A.D. 1925Rapture).
Are the Seven Churches

Seven Ages? No!
Events leading up to the Kingdom dispensation

Dispensationalists teach that near the close of the Church dispensation, the Rapture will take
place. At that time, the dead saints of the Church dispensation will be resurrected and all living
saints glorified76saints from other dispensations remain unraised. Then both groups of saints will
be caught up 77 to be with the Lord to celebrate the marriage feast of the Lamb during the seven-year
Great Tribulation period.
45
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What is the main message of Revelation according to the author?

What is the main message of Revelation according to the author?

What are the main features of Dispensationalism according to the text?

What are the main features of Dispensationalism according to the text?

A Study Guide for the Book of Revelation

Copyright 2010 by Steve C. Singleton

Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation

The Various Contexts of Any Passage

Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation

b. Special Hermeneutics for the Book of Revelation

The Literal vs. Figurative Hermeneutic

Revelation Chapter One

Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation

2. The Hermeneutic of Original Intent

3. The Hermeneutic of Original Audience

4. The Time-Frame Hermeneutic

The Time-Frame Hermeneutic

Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation

5. The Old Testament Background Hermeneutic

6. The Historical Background Hermeneutic

7. The Modern Application Hermeneutic

a. Immediate Context Sentence, Paragraph, Book

Figure 4. These are the obvious divisions of the Book

Introduction: 2. Internal Contexts

Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation

b. Remote Contexts Authors Other Writings, New Testament

Revelation and Johns Other Writings11

Fourth Gospel/Epistles of John

Christ as The Word

John 1:1, 14; 1 John 1:1

Christ as The Lamb

5:6, 8, 12, 13; 6:1, 3, 5, 7, 16; 7:9, 10, 15, 17;

John 10:1; 21:15-17

true vs. false or

2:2; 3:7, 9, 14, 17; 6:10; 14:5; 15:3; 16:7, 13;

No need for temple

churches, seals, trumpets, bowls

7 days at opening of ministry

c. Remote Contexts Old Testament

Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation

Introduction: 2. Internal Contexts

Main Old Testament Backgrounds for the Book of Revelation

22:2; 60:14; 43:4;

11:12, 4, 10; 53:7

13:10; 34:4; 2:10,19

21:9; 51:7; 34:10

7:7; 8:10 ; 10:13

4:34; 7:9, 13; 8:

1:3, 28; 3:12, 14,

41:4; 44:6; 48:12;

Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation

Introduction: 2. Internal Contexts

Introduction: 2. Internal Contexts

Overcoming: Study Guide for Revelation

Parallels Between Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation12

Throne vision (4:111)

Dry bones resurrection (chap. 37)

First resurrection (20:1-6)