Critical Thinking Pointers
Critical Thinking Pointers
Critical Thinking Pointers
POINTERS
1. Critical thinking and creative thinking
Creative thinking is about applying imagination to finding a solution to your
learning task. Creative thinking embodies a relaxed, open, playful approach and is less
ordered, structured and predictable than critical thinking. Therefore it also requires
some risk-taking as there is a chance that you will make mistakes or not come up with
an answer at all. You need to be prepared to cope with the resultant risk, confusion and
disorder. If you are generally ordered and organised this may take some getting used to.
Creative thinking skills are as much about attitude and self-confidence as about talent.
Critical thinking has been described as: reasonable reflective thinking focused
on deciding what to believe or do. (Ennis, 1993). No one always acts purely objectively
and rationally. We connive for selfish interests. We gossip, boast, exaggerate, and
equivocate. It is "only human" to wish to validate our prior knowledge, to vindicate. Our
prior decisions, or to sustain our earlier beliefs. In the process of satisfying our ego,
however, we can often deny ourselves intellectual growth and opportunity. We may not
always want to apply critical thinking skills, but we should have those skills available to
be employed when needed. Critical thinking enables us to recognise a wide range of
subjective analyses of otherwise objective data, and to evaluate how well each analysis
might meet our needs. Facts may be facts, but how we interpret them may vary.
2. Importance of critical thinking in nursing
Critical thinking is the disciplined, intellectual process of applying skilful
reasoning as a guide to belief or action (Paul, Ennis & Norris). In nursing, critical
thinking for clinical decision-making is the ability to think in a systematic and logical
manner with openness to question and reflect on the reasoning process used to ensure
safe nursing practice and quality care (Heaslip). Critical thinking when developed in the
practitioner includes adherence to intellectual standards, proficiency in using reasoning,
a commitment to develop and maintain intellectual traits of the mind and habits of
thought and the competent use of thinking skills and abilities for sound clinical
judgments and safe decision-making.
Intellectual Standards for Reasoning
Practitioners in nursing who are critical thinkers value and adhere to intellectual
standards. Critical thinkers strive to be clear, accurate, precise, logical complete,
significant and fair when they listen, speak, read and write. Critical thinkers think deeply
and broadly. Their thinking is adequate for their intended purpose (Paul, Scriven, Norris
& Ennis). All thinking can be examined in light of these standards and as we reflect on
the quality of our thinking we begin to recognize when we are being unclear, imprecise,
vague or inaccurate. As nurses, we want to eliminate irrelevant, inconsistent and
illogical thoughts as we reason about client care. Nurses use language to clearly
communicate in-depth information that is significant to nursing care. Nurses are not
focused on the trivial or irrelevant.
Nurses who are critical thinkers hold all their views and reasoning to these
standards as well as, the claims of others such that the quality of nurse's thinking
improves over time thus eliminating confusion and ambiguity in the presentation and
understanding of thoughts and ideas.
How does the disposition or layout of a text prepare you for reading? Is the
material broken into parts--subtopics, sections, or the like? Are there long and
unbroken blocks of text or smaller paragraphs or chunks and what does this
suggest? How might the parts of a text guide you toward understanding the line
of inquiry or the arc of the argument that's being made?
2. Annotate
Annotating puts you actively and immediately in a "dialogue with an author and
the issues and ideas you encounter in a written text.
Throw away your highlighter: Highlighting can seem like an active reading
strategy, but it can actually distract from the business of learning and dilute your
comprehension. Those bright yellow lines you put on a printed page one day can
seem strangely cryptic the next, unless you have a method for remembering why
they were important to you at another moment in time. Pen or pencil will allow
you do to more to a text you have to wrestle with.
Mark up the margins of your text with words and phrases: ideas that occur to
you, notes about things that seem important to you, reminders of how issues in a
text may connect with class discussion or course themes. This kind of interaction
keeps you conscious of the reasons you are reading as well as
the purposes your instructor has in mind. Later in the term, when you are
reviewing for a test or project, your marginalia will be useful memory triggers.
Develop your own symbol system: asterisk (*) a key idea, for example, or use an
exclamation point (!) for the surprising, absurd, bizarre. Your personalized set of
hieroglyphs allow you to capture the important -- and often fleeting -- insights that
occur to you as you're reading. Like notes in your margins, they'll
prove indispensable when you return to a text in search of that perfect passage
to use in a paper, or are preparing for a big exam.
Get in the habit of hearing yourself ask questions: What does this mean? Why
is the writer drawing that conclusion? Why am I being asked to read this text?
etc. Write the questions down (in your margins, at the beginning or end of the
reading, in a notebook, or elsewhere. They are reminders of the unfinished
business you still have with a text: something to ask during class discussion, or
to come to terms with on your own, once youve had a chance to digest the
material further or have done other course reading.
3. Outline, Summarize, and Analyze
The best way to determine that youve really gotten the point is to be able to state
it in your own words. Take the information apart, look at its parts, and then try to put it
back together again in language that is meaningful to you.
Outlining the argument of a text is a version of annotating, and can be done
quite informally in the margins of the text, unless you prefer the more formal Roman
numeral model you may have learned in high school. Outlining enables you to see the
skeleton of an argument: the thesis, the first point and evidence (and so on), through
the conclusion. With weighty or difficult readings, that skeleton may not be obvious until
you go looking for it.
Summarizing accomplishes something similar, but in sentence and paragraph
form, and with the connections between ideas made explicit.
Analyzing adds an evaluative component to the summarizing processit
requires you not just to restate main ideas, but also to test the logic, credibility, and
emotional impact of an argument. In analyzing a text, you reflect upon and decide how
effectively (or poorly) its argument has been made. Questions to ask:
What reasons or evidence does the author supply to convince me? Where is the
strongest or most effective evidence the author offers -- and why is it
compelling?
Is there any place in the text where the reasoning breaks down? Are there things
that do not make sense, conclusions that are drawn prematurely, moments
where the writer undermines his or her purposes?
Recurring images
Repeated words, phrases, types of examples, or illustrations
5. Contextualize
Once youve finished reading actively and annotating, consider the text from the
multiple perspectives.
When you contextualize, you essentially "re-view" a text you've encountered,
acknowledging how it is framed by its historical, cultural, material, or intellectual
circumstances. Do these factors change, complicate, explain, deepen or otherwise
influence how you view a piece?
Also view the reading through the lens of your own experience. Your
understanding of the words on the page and their significance is always shaped by what
you have come to know and value from living in a particular time and place.
6. Compare and Contrast
Set course readings against each other to determine their relationships (hidden
or explicit).
At what point in the term does this reading come? Why that point, do you
imagine?
How does it contribute to the main concepts and themes of the course?
How does it compare (or contrast) to the ideas presented by texts that come
before it? Does it continue a trend, shift direction, or expand the focus of
previous readings?
How has your thinking been altered by this reading, or how has it affected your
response to the issues and themes of the course?
3.
4.
5.
First determine the central claims or purpose of the text (its thesis). A critical
reading attempts to assess how these central claims are developed or argued.
Begin to make some judgements about context . What audience is the text
written for? Who is it in dialogue with? (This will probably be other scholars or
authors with differing viewpoints.) In what historical context is it written? All these
matters of context can contribute to your assessment of what is going on in a text.
Distinguish the kinds of reasoning the text employs. What concepts are defined
and used? Does the text appeal to a theory or theories? Is any specific
methodology laid out? If there is an appeal to a particular concept, theory, or
method, how is that concept, theory, or method then used to organize and
interpret the data? You might also examine how the text is organized: how has the
author analyzed (broken down) the material? Be aware that different disciplines
(i.e. history, sociology, philosophy, biology) will have different ways of arguing.
Examine the evidence (the supporting facts, examples, etc) the text employs.
Supporting evidence is indispensable to an argument. Having worked through
Steps 1-3, you are now in a position to grasp how the evidence is used to develop
the argument and its controlling claims and concepts. Steps 1-3 allow you to see
evidence in its context. Consider the kinds of evidence that are used. What counts
as evidence in this argument? Is the evidence statistical? literary? historical? etc.
From what sources is the evidence taken? Are these sources primary or
secondary?
Critical reading may involve evaluation. Your reading of a text is already critical if
it accounts for and makes a series of judgments about how a text is argued.
However, some essays may also require you to assess the strengths and
weaknesses of an argument. If the argument is strong, why? Could it be better or
differently supported? Are there gaps, leaps, or inconsistencies in the argument?
Is the method of analysis problematic? Could the evidence be interpreted
differently? Are the conclusions warranted by the evidence presented? What are
the unargued assumptions? Are they problematic? What might an opposing
argument be?
WRITE
The most characteristic features of critical writing are:
a clear and confident refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers without
evaluating the arguments and evidence that they provide;
a balanced presentation of reasons why the conclusions of other writers may be
accepted or may need to be treated with caution;
a clear presentation of your own evidence and argument, leading to your
conclusion; and
a recognition of the limitations in your own evidence, argument, and conclusion.
With critical writing you are participating in the academic debate. This is more
challenging and risky. You need to weigh up the evidence and arguments of others,
and to contribute your own. You will need to:
consider the quality of the evidence and argument you have read;
identify key positive and negative aspects you can comment upon;
assess their relevance and usefulness to the debate that you are engaging in for
your assignment; and
identify how best they can be woven into the argument that you are developing.
A much higher level of skill is clearly needed for critical writing than for descriptive
writing, and this is reflected in the higher marks it is given.
Finding your academic voice
When you engage in critical writing you are developing your own academic voice
within your subject. Wellington et al. (2005 p.84) offer some suggestions for
distinguishing between the academic and the non-academic voice. They suggest
that the academic voice will involve:
healthy scepticism but not cynicism;
confidence but not cockiness or arrogance;
judgement which is critical but not dismissive;
opinions without being opinionated;
emphasising to the reader that you are including both description and critical
analysis, by providing a visual representation of their separation; and
pushing you to produce the necessary critical writing, especially if you find that your
description paragraphs are always longer, or more frequent, than your critical analysis
paragraphs.
A paragraph break can provide a brief pause for your readers within a longer
argument; giving them the opportunity to make sure they are keeping up with your
reasoning. Paragraphs that are overly long can require readers to hold too much in
their mind at once, resulting in their having to re-read the material until they can identify
the point you are making.
You can also use paragraphs to push yourself to include critical writing alongside
descriptive writing or referencing, by considering each paragraph almost as an essay in
miniature. Within each paragraph you would:
SPEAK
Here are seven principles of public speaking that Ive developed in my role as a
media coach. Keep them in mind the next time you find yourself presenting before a
group.
1. Perception: Stop trying to be a great public speaker.
People want to listen to someone who is interesting, relaxed, and comfortable. In
the routine conversations we have every day, we have no problem being ourselves. Yet
too often, when we stand up to give a speech, something changes. We focus on the
public at the expense of the speaking. To become an effective public speaker, you
must do just the opposite: focus on the speaking and let go of the public. Think of it as
a conversation between you and the audience. If you can carry on a relaxed
conversation with one or two people, you can give a great speech. Whether your
audience consists of two people or two thousand and whether youre talking about the
latest medical breakthrough or what you did today at work, be yourself; talk directly to
people and make a connection with them.
2.
Even the most accomplished public speaker will make a mistake at some point.
Just keep in mind that youll notice more than anyone in your audience. The most
important thing a speaker can do after making a mistake is to keep going. Dont stop
andunless the mistake was truly earth shatteringnever apologize to the audience
for a minor slip. Unless they are reading the speech during your delivery, the audience
wont know if you left out a word, said the wrong name, or skipped a page. Because to
err is human, a mistake can actually work for you, because it allows you to connect
with your audience. People dont want to hear from someone who is perfect; they will
relate much more easily to someone who is real.
3.
Winners in all aspects of life have this in common: they practice visualization to
achieve their goals. Sales people envision themselves closing the deal; executives
picture themselves developing new ventures; athletes close their eyes and imagine
themselves making that basket, hitting that home run, or breaking that record. The
same is true in public speaking. The best way to fight anxiety and to become a more
comfortable speaker is to practice in the one place where no one else can see you
your mind. If you visualize on a consistent basis, your mind will become used to the
prospect of speaking in public, and pretty soon youll conquer any feelings of anxiety.
4.
Your goal is not to be a perfect public speaker. There is no such thing. Your goal
is to be an effective public speaker. Like anything else in life, it takes practice. We too
often take communication for granted because we speak to people everyday. But when
your prosperity is directly linked to how well you perform in front a group, you need to
give the task the same attention as if you were a professional athlete. Remember, even
world champion athletes practice every day. Try taking a class where you practice
giving speeches.
5.
Whatever the topic, audiences respond best when speakers personalize their
communication. Take every opportunity to put a face on the facts of your presentation.
People like to hear about other peoples experiencesthe triumphs, tragedies, and
everyday humorous anecdotes that make up their lives. Tell stories. Whenever
possible, insert a personal-interest element in your public speaking. Not only will it
make your listeners warm up to you, but it will also do wonders at putting you at ease.
After all, on what subject is your expertise greater than on the subject of you?
6.
For a twist that is sure to take much of the fear out of public speaking, take the
focus off of yourself and shift it to your audience. After all, the objective is not to benefit
the speaker but to benefit the audience, through teaching, motivation, or entertainment.
So in all of your preparation and presentation, you should think about your purpose.
How can you help your audience members achieve their goals?
7. Anticipation: Always leave em wanting more.
One of the most valuable lessons I have learned in my years in communications is that
when it comes to public speaking, less is usually more. I dont think Ive ever left a
gathering and heard someone say, I wish that speaker had spoken longer. On the
other hand, I imagine that you probably cant count the times that youve thought, Im
glad that speech is over. It seemed to go on forever! So surprise your audience.
Always make your presentation just a bit shorter than anticipated. If youve followed the
first six principles outlined here you already have their attention and interest, and its
better to leave your listeners wishing you had spoken for just a few more minutes than
squirming in their seats waiting for your speech finally to end.
owner's point of view, not an outside viewer's) are linked by a large bundle of nerve
fibres called the corpus callosum, and also by other smaller connections
called commissures.
Behavior
descriptions
Examples of
activity to be
trained, or
demonstration
and evidence
to be measured
1. Rememberin
g
Recall or
recognize
information
Multiple-choice
test, recount
facts or statistics,
recall a process,
rules, definitions;
quote law or
procedure
2. Understandin
g
Understand
meaning, restate data in
one's own
words, interpret,
extrapolate,
translate
Explain or
interpret
meaning from a
given scenario or
statement,
suggest
treatment,
reaction or
solution to given
problem, create
examples or
metaphors
3. Applying
Use or apply
knowledge, put
theory into
practice, use
knowledge in
response to real
circumstances
4. Analyzing
Interpret
elements,
organizational
principles,
structure,
construction,
internal
relationships;
quality, reliability
of individual
components
Identify
constituent parts
and functions of a
process or
concept, or deconstruct a
methodology or
process, making
qualitative
assessment of
elements,
relationships,
values and
effects; measure
requirements or
needs
5. Evaluating
Assess
effectiveness of
whole concepts,
in relation to
values, outputs,
efficacy,
viability; critical
thinking,
strategic
comparison and
review;
judgment
relating to
external criteria
Review strategic
options or plans
in terms of
efficacy, return
on investment or
costeffectiveness,
practicability;
assess
sustainability;
perform a SWOT
analysis in
relation to
alternatives;
produce a
financial
justification for a
proposition or
venture,
calculate the
effects of a plan
or strategy;
perform a
detailed risk
analysis with
recommendation
s and
justifications
6. Creating
Develop new
unique
structures,
systems,
models,
approaches,
ideas; creative
thinking,
operations
Develop plans or
procedures,
design solutions,
integrate
methods,
resources, ideas,
parts; create
teams or new
approaches,
write protocols &
contingencies
Examples of experience,
'level'
descriptions
or demonstration and
which describe the
evidence to be measured activity to be trained or
measured at each
level)
1. Receiving
Open to
experience,
willing to hear
Listen to teacher or
trainer, take interest in
session or learning
experience, take notes,
turn up, make time for
learning experience,
participate passively
2. Responding
React and
participate
actively
Participate actively in
group discussion, active
participation in activity,
interest in outcomes,
enthusiasm for action,
question and probe
ideas, suggest
interpretation
3. Valuing
Attach values
and express
personal
opinions
Argue, challenge,
debate, refute,
confront, justify,
persuade, criticize,
4. Organizing
or
Conceptualiz
ing Values
Reconcile
internal conflicts;
develop value
system
Build, develop,
formulate, defend,
modify, relate,
prioritize, reconcile,
contrast, arrange,
compare
5. Internalizing
Values
Adopt belief
system and
philosophy
Self-reliant; behave
consistently with
personal value set
Examples of activity
or demonstration and
evidence to be
measured
1. Imitation
Copy action of
another; observe
and replicate
Watch teacher or
trainer and repeat
action, process or
activity
2. Manipulation
Reproduce activity
from instruction or
memory
Re-create, build,
perform, execute,
implement, acquire,
conduct, operate
3. Precision
Execute skill
reliably,
independent of
help, activity is
quick, smooth, and
accurate
Perform a task or
activity with expertise
and to high quality
without assistance or
instruction; able to
demonstrate an
activity to other
learners
Demonstrate,
complete, show,
perfect, calibrate,
control, achieve,
accomplish, master,
refine
4. Articulation
Adapt and
integrate expertise
to satisfy a new
context or task
5. Naturalization
Instinctive,
Construct, compose,
effortless,
unconscious
mastery of activity
and related skills at
strategic level
7. Factors that may hinder critical thinking (How to improve critical thinking)
1. Misunderstanding what is meant by criticism (Cottrell, 2005 p.10)
Criticism does not just mean making negative comments (Cottrell, 2005,
p.10). Critical evaluation means identifying positive and negative aspects,
what works and what does not work and weighing and considering the
information available. Critical evaluation is active, thoughtful examination of
what you read, hear and see to determine if the information is accurate and
reliable.
Constructive criticism can clarify a situation and help a person excel.
Everyone needs feedback on how they can improve (Cottrell, 2005, p.10).
Example: In response to your English essay, your professor may write the
following: What I liked most about your essay was the way you described the
characters in the novel. One way you could improve the essay is by
discussing the significance of each characters role in the novel. One of your
greatest strengths is your imaginative and creative writing so this should
assist you in conveying your ideas about the characters roles to the readers
of your essay."
2. Overestimating your reasoning abilities (Cottrell, 2005, p.10)
We often use automatic thinking, which makes us more efficient in our
everyday lives.
Winning arguments does not necessarily mean you have the best case or good
reasoning abilities. It may mean that your opponents didnt recognize a poor
argument or chose to yield the point to avoid conflict (Cottrell, 2005, p.10).
3. Lack of methods, strategies or practice
4. Reluctance to critique experts (Cottrell, 2005, p.11)
Researchers and professors expect students to question and challenge material
(Cottrell, 2005, p.11). It is a typical and expected activity in an academic
environment.
5. Affective reasons (Cottrell, 2005, p.11)
Letting emotions take the place of the reasoning and evidence that could
convince others can undermine an argument (Cottrell, 2005, p.11).
For example, if you feel strongly about the issue of child abuse, then you might
let your feelings about this issue overrule evidence that supports arguments
contrary to your beliefs.
Critical thinkers acknowledge their emotions and understand how they can
influence decisions. They take control of whether emotions should become part
of the reasoning process (Learning Express, 2010a, p.85).
Critical thinking does not mean that you must abandon beliefs that you feel
strongly about (Cottrell, 2005, p.11); it means that you must be willing to critically
evaluate and challenge deeply held beliefs and assumptions. When you avoid
making assumptions, you get all the information you need before deciding
anything.
6. Mistaking information for understanding (Cottrell, 2005, p.12)
Memorizing facts and answers is not a skill that helps you to make critical
thinking judgments for yourself. Critical evaluation is a process that involves
developing understanding and insight about the facts and answers you learn.
7. Insufficient focus and attention to detail (Cottrell, 2005, p.12)
Critical thinking requires focus on the exact task at hand, rather than
becoming distracted by other interesting tangents (Cottrell, 2005, p.12).
Its important to focus on details more than a general overview of the subject
matter in order to use critical evaluation.
8. 10 ways to Develop Creative thinking
You can help your firm innovate by creating a culture in which all employees are actively
encouraged to put ideas forward. But how do you get the best from people and
encourage them to be at their most creative?
1.
Stress the importance of creativity. Ensure all your staff know that you want to
hear their ideas. Unless they understand how innovating your business processes can
keep your firm competitive, your efforts at encouraging creative thinking risk falling flat.
2.
Make time for brainstorming. Allocate time for new ideas to emerge. For
example, set aside time for brainstorming, hold regular group workshops and arrange
team days out. A team involved in a brainstorming session is likely to be more effective
than the sum of its parts. Individuals within the team can feed off each other exploring,
testing and refining ideas. You should also give individuals the space to reflect privately
on their work if you think they need it.
3.
Actively solicit ideas. Place suggestion boxes around the workplace, appeal for
new ideas to solve particular problems and, quite literally, keep your door open to new
ideas.
4.
Train staff in innovation techniques. Your staff may be able to bounce an idea
around, but be unfamiliar with the skills involved in creative problem-solving. You may
find training sessions in formal techniques such as brainstorming, lateral thinking and
mind-mapping worthwhile.
5.
Cross-fertilise. Broadening peoples experiences can be a great way to spark
ideas. Short-term job swaps and shadowing in-house can introduce a fresh perspective
to roles. Encourage people to look at how other businesses do things, even those in
other sectors, and consider how they can be adapted or improved.
6.
Challenge the way staff work. Encourage employees to keep looking anew at the
way they approach their work. Ask people whether they have considered alternative
ways of working and what might be achieved by doing things differently.
7.
Be supportive. Respond enthusiastically to all ideas and never make someone
offering an idea, however hopeless, feel foolish. Give even the most apparently
outlandish of ideas a chance to be aired.
8.
Tolerate mistakes. A certain amount of risk-taking is inevitable with creative
thinking. Allow people to learn from their mistakes. Never put off the creative flow by
penalising those whose ideas dont work out.
9.
Reward creativity. Motivate individuals or teams who come up with winning ideas
by actively recognising creativity, for example through an awards scheme. You could
even demonstrate your recognition that not all ideas work out by rewarding those who
just have a rich flow of suggestions, regardless of whether they are put into action at
work.
10.
Act on ideas. Creative thinking is only worthwhile if it results in action. Provide
the time and resources to develop and implement those ideas worth acting upon.
Failure to do so not only means your firm will fail to benefit from innovation, but flow of
ideas may well dry up if staff feel the process is pointless.
9. Art and dynamics of questioning (Socratic questioning)
Due to the rapid addition of new information and the advancement of science and
technology that occur almost daily, an engineer must constantly expand his or her
horizons beyond simple gathering information and relying on the basic engineering
principles.
A number of homework problems have been included that are designed to
enhance critical thinking skills. Critical thinking is the process we use to reflect on,
access and judge the assumptions underlying our own and others ideas and actions.
2. Questions
assumptions:
that
3. Questions that
reasons and evidence:
probe
probe
5. Questions
implications
consequences:
that
probe
and
verify
or
disapprove
that
6.
Questions
question:
about
the
How does...affect...?
What does...mean?
Elements of Metacognition
Researchers distinguish between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
regulation (Flavell, 1979, 1987; Schraw & Dennison, 1994). Metacognitive knowledge
refers to what individuals know about themselves as cognitive processors, about
different approaches that can be used for learning and problem solving, and about the
demands of a particular learning task. Metacognitive regulation refers to adjustments
individuals make to their processes to help control their learning, such as planning,
information management strategies, comprehension monitoring, de-bugging strategies,
and evaluation of progress and goals. Flavell (1979) further divides metacognitive
knowledge into three categories:
Person variables: What one recognizes about his or her strengths and
weaknesses in learning and processing information.
Task variables: What one knows or can figure out about the nature of a
task and the processing demands required to complete the taskfor
example, knowledge that it will take more time to read, comprehend,
and remember a technical article than it will a similar-length passage
from a novel.
Strategy variables: The strategies a person has at the ready to apply
in a flexible way to successfully accomplish a task; for example,
knowing how to activate prior knowledge before reading a technical
article, using a glossary to look up unfamiliar words, or recognizing that
sometimes one has to reread a paragraph several times before it makes
sense.
Livingston (1997) provides an example of all three variables: I know that I (person
variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the
computational problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable).
Why Teach Metacognitive Skills?
Research shows that metacognitive skills can be taught to students to improve their
learning (Nietfeld & Shraw, 2002; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault, 2003).
Constructing understanding requires both cognitive and metacognitive elements.
Learners construct knowledge using cognitive strategies, and they guide, regulate,
and evaluate their learning using metacognitive strategies. It is through this thinking
about thinking, this use of metacognitive strategies, that real learning occurs. As
students become more skilled at using metacognitive strategies, they gain confidence
and become more independent as learners.
Individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills can think through a problem
or approach a learning task, select appropriate strategies, and make decisions about a
course of action to resolve the problem or successfully perform the task. They often
think about their own thinking processes, taking time to think about and learn from
mistakes or inaccuracies (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1995). Some
instructional programs encourage students to engage in metacognitive conversations
with themselves so that they can talk with themselves about their learning, the
challenges they encounter, and the ways in which they can self-correct and continue
learning.
Moreover, individuals who demonstrate a wide variety of metacognitive skills
perform better on exams and complete work more efficientlythey use the right tool for
the job, and they modify learning strategies as needed, identifying blocks to learning
and
changing
tools
or
strategies
to
ensure
goal
attainment.
Because Metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is imperative that
instructors help learners develop metacognitively.
Accuracy
How could we check on that?
How could we find out if that is true?
How could we verify or test that?
Precision
Could you be more specific?
Could you give me more details?
Could you be more exact?
Relevance
How does that relate to the problem?
How does that bear on the question?
How does that help us with the issue?
Depth
What factors make this difficult?
What are some of the complexities of this question?
What are some of the difficulties we need to deal with?
Breadth
Do we need to look at this from another perspective?
Do we need to consider another point of view?
Do we need to look at this in other ways?
Logic
Does all of this make sense together?
Does your first paragraph fit in with your last one?
Does what you say follow from the evidence?
Significance
Is this the most important problem to consider?
Is this the central idea to focus on?
Which of these facts are most important?
Fairness
Is my thinking justifiable in context?
Am I taking into account the thinking of others?
Is my purpose fair given the situation?
Am I using my concepts in keeping with educated usage, or am I distorting them
to get what I want?Intellectual Traits
Consistent application of the standards of thinking to the elements of thinking result in
the development of intellectual traits of:
Intellectual Humility
Intellectual Courage
Intellectual Empathy
Intellectual Autonomy
Intellectual Integrity
Intellectual Perseverance
Confidence in Reason
Fair-mindedness
associated with knowledge (one of the key facets of creativity) as it entails using
existing knowledge by way of standard procedures.
Standard IQ tests measure convergent thinking. Logic thought flow, pattern recognition,
the capacity to solve problems and testing knowledge can all be evaluated and graded
in these tests. Standardized multiple choice questions are also an example of testing
convergent thinking. One example of such a question would be:
The majority of school tasks also call for convergent thinking
Given below is a comparison of the two thinking styles with the factors of comparison
being mood, creative ability, intellectual ability, brain activity, personality and sleep
deprivation.
Mood Research shows that gearing up for a creative thinking job can bring on mood
swings determined by the kind of thinking utilized for the task. As per the research,
convergent and divergent thinking affect mood in converse ways. While the former
triggered a negative mood, the latter triggered the exact opposite a positive mood.
Creative Ability Creative ability was gauged in a study having both divergent and
convergent tasks. In the case of the divergent tasks, though taken as a group, all the
tasks showed a connection, they were not significant when studied between conditions.
With respect to the convergent tasks, two kinds were used. The first were remote
associates tasks, which provided the subject with three words and asked the subject
what word the three given words are connected to. The second kind were insight
problems, which provided the subjects with certain contextual facts and posed a
question to them that called for shedding light on.
The convergent thinkers accurately solved a greater number of the five remote
associates problems compared to their counterpart divergent thinkers. This was shown
to be considerably dissimilar by a one-way ANOVA. Whats more, when answering to
insight problems, those who engaged in convergent thinking solved a greater number of
insight problems compared to the control group. Nonetheless, no considerable
Sleep deprivation A 1988 study by J.A. Horne revealed that even a single night
of sleep deprivation can cause significant impairment to divergent thinking. On the other
hand, people engaged in convergent thinking tasks were seen to be more pliant with
respect to short-term sleep loss.
Convergent and divergent thinking are similar in that both thinking strategies are
used to determine solutions to problems. Not just that but both strategies are directed at
determining the best solutions. It is frequently seen that problems are solved through a
blend of convergent and divergent thinking.
Divergent thinking brings out the best outcomes when it is used for open-ended
problems that enable creativity. Convergent thinking is ideally suited for situations where
there exists one best correct answer and it is feasible to determine the answer by way
of evaluation of available stored information. In addition, though it doesnt look the case,
convergent thinking also contributes to idea generation. However, owing to the fact that
the focus of divergent thinking is ideas rather than process, any solution determined as
a result of divergent thinking, frequently needs convergent thinking to convert it into a
practicable to-do-list.
Moving to everyday life, heres an example of convergent and divergent thinking in
practice.
It is true that withstanding the earths gravity to travel in space has been a dream that
existed ever since women and men first cast their eyes on the stars. However, it was
only in the mid-20th century that there was actually technology available to make the
dream a reality.
October 14th, 1957 is an important day in history. It was on this day that the Russians
launched Sputnik into space, thereby initiating the space race. The success of the
Russians in technology came as a bolt to the United States. In response, the country
set up the National Aeronautics and Space Administration a year later.
In the first half of the 1960s, the then President John F. Kennedy sent letters to Wernher
von Braun and other key persons in the aerospace industry. He wanted to know how the
U.S. could defeat Russia in the space race. It was only after receiving expert advice
pertaining to the matter that the president made his famous speech where he promised
to get a man transported to the moon and also ensure his safe return, by the close of
the decade. That speech assisted with rousing nearly 400,000 NASA staff and
contractors to join hands as a cohesive team and achieve one of the best events of
history in under a decade.
Kennedy utilized data and facts to find out how the U.S. could defeat the Russians in
the space conquest. That was an example of chiefly convergent thinking. The
achievement of this remarkable feat called for the making of a lot of new technologies to
design and manufacture the rockets, lunar modules, spacesuits and other necessary
equipment. This required a considerable amount of divergent thinking.
Examples
Here are two more examples that make the comparison between divergent thinking and
convergent thinking clear.
Divergent thinking: Mr. As home is at a distance of five miles from work. His Chevrolet
gets 30 MPG. However, he wishes to expend less fuel in his travel for both monetary
and conservation-associated reasons. Money is not an issue. What choices does he
have to cut his fuel consumption?
Convergent thinking: Mr. As home is at a distance of five miles from work. His Chevrolet
gets 30 MPG. However, he wishes to expend less fuel in his travel for both monetary
and conservation-associated reasons. Money is not an issue. Which three vehicles are
the best replacements for his car?
Both examples would result in important outcomes. The trigger for the convergent
example could be some other problem maybe his car was totaled, and he only had a
weekend to find an answer to the problem. More time may be required to investigate the
divergent example. However, it could still be possible to find an option that is entirely
different from what the user asked like devise a vehicle that runs off of air, or start a
new business from home.
is the fear of doing or saying something new or different from what you did before. This
homeostatic impulse holds people back from becoming all they are capable of
becoming
and
from
achieving
business success.
In homeostasis, there seems to be an irresistible unconscious pressure that
brings you back to doing what you have always done. Unfortunately, this tendency leads
you into your own comfort zone. Your comfort zone, over time, becomes a groove,
and then a rut. You become stuck. All progress stops. In no time, you begin to use your
marvelous powers of rationalization to justify not changing. As Jim Rohn says, The only
difference between a rut and a grave is the depth. Homeostasis is a major killer of
human potential, which will hinder you from achieving business success.
OBSTACLE TO CREATIVE THINKING #5: PASSIVE VS. PROACTIVE THINKING
The fifth obstacle to creative thinking for business success is passivity. If you do
not continually stimulate your mind with new ideas and information, it loses its vitality
and energy, very much like a muscle that is not exercised. Instead of thinking
proactively and creatively, your thinking becomes passive and automatic.
A major cause of passive thinking is routine. Most people get up at the same time
each morning, follow the same routine at their jobs, socialize with the same people in
the evenings, and watch the same television programs. As a result of not continually
challenging their minds, they become dull and complacent. If someone suggests or
proposes a new idea or way of doing things, they usually react with negativity and
discouragement. They very soon begin to feel threatened by any suggestion of change
from the way things have been done in the past.
OBSTACLE TO CREATIVE THINKING #6: RATIONALIZING AND JUSTIFYING
The sixth obstacle to creative thinking for business success is rationalizing. We
know that human beings arerational creatures, but what does that mean? Being
rational means that we continually use our minds to explain the world to ourselves, so
we can understand it better and feel more secure. In other words, whatever you decide
to do, or not do, you very quickly come up with a good reason for your decision. By
constantly rationalizing your decisions, you cannot learn to improve performance for
business success.