Article

A Tentative Etymological Glossary of Etruscan

Arnaud Fournet

Abstract: The paper is a linguistic and historical introduction to Etruscan together with a
compilation of Etruscan words with well-established meanings. It is shown that the Etruscan
vocabulary is made up of Hurro-Urartean cognates, together with Indo-European and Semitic
loanwords.
Keywords: Etruscan, Hurrian, Urartean, Semitic.

1. Introduction
As is well known Etruscan was the language of the Etruscan people who once inhabited the area in
northwest central Italy between the Arno, the Tiber and the Tyrrhenian Sea. It was written in a set of
alphabets derived from a Greek prototype and there is therefore little apparent difficulty in reading the
language although there is considerably more difficulty in understanding it. Written Etruscan is
attested from 700 BCE to AD 50. Because it is now a dead language Etruscan remains incompletely
understood and the interpretation of Etruscan inscriptions and texts remains conjectural to some
extent. In addition a few Etruscan texts come from other areas of Italy, especially from Campania,
Emilia and from Corsica, and isolated examples are known from Provence, Tunisia, Greece and Egypt.
Unfortunately a major hindrance to present-day understanding of the language is that several works on
Etruscan written by the Roman emperor Claudius (10 BCE AD 54) are now lost. These documents
included dictionaries of the language as used by its last speakers.
Ultimately Etruscan is primarily known thanks to inscriptions. They number about 9000
according to Rix (2008: 141) and more than 13 000 according to Bonfante (1994: 437), depending on
what is called an inscription. Many are funerary inscriptions, which are most often short and
repetitive and limited to nothing more than the deceased's name. The second largest source comprises
the short texts on daily-life objects which indicate the owner, the manufacturer or the purpose of the
object. Another source is the inscriptions next to pictorial representations. Beside these numerous
short inscriptions there exist longer documents of legal or ritual character. The Pyrgi bilingual has a
parallel text in Phoenician and reports the dedication of a cult building and is one of the clearest
documents; the Perugine cippus records a contract about a piece of land; the Capua clay tablet is 300
words rich and is the longest Etruscan inscription, it describes a ritual calendar; and the Cortona
bronze tablet records the treatment of tenant farmers after the sale of an estate rented by them (Cf.
Agostiniani and Nicosia 2000). The longest known Etruscan text is 1,500 words rich and describes a
calendar of rituals. A good half of this linen book is preserved in spite of having been torn up and used
as wrappings on a mummy in Egypt. It is called the Zagreb mummy after its present location. A third
source is the glosses of Etruscan words given by Latin and Greek authors: for example, aesar . . .
etrusca lingua deus, [aesar . . . the Etruscan word for god] in Suetonius, The Life of Augustus 97).
This source is not as reliable as one may expect because in fact aesar is a plural and means gods. A
fourth source is loanwords. To these sources can be added toponyms as will be shown below.
It is now generally accepted that the Etruscan population can be traced back to the so-called
Villanovan culture at least up to -1200 BCE. The introduction of the Greek alphabet reveals their
existence in Etruria but they were already there for some time (Cf. Bonfante & Bonfante 2002: 52).

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The deeper prehistory of Etruscans remains disputed. Historians of the 5th century BCE (Herodotus
1.94, Hellanicus in Dionysius of Halicarnassus 1.28.34) claimed immigration from the Aegean.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1st century BCE) argued from the lack of related languages that Etruscans
were autochthonous in Italy. So far archeological arguments (Pallottino 1988: 77101) have been
poorly conclusive, so have genetic arguments. The relationship between Etruscan and Hurro-Urartean
proposed in this paper does not mean that Etruscan arrived in Etruria at a low dating. The
differences indicate that the split cannot be extremely recent. It must nevertheless be noted that several
Etruscan words appear to be Akkadian loanwords which are also represented in Hurrian as will be
shown below. One of the conspicuous differences is that Etruscan seems to have always initial stress
on the first syllable but this sometimes results from the lost of the preceding and originally initial
syllable. Several Etruscan words appear to have lost initial syllables when compared to HurroUrartean, especially when the original initial syllable started with a vowel.
During their history from the 7th to 1st centuries BCE the Etruscans never formed a centrally
governed state. Rather they lived in separate city-states, which were first ruled by princes or kings and
which later on from around 500 BCE became oligarchies and were tied to each other through common
cult festivals. The Etruscans who possessed citizenship: the Rasenna (Dionysius of Halicarnassus
1.30.3; < Etruscan rasna Etruscan people; see Rix 1984b) made up only a part of the population.
There was also a rural population: Penestai (Dionysius of Halicarnassus 9.5.4) with personal freedom
and economic independence, but without political rights and at least in part of Italic origin. Only in the
third to second centuries did this section of the population acquire Etruscan full citizenship (Cf. Rix
1963: 372376). Until the beginning of the 5th century BCE the Etruscans were the dominating power
in upper and central Italy. The defeat inflicted by the Greeks at Cumae in 474 BCE marks the
beginning of the Etruscan decline which worsened after the Celtic invasions in the 4th century BCE.
Politically the Etruscans became dependent allies of Rome at the beginning of the third century and
two hundred years later Roman citizens. Shortly after the turn of the millennium Etruscan ceased to be
written. Around that time the language probably ceased to be spoken as well. The Roman emperor
Claudius is said to have been among the last speakers of that language. Contacts between Etruscan and
Italic speakers must have been both ancient and intense as the words l(a)uc(h)um king and l(a)uc to
rule seem to be direct borrowings of an Indo-European word like *deuk-o-m that who leads. It is
quite extraordinary that such a word with a political meaning is borrowed from a foreign source. It can
also be noted that the suffix -alch number-ty sounds like PIE *dek and displays a similar change
from *d to l.
Etruscan is very close to three poorly attested languages: Lemnian in the Northeast of the
Aegean (6th century BCE; Cf. Agostiniani 1986), Camunic and Rhaetic in the Alps (5th to 1st
centuries BCE; Cf. Schumacher 1992: 246248; Rix 1998). They are so close to Etruscan that it can be
used to understand them. The date of the common proto-language which can be called Proto-Tyrsenic
can probably be fixed to the last quarter of the second millennium BCE according to Rix (2008: 142).
In the present paper Etruscan will provide most of the material to be compared to Hurro-Urartean.
2. A sketch of Etruscan phonology
Etruscan writing appears at the end of the 8th century BCE out of an alphabet of Western Greek
origin. The Marsiliana Tablet (ca. -700 BC) has the following archaic school alphabet: a b c d e v z h
th i k l m n ts o p q r s t u ks ph ch.
As is well known historical Etruscan never used voiced letters like b and d, and used c for [k]
instead of [g], a voiced velar phoneme that did not exist in historical Etruscan. Greeco-Latin
loanwords with voiced phonemes were adjusted to voiceless phonemes: Pachana ~ Bacch-, Zi(u)mite
~ Diomds, Creice ~ Graec- Greek, Alisantre ~ Aleksandros, etc. As a result of that phonological
feature of Etruscan only a subset of letters is actually used. What is more a new letter was added for a
sound that Etruscan had but for which there was no grapheme available: which stands for /f/. It must
be noted that early loanwords have a different treatment which suggests that Proto-Etruscan used to
have voiced phonemes: word-initially *d in early loanwords becomes /l/ as in (Umbrian?) *doukom >

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lauchum leader, king, Greek diphtera > Etrusco-Latin littera. Cf. Greek daphne > Latin laurus as
well. In inherited morphemes the same change can be observed: *-d- hence Etruscan -l GenitiveDative ~ Hurrian -da Dative-Allative. It can also be noted that tular boundary stones is the
probable etymon of the Italian city of Todi, located at the border between Etruscan and Umbrian
territories. This toponym confirms the phonetic relationship between l and d in Etruscan. A devoicing
of labial /b/ can be observed in Apennin(us) ~ Hurrian aban, Urartean baban mountain or Etruscan
pruth dictator ~ Hurrian ebri, erwi lord, king. These considerations mean that at some time
between the first contacts with Italo-Celtic speakers and the introduction of writing Etruscan
phonology underwent a general shift in consonants which eliminated voice from the system.
As a consequence of the absence of voiced phonemes the letter z can hardly stand for a voiced
phoneme like /(d)z/. It seems therefore logical to conclude that this letter was instead used for an
affricate /ts/ in contrast with a plain sibilant /s/, as is the case in Greek where z is usually considered to
have been a sort of complex sound like [zd]. In addition this situation confirms that the transmission of
the Phoenician alphabet was indirect with a Greek intermediary because the Semitic value of the letter
t
samekh was an affricate as shown by Egyptian renderings: the root tspr to write, scribe is written tpr
not *spr in hieroglyphic Egyptian. This letter is not used in Etruscan to write what can be inferred to
be an affricate as would be expected if the transmission were direct. On the whole the picture for
sibilants is quite confused as four different letters and graphemes are attested for what seems to
amount to only two actual phonemes, conventionally written s and . These two phonemes
respectively correspond to Hurro-Urartean t and d word-internally and in all positions. For example
*ait- god, *aitak- sacred: Etruscan ais god, sac- sacred ~ Hurrian itku, etku sacred. It can be
noted that Etruscan sac- lost the initial syllable, a not infrequent feature of Etruscan words. Besides
Etruscan Genitive -i can be compared to Hurro-Urartean Genitive plural -wi. In addition the Latin
word asinus donkey can be compared with Semitic atan with the same change t > s, similarly rosa ~
Greek (F)rodon rose is a case of d > s. Those words are very probably of Etruscan origin. It can be
noted that in spite of the change of *-t/d- > -s- Etruscan still has a number of non initial t and th. It
would seem that these words are either fairly transparent loanwords like tut(h)i community, state <
Italic *teut- or that they involve morpheme boundaries: i-ta but ta or i-ca this; *-ae Instrumentaladverbial: Etruscan -th-i ~ Hurro-Urartean -ae. In the latter example it can be noted that Latin has a
similar tendency to mark morpheme boundaries with -t-. Some other items are baby-talk words: ati
mother ~ teta grand-mother. The case of tusurthiri is more complex: it is glossed spouse (?) in
Bonfante-Bonfante (2002-111) and married couples (in the double urn?) in Bonfante-Bonfante
(2002-219). It appears that this word potentially amounts to two words and maybe three
morphemes: tusur ~ iduri woman and thi(r) ~ tahi man. In addition it can also be noted that not
infrequently -th- in Etruscan words is preceded by a nasal, most of time n. The changes affecting the
dental stops are therefore quite complex to fathom and describe.
As regards the aspirate letters th, ph, kh, there does not seem to be any phonological contrast
between t and th: uth = sut- to stay, place ?, tuthi = tuti community, state. It can be noted that th is
found in words where t would be expected: thina vase, crater < Greek dinos; thevr bull < Greek
tauros. At the same time t is found where th might be expected: *triumpe triumph < Greek
thriambos, lechtum < Greek lekythos. In my opinion the level of incoherence is such that it is hard to
posit any phonological contrast on that basis: t and th are better treated as a single phonemic unit /t/.
As regards ph it seems to be a positional variant of p word-finally. There is nearly no word that has ph
word-internally and only one item with initial ph. The contrast between p and ph is therefore just as
elusive and non existent as that between t and th. As for velars like kh Rix (2008: 145) observes that
there is a complementary distribution of <h> (word-initially) and <> (word-internally and wordfinally). A minimal pair nevertheless exists: cekha ceremony and cehen this one here. As with t
and th the contrast between c and kh is fairly elusive but Bonfante-Bonfante (2002:79) nevertheless
draws a distinction between: turce he gave and -che [the] passive ending, as in me menache I was
given. An interesting inscription with a kind of minimal pair is Etruscan TLE 890: felsnas la lethes
svalce avil CVI murce capue tleche hanipuluscle Felsnas Laris son of Lethe lived 106 ans, lived (?) in
Capua, was captured (?) by those of Hannibal. It can be noted that Bonfante-Bonfante (2002:102)
also has examples of passives aliqu and zinaku. In addition Rhaetic tinache apparently equates

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Etruscan zinace, so that the situation is again extremely confused with velars. There is hardly any firm
graphic basis to posit a phonological contrast between plain letters and apparently aspirate letters.
Aspiration as reflected in Etruscan inscriptions, letters and words seems to be a free and therefore
phonologically irrelevant feature. The opposition between passive ~ active seems acceptable but it
cannot be excluded that such an opposition is not conveyed by an elusive and contradictory opposition
of c ~ ch but is conveyed by a vocalic contrast between a ~ i. This latter hypothesis would be coherent
with the system of verbal valencies that Hurrian shows to have: -a- for instransitive verbs of
movement, -i- for transitive active verbs and -u- for transitive passive verbs.
On that basis, Etruscan had at least the following system of consonants:
*p

*t

*f

*ts

*k

*m

*n

*w

*l

(*)
*h

*y

*r
Table1: Minimal system for Etruscan consonants
There is no clear reason to posit that Etruscan had a phonological glottal stop as words with
vocalic hiatus are very rare. In addition *h was lost word-internally in most cases so it seems very
little probable that a glottal stop would have been kept in those conditions.
3. Etruscan glossary
The Etruscan glossary is taken from Bonfante-Bonfante (2002), while Hurrian is from Laroche
(1980) for the most part. Obvious Greek loanwords are not included. Correspondences for labials are
fairly straightforward: *m is stable, *b > p in Etruscan, *p becomes f word-initially but disappears
word-internally. As for *w it seems to be lost in Etruscan because Etruscan w is generally the reflex of
*h and not that of inherited *w. Correspondences for dentals are fairly complex because of a number
of changes with divergent results. In Etruscan *t has three reflexes: t when morpheme initial, th after a
nasal, s otherwise. In Hurrian *t has two reflexes: when followed by i or u, otherwise t. That change
in Hurrian is shown by loanwords like Akkadian libittu brick > Hurrian alipi. Normally Etruscan
and Hurrian -l- and -r- regularly correspond but Hurrian geminated -ll- seems to correspond with
Etruscan -r-. In Hurrian these phonemes cannot be initial. That feature would also explain the
prothetic a of Etruscan alpan gladly < Latin liben(ter) which can be compared to Akkadian libittu
brick > Hurrian alipi with a similar prothetic vowel. As regards velars Etruscan fused *k and *g
which surface as c or ch. *h changed to w word-internally in Etruscan but was possibly retained as h
word-initially.
ac- to make, offer (Bonfante-Bonfante 2002:214) ~ (?) Hurrian ag- to bring, lead. Possibly a
cognate *ag-.
acale (aclus) June (B-B 2002:214). Unknown origin.
acil work, thing made (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian agul- to carve (Catsanicos 1996). Probably a
cognate *agvl-.
acnan- to give birth, beget (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian ag- to bring, lead. The causative of acwith suffix -an-. A cognate *ag-.
ais god (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian itku sacred. A cognate *(a)it-ak-. Cf. sac sacred.
aisine sacrifice (B-B 2002:214). A derivative of *(a)it-ak-.
aisiu, aisna, eisna divine (B-B 2002:214). A derivative of *(a)it-ak-.
al- to give (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian al- to bring near to. A cognate *al-.
Suffix -alch -ty, ten (B-B 2002:96). Possibly a loanword of IE *dek ten.
alpan, alpnu (1) gift, offering; (2) gladly (B-B 2002:214). A borrowing of Latin libens with
phonological prothesis #a-.

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alphaze offering (B-B 2002:214). Cf. alpan, alpnu.

am- to be (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian man- to be, he/she/it, Urartean ma-i his. A cognate
*m(a)-. Cf. mi(ni).
ampile May (B-B 2002:214). Unknown origin.
an he, she; this (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian andi this. A cognate *an-. Cf. enach(h).
apa father (B-B 2002:214). A nursery word possibly influenced by some Italic reflex of IE
*patr.
apana paternal (B-B 2002:214). A derivative *apa.
Apeninn- oronym ~ Hurrian aban, Urartean baba- mountain. A cognate *baban-.
ar-, er- to do, make (B-B 2002:214) ~ (?) Hurrian ar-, er- to grow, increase (Catsanicos 1996).
Possibly a cognate *ar-.
*arac [gloss] falcon (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian eradi bird. A cognate *ar-.
*arim [gloss] monkey (B-B 2002:214). Unknown origin.
ars- to push away (?) (B-B 2002:214). Unknown origin.
*asvn- donkey in Latin asinus. A borrowing of Semitic *atan-.
ateri parents, ancestors (B-B 2002:214). The plural of *at-.
ati mother (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian attai father. A cognate *at-v-. The preservation of wordinternal t in Etruscan is irregular.
ati nacna grandmother (B-B 2002:214). Cf. ati. Nacna is of unknown origin.
ativu dear mother (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian attai father. A cognate *at-v-. In my opinion ativu means my mother instead of dear mother.
atrs, ater, aturs, atrus ancestor (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian attardi forbear. A derivative of *atv- with the suffix -ard-.
avil year (B-B 2002:214) ~ (?) Hurrian awala, Urartean ali year. The initial is a problem.
ca, eca this (B-B 2002:215) ~ attested in Hurrian aga-bi on this side. With unstable initial
vowel in Etruscan.
calthi here, in this place (B-B 2002:215). A derivative of ca.
camthi, (?) canth kind of magistrate (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin.
cana, kan(n)a gift (B-B 2002:215). A Semitic loanword qn to give.
cape vase, container (B-B 2002:215). A kind of IE wanderwort: Cf. cu(p)pa, etc.
capra urn, container (B-B 2002:215). A derivative of cape.
*capu [gloss] falcon (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin.
car-, cer- to make, build (B-B 2002:215). Cf. cerine.
cecha ceremony (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin.
cechase kind of magistracy (B-B 2002:215). A derivative of cecha.
cehen this one here (B-B 2002:215). Probably a compound ce-hen as h is only attested wordinitially. A derivative of ca.
cel earth, land (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin. Cf. Greek gaia earth.
celi september (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin.
celu priestly title (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin.
cen- to make, place ~ Hurrian kiban- to bring. This word is a causative derivative of *ki(w)-.
cerine sacred place, building ? (B-B 2002:215) ~ Hurrian kirarni base, foundation. This word is
most probably a Semitic loanword with a native suffix: Cf. Akkadian karru to lay

(foundations).
ces- to place, be placed, to lie (B-B 2002:215) ~ (?) Hurrian ki(w)- to place, deposit. Possibly a
cognate. Cf. cen-, cver-.
cezp eight ? (B-B 2002:215) ~ Hurrian ki(g)- three, kike third. Seems to be a derivative 3+5
based on ci. Cf. cezpalch eighty.
ci three (B-B 2002:215) ~ Hurrian ki(g)- three, kike third. A cognate *ki(g)-. Cf. cialch,
cealch thirty.
ciz three times (B-B 2002:215) ~ Hurrian ki--ke third. A cognate.
cilth people, nation (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin. Note that this may be a derivative of cel
earth, land. Cf. PIE *ghdhom earth > *ghdhomon human being.
clan, (Pl) clenar son (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin. Note that this may be a derivative of cel
earth, land. Cf. cilth people, nation.

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cleva offering (B-B 2002:215) ~ (?) Hurrian kiw-, kib- to put, set. A variant of cvil (?).
culscva doors, gates (B-B 2002:215). An IE loanword *kleHu to close, lock.
cupe cup (B-B 2002:215). A kind of IE wanderwort: Cf. cu(p)pa, etc.
cver, cvil gift, offering ~ Hurrian kiw-, kib- to put, set.
chim, chia a pronom (B-B 2002:215). Cf. ca, eca.
*chosfer [gloss] October (B-B 2002:215). A kind of Italic loanword < *cotfer < *octobher.
ei not (B-B 2002:215) ~ Hurrian -w-, Urartean ui, ue not. A cognate.
eleiva oil (B-B 2002:215). Probably from Greek.
Suffix -em minus (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin.
enac(h) then, afterwards (B-B 2002:215). A cognate *an-. Cf. an. Cf. enac(h).
ep-l up to (B-B 2002:215) ~ Hurrian abi-da in front of. The word abi means face and can be
used as a preposition in Hurrian: abi-da is abi used in the Dative-Allative case. Epl tulari aulei
velthina (TLE 570 l.8) before the boundaries stones [it belongs] to Aule Velthina.
ermius August (B-B 2002:215). Unknown origin. Cf. hermi.
eslz twice (B-B 2002:216). A derivative of zal.
et(h) thus, in this way (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin.
etnam and, also, again, thus (B-B 2002:216). Sounds like a word of Indo-European origin.
*falatu [gloss] sky (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin.
fan- to consecrate (?) (B-B 2002:216). Possibly a Latin loanword. Cf. fnum temple.
farth(a)n- to generate (B-B 2002:216). Possibly an Italic loanword < part- to beget.
favi grave, temple (B-B 2002:216). Possibly a Latin loanword. Cf. favissa.
fler, flerchva offering, sacrifice (B-B 2002:216). Cf. flere.
fler- to offering, sacrifice (B-B 2002:216). Cf. flere.
flere divinity, god (B-B 2002:216). Cf. flere.
flere statue (B-B 2002:216) ~ (?) Urartean (NA4) pulusi stela. Possibly a cognate.
frontac interpreter of lightning (B-B 2002:216). Possibly a borrowing of Greek thunder.
Suffix -c(h) Past ~ Hurrian -uh Past Passive. Apparently Etruscan reinforced this morpheme
into a stop instead of changing it into w as expected. It can nevertheless be noted that verbal
forms in -u seem to be past participles in (B-B 2002:102).
[h?]an- to bear, beget (B-B 2002:104) ~ Hurrian han- to beget. The Etruscan word is attested in
a mutilated inscription: ci clenar [...] anavence she bore three sons. Etruscan should logically
keep trace of initial *h.
hath- to be favorable (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin.
hec(h)- to put, place, add (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin.
hel(s) own, proper (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin.
*hermi [gloss] August (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin. Cf. ermius.
hinth(i) below (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin.
hiuls owl (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin.
hus child (B-B 2002:216) ~ (?) Hurrian hubidi calf. Unclear status. This presupposes that the
meaning was originally young. Cf. Latin puer and pullus for a similar semantic development.
huth four (B-B 2002:216). Unknown origin. Connections with either PIE *kwetwer or Hurrian
tumni four are extremely difficult. The comparison would be easier if the reading huth was
mistaken for thuh but Charun huths (TLE 885) shows that huth cannot be read in the other
direction.
ica, ita this (B-B 2002:216). Cf. eca.
ilu- verb of offering or prayer B-B 2002:216) ~ Hurrian elami oath. Possibly a cognate.
in, inc, ininc it (B-B 2002:216) ~ Hurrian inna at some time, inu(me) as. Possibly a cognate of
deictic nature. Cf. an- ~ in-.
ipa who; -pu Past tense P3Sg (B-B 2002:216) ~ Hurrian -b Past tense P3Sg. A bound form in
Hurrian.
Suffix -ivu in ativu dear mother (B-B 2002:214) ~ Hurrian -iwwu my. A cognate *iwwu.
*itu- [gloss] to divide (B-B 2002:214) ~ (?) Hurrian id- to break (Catsanicos 1996). This is only
possible is the root is *i- plus a suffix. Otherwise Etruscan should be *isu-. Possibly a cognate.
laive left (B-B 2002:216). Probably an Italic loanword. Cf. Latin laevus.

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lauch-, luc- to rule, be in charge (B-B 2002:216). Probably an Italic loanword *deuk-. Cf. Latin
dux.
lauchume king (B-B 2002:216). Probably an Italic loanword *deukom.
lautni of the family, freedman (B-B 2002:217). Probably an Italic loanword *leudhvnos. Cf. the
feminine equivalent lautnit(h)a and laut(u)n family, gens.
*lechtum [gloss] sort of vase (B-B 2002:217). From Greek oil-flask.
lein- to die (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian ullul- to die. A cognate *ul-. With loss of initial vowel
in Etruscan.
leu lion (B-B 2002:217). A wanderwort.
lu-pu died (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian ullul-ub he died. A cognate. With loss of initial vowel in
Etruscan. Cf. lein. Etruscan lu-pu is to be understood as an archaic past form -b he died:
Hurrian tantib he did, ullulub he died.
luth stone, temple (B-B 2002:217). Looks like some Italic borrowing of PIE *leHu stone.
Suffix -(u)m and (B-B 2002:104) ~ Hurrian -ma and. A cognate *-m(a).
mach five (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin.
mal- to look, watch, guard (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian am- to see in amul- (Catsanicos 1996). A
cognate *am- with loss of initial vowel in Etruscan.
malena miror (B-B 2002:217). A (causative) derivative of mal-.
man(i) the dead (B-B 2002:217) ~ (?) Hurrian am- to harm (Catsanicos 1996). A cognate *amwith loss of initial vowel in Etruscan.
mas(a)n december (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin.
mata vases (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin. Non native phonetics.
matam above, before (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin. Non native phonetics.
math honey(ed wine) (B-B 2002:217). A recent Indo-European loanword *medhu without the
change: internal dental *T > s.
mech people, league, district (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin.
men- to make, offer (B-B 2002:217) ~ (?) Hurrian amm- to arrive at, reach. With loss of initial
vowel in Etruscan (?). Unclear status.
methlum district, people, nation (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin. Non native phonetics.
mi(ni) I, me (B-B 2002:217) ~ (?) Hurrian man- to be, he/she/it, Urartean ma-i his. A
cognate *m(a)-. The meaning of Etruscan is clearly a problem: it is based on the assumption
that Italian artefacts speak in the 1st person. For example TLE 242 mi mamarces velthienas
which (B-B 2002-143) translates I (am the grave of) Mamarce Velthiena. From the HurroUrartean point of view, this interpretation is not possible: this means this is (the grave of)
Mamarce Velthiena.
mlac(h) beautiful (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian tagi, tangi beautiful. A borrowing of Akkadian
daqqu, damqu beautiful. Etruscan is a metathesis of *lmac because *mdac should become
msac.
Minio River name ~ (?) Urartean (ID) mun river. Possibly a cognate.
mul- to offer, dedicate as an ex-voto (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin.
mlusna one who sacrifices, dedicates (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin. Cf. mul-.
mun(i) underground place, tomb (B-B 2002:217) ~ Urartean mepu- to bury. A cognate.
mur- to stay, reside (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin.
murs urn, sarcophagus (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin.
mut(a)na sarcophagus (B-B 2002:217). A Semitic loanword possibly from Phoenician.
*mutuka [gloss] thyme (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin. Seems Semitic but Akkadian mutqu
sweet does not fit semantically.
nac how, as, because, since (B-B 2002:217). Cf. enac(h).
namphe right (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin.
naper measure of surface (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian naw- to graze, pasture. A cognate(?).
nef(t) nephew, grandson (B-B 2002:217). A borrowing of Italic *nepos.
nene nurse (with babytalk deformation) (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian neri mother. A cognate.
neri water (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin. A connection with IEW 766 *nr- water deity is
thinkable.
nesna belonging to the dead? (B-B 2002:217). Unknown origin.

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nethrac haruspicina (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian nibauri liver. Phonetics is a bit confused [t(h)
~ b] but the connection is obvious.
netvis haruspex (B-B 2002:217). Cf. nethrac.
Suffix -ni definite Accusative ~ Hurrian -ni Definite Article. A cognate.
nun(th) to bring, involve (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian un-, Urartean nun- to come. A cognate.
nu(th) to hear [my proposal] (B-B 2002:217) ~ Hurrian nui hear. A cognate *un-. The meaning
to hear nuth- fits the context: for example, the Table of Cortona read: V. cn zic zicuche
sparzete thui that inscription was written in the spot here VI. cnl nuth malec (of) this one, let
him nuth [= hear] and see to it (B-B 2002:181).
nurph nine (B-B 2002:217). A borrowing of Italic *now() with a suffix -rp(h) of unclear origin.
ipa who; -pu Past tense P3Sg~ Hurrian -b Past tense P3Sg. A bound form in Hurrian.
papa grandfather (B-B 2002:218). Cf. apa.
parnich a kind of magistracy or priesthood (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin.
patna a kind of vase (B-B 2002:218). From Greek flat dish.
pava boy, youth (B-B 2002:218). Sounds Indo-European: Cf. IEW 842 *pu little, few.
penth(u)na cippus, stone? (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin. Sounds Indo-European.
pes land?, sp-an(ti) < (?) *psan plain, fields ~ Urartean KUR eba country. Possibly a cognate
with loss of initial vowel in Etruscan.
phersu mask, masked person (B-B 2002:218). Sounds Indo-European: Cf. IEW 110 *bhardha
beard.
pi, pen, pul for; prepositional (B-B 2002:218). Cf. abi.
puia wife (B-B 2002:218). Sounds Indo-European: Cf. IEW 842 *pu little, few and pava.
pulumchva stars? (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin.
pruch(hum) jug (B-B 2002:218). From Greek pitcher, vase.
prumath, prumts great-grandson (B-B 2002:218). From Latin promatos pitcher, vase.
purth(ne) a kind of magistrate, dictator? (B-B 2002:218). Cf. Greek lord. The root pru
can be compared with Hurrian ebri lord, king a wanderwort of Akkadian origin abaru
strong. Cf. Kassite Bur-ya lord of the earth. Georgian ivri also provide an instance of that
root.
put(h) vase, pot, vessel (B-B 2002:218). A Celtic root of dubious Indo-Europeanicity: *pott.
qutun, quthum name of vase, qutumuza diminutive (B-B 2002:218). From Greek a
Laconian drinking-vessel.
Suffix -(a)r Plural ~ Hurrian -lla Absolutive Plural. This morpheme has been extended in
Etruscan to the whole paradigm of Plural cases, whereas in Hurrian it is used only for one case
in allomorphy with .
Suffix -(u)r comitative: Possibly in Etruscan tusur-thi-r spouse ? ~ Hurrian iduri tahi-ra
woman with man. Cf. zelur, thunur.
rach- to prepare (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin.
Rasna, Rasenna Etruscan people (B-B 2002:218) ~ Hurrian taruwani mankind, Urartean
taruani human. Possibly a cognate with loss of initial t in Etruscan.
rat(u)m according to law, ritual (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin. Sounds Indo-European.
repinthi to bend, incline? (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin. Sounds Indo-European.
restm (cultivated?) land (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin. Sounds Indo-European. Cf. IEW 62
*arH3- to plow, cultivate.
ril at the age of (B-B 2002:218) ~ Hurrian -arbu- n years old. If the comparison is correct then
Etruscan lost the initial syllable (*arp-il).
*rosa rose in Latin rosa. A wanderwort *wroda rose.
ruva brother (B-B 2002:218) ~ Urartean arhi child, armuzi family. Etruscan lost the initial
vowel. A cognate *aruh.
a six, ealch sixty (B-B 2002:218) ~ Hurrian ee six. From Akkadian e- six.
sac- to carry out a sacred act (B-B 2002:218) ~ Hurrian itku sacred. Cf. ais.
sal- to make, carry out (B-B 2002:218) ~ (?) Hurrian iyal- to put, install. Possibly a cognate.
san deceased? (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin.
sanisva bones? (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin. A derivative of san (?).
ar ten (B-B 2002:220). A loanword of Semitic ar hand. Possibly Phoenician. Cf. zar.

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sarsnach tenth (B-B 2002:220). A derivative of ar ten.

sarsnau group of ten, decuria (B-B 2002:220). A derivative of ar ten.
sath-, at- to put, establish (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin. Sounds Indo-European *sed. Cf.
uth-, sut- as well with apparent metaphony.
satu vase (B-B 2002:218). Unknown origin. Non native phonetics.
sec(h) daughter (B-B 2002:218) ~ Hurrian ati woman, atakka little woman. A cognate
*at-ak- with loss of initial vowel in Etruscan.
semph seven? (B-B 2002:218) ~ Hurrian indi seven. From Akkadian in two with divergent
suffixes. Etruscan also has -p(h) in cezph eight (< ci three + five) and nurph nine (< four +
five ?).
snenath maid, companion (B-B 2002:219) ~ (?) Hurrian enni brother.
sren ornament, image (B-B 2002:219) ~ Hurrian irni splendor, jewel. A cognate *sirin.
sp-an(ti) plain, fields (B-B 2002:219). Cf. pes.
sran surface measure, two naper (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin.
sren ornament, image (B-B 2002:219) ~ Hurrian irni splendor, jewel. A cognate *sirin-.
sul liquid used in sacrifices (Pfiggig) (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin.
uth-, sut- to stay, place? (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin. Sounds Indo-European *sed. Cf.
sath-, at- as well with apparent metaphony.
uthi seat, tomb (B-B 2002:219). Cf. sath-, at-, uth-, sut-.
sval alive, to live (B-B 2002:219) ~ Hurrian uhuri life, Urartean eheri alive. A cognate
*svh-.
sve likewise (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin.
sveleri living creature? (B-B 2002:219). A derivative of sval-.
ta, tal, tel, tei this (B-B 2002:219). Cf. thi.
talitha girl (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin. Looks Indo-European: Cf. lautnit(h)a.
tamera a kind of magistracy (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin.
te- to place, to put (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin. Cf. IEW 235 *dh.
ten- to act as a magistrate (B-B 2002:219) ~ Hurrian tan- to do. A cognate *ten-, tan-.
tes-, tesam- to care for, tesinth caretaker (B-B 2002:219) ~ Hurrian tad- to love. A cognate
*tad-, ted-.
teta grandmother (B-B 2002:219). Compare ati ~ teta and apa ~ papa.
tev, tva to show, see? (B-B 2002:219) ~ Hurrian tehan- to show. A cognate *teh-.
tham-, them- to build, found (B-B 2002:119). An Italic loanword of *tem-.
thapna, thafna vase (for offerings?) (B-B 2002:220). Looks like a loanword.
thar there (B-B 2002:220). Cf. ita and thi.
thaurch funerary, thaure, thaura tomb (B-B 2002:220) ~ (?) Hurrian tur- below, inferior.
Possibly a cognate.
thesan morning, dawn (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin. Cf. tin.
thevru bull (B-B 2002:220). A wanderwort. Cf. Latin taurus. The vowel e of Etruscan is very
strange.
thez- make an offering (B-B 2002:220) ~ Hurrian tae gift, taul- to give, grant. A cognate
*tats-, tets-.
thi pronoun (B-B 2002:220). Cf. ita and thui.
Suffix -thi locative (B-B 2002:220) ~ Hurrian -i Locative. Etruscan has an extra -t-.
thina vase, crater (B-B 2002:220). A loanword of Greek round goblet.
thu one (B-B 2002:220) ~ Hurrian u-kku one. A cognate *tu.
thui here (B-B 2002:220). Cf. ita and thi.
thuni at first (B-B 2002:220). A derivative of thu.
thunina the first (B-B 2002:220). The definite plural -na of thuni (?).
t(h)unur one at a time (B-B 2002:220). The comitative -ur of thu(n).
thunz once (B-B 2002:220). A derivative of thu.
thunna first (B-B 2002:220). A derivative of thu.
thutuithu in the middle of the people, (for) the state (B-B 2002:220). An Italic loanword of tout
tribe, whole people.

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tin day, Tinia, tiu moon, month (B-B 2002:219) ~ Hurrian iri day. Possibly a cognate *timeasuring time.
tis lake (B-B 2002:219) ~ (?) Hurrian iwe water. Unclear connection. Etruscan would be a
compound (?).
tle- (?) to defeat (?)(B-B 2002:) ~ Hurrian til- to destroy. Possibly a cognate *tel-. Etruscan
TLE 890 reads: felsnas la lethes svalce avil CVI murce capue tleche hanipuluscle Felsnas Laris
son of Lethe lived 106 ans, lived (?) in Capua, was defeated (?) by those of Hannibal. He is
known to have been defeated by Hannibal in Cuma.
trin- to plead, supplicate (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin.
tul stone, tular (Pl) boundary stones (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin.
tur- to give, turza offering (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin. Sounds Indo-European *d to
give.
tura incense (B-B 2002:220) ~ (?) Hurrian tari fire, tarite pot. Etruscan turi is considered a
borrowing of Latin tus, turis incense < Greek burnt-offerings in (B-B 2002:113).
trut(h) libation, sacred action, truthnuth priest (B-B 2002:219). A derivative of tura (?).
tu funerary niche (B-B 2002:219). Unknown origin.
tusur-(thir) spouse ? (B-B 2002:219) ~ (?) Hurrian iduri young woman. Possibly a cognate
*tidur-.
(tusur)-thi(r) spouse ? (B-B 2002:219) ~ (?) Hurrian tahi man. Possibly a cognate.
tut(h)i community, state (B-B 2002:219). An Italic loanword of tout tribe, whole people.
ulpaia vase for wine (B-B 2002:220). A loanword of Greek leathern oil-flask.
un you (B-B 2002:220). Not represented in Hurrian.
urthan- to make, cause to be (B-B 2002:220) ~ Hurrian ur- to take place, happen. A cognate
*ur-.
us- to draw (water), useti scoop, ladle (B-B 2002:220). Looks like a loanword of PIE *H2ewsto draw (water).
usil sun (B-B 2002:220). A loanword of Italic origin: cf. Sabine ausel.
uslane at noon (B-B 2002:220). A derivative of usil.
ut- to carry out, perform, give (B-B 2002:220). The phonetics does not sound Etruscan.
vac(a)l libation? (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin.
val- to look, see (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin.
vertun vase (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin. The phonetics does not sound Etruscan.
vina vineyard (B-B 2002:220). A wanderwort.
vin(u)m wine (B-B 2002:220). A Latin loanword vinum.
Suffix Etruscan -z n times ~ Hurrian - ordinal: Etruscan ciz three times ~ Hurrian kike <
*kig-- third. A cognate *ts.
zal-, zel-, esl- two (B-B 2002:220) ~ Hurrian -il, -el used to express dual. A cognate *tsal,
tsel. Hurrian Mi-it-ra-a-i-il A-ru-na-a-i-il in KBo I 3 Vo 24 translates Sanskrit mitr-varu
both Mitra and Varuna.
zamathi, zamth gold (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin.
zar four? (B-B 2002:220) [erroneous, better ten (B-B 2002:96)]. A loanword of Semitic ar
hand. Possibly Phoenician.
zathrum twenty (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin.
zavena- vase ~ Hurrian zuzuhi pitcher. Hurrian z is fairly are in native words but reduplication
in instruments is attested: aari saw. Possibly a cognate *tsah-, tsuh-.
zelur two by two (B-B 2002:220). The comitative -r of zel two.
zeri rite, legal action? (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin.
zic(h)- to write, incise (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin. Looks like PIE *deik- to draw, make
signs > German zeichen.
zichu writer, scribe (B-B 2002:220). A derivative of zic(h)-.
zil- to rule, hold office (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin.
zilach, zilath, zilc a kind of magistrate (B-B 2002:220). A derivative of zil-.
zin- to make (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin. Because of the initial z it cannot be compared
with Hurrian tan- to do. In addition there is a problem with the vowel as well.
ziva the dead, deceased (B-B 2002:220). Unknown origin.

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Besides Etruscan also displays a number of Akkadian loanwords which tend to show that
Etruscan cannot have settled in Italy very long ago: (1) *damk-: Etruscan mlac(h) beautiful ~ Hurrian
ta(n)gi beautiful. This word is probably based on the Akkadian loanword damqu, daqqu beautiful,
excellent; (2) *ebr-: Etruscan pruth dictator ~ Hurrian ebri, erwi, Urartean euri lord, king. This
word can be suspected of being an Akkadian loanword of abru strength, power; (3) *ker-: Etruscan
car-, cer- to make, build, cerine sacred place, building ? ~ Hurrian kirarni base, foundation. This
word is most probably a loanword: Akkadian qaqqaru ground, karru to lay (foundations); (4) *sa: Etruscan a six ~ Hurrian ei six. This word is probably based on the Akkadian loanword esix; (5) *sin-: Etruscan sim-ph seven ~ Hurrian in-di seven. This word is probably based on the
Akkadian loanword in- two with different suffixes.
4. A comparative survey of Etruscan and Hurro-Urartean morphology
Both Etruscan and Hurro-Urartean have a case system. Etruscan can be deduced from HurroUrartean with only one change: the suffix of the Absolutive Plural *-lla- > Etruscan -r- has been
generalized in all Plural forms. The result of that innovation is that the suffixes which used to oppose
Singular and Plural are now syncretic and sometimes are used as free variants. Etruscan seems to have
several suffixes which are considered to be all Genitive. On the basis of Hurro-Urartean it is probably
possible to assign more precise meanings to all these apparently equivalent suffixes.
1. Absolutive: Hurrian Singular - ~ Plural *-lla = Etruscan - ~ -r.
2. Ergative: Hurrian *s = Etruscan -s. Apparently only used for the singular in Etruscan.
3. Genitive: Hurrian Singular *wi ~ Plural *--wi = Etruscan -i. The same morpheme is
used in Etruscan for Singular and Plural. Hurrian attai-wi of the fathers ~ ati-r-i of
the mothers.
4. Dative: Hurrian Singular *wa ~ Plural *--wa = Etruscan -sa. In Etruscan this form works
as a variant of the Genitive for Person names.
5. Dative-Allative: Hurrian Singular *da ~ Plural *--ta = Etruscan -al, -sla. In Etruscan
these forms work as variants of the Genitive for Person names. Sometimes the Dative
value is nevertheless rather clear: tite cale atial turce malstria cver (TLE 752) Tite
Cale to [his] mother gave a mirror [as] gift.
6. Instrumental: Hurrian *-ae = Etruscan Locative -th-i. Etruscan has an intruding -th-,
which is not always used.
7. Comitative: Hurrian *-ra = (?) Etruscan -r. (1) Hypothetically attested in tusur-thi-r ~
iduri tahi-ra woman with man. (2) zelur two by two (B-B 2002:220) is the
comitative -ur of zel two, (3) t(h)unur.
The verbal morphology is rather poorly known and only a number of forms are known, most
referring to P3Sg or P3Pl. Among them some appear to be closely related with similar functions. As is
frequent in most languages Present does not have an explicit marker.
1. Past P3Sg Active: Hurrian Archaic -b, Later -a = Etruscan -u(ce), Participle -asa.
Etruscan reveals that the standard Hurrian form is based on a participle. Hurrian ullulub
he died = Etruscan lupu-(ce). The root in lupu is probably lu- in light of Hurrian.
2. Past P3Sg Passive: Hurrian -h = Etruscan -(u)c(h)e. It is not clear if Hurrian -h is only
Etruscan u (suffixed by the pronoun ca) or reinforced into -c(h).
Other forms are more difficult to compare.
Several derivational suffixes are clearly shared by Etruscan and Hurro-Urartean:
1. *-an- Causative: *kiw: Etruscan cver, cvil gift, offering ~ Hurrian kiw-, kib- to

put, set and *kiwan: Etruscan cen- to make, place ~ Hurrian kiban- to bring.

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2. *-ant- used to create adjectives: Hurrian pisu- to rejoice > pisant- happy ~

Etruscan tes to care for > tesinth caretaker. This suffix seems to be used in
Person names: Arnth.
3. *-ard-: Hurrian attai father > attardi- forefather ~ Etruscan ati mother > atrs
ancestor.
4. *-k- diminutive, *-s- intensive: Hurrian tahe man > tahakka (young) man;
talmi great > talawui grand(iose) ~ Etruscan Person names: Larce ~ Lares.
5. *-ni used to create deverbal derivatives: Hurrian sidar- to curse > sidarni curse ~
Etruscan car-, cer- to make, build, cerine sacred place, building ?.
6. -si- used to create abstract nouns: Hurian arri- king > arrai- kingship,
royalty ~ Etruscan cecha-se name of magistracy.
7. *-sk-: Hurrian summi hand > ummiki apprentice ~ Etruscan culscva doors,
gates (Cf. PIE *kleu to close), Hanipaluske follower of Hannibal.
8. *-tan- professional designations: Hurrian eni god > endan priest ~ Etruscan
mlu-sna who sacrifices, dedicates.
These morphological coincidences in addition to lexical cognates prove beyond doubt that
Etruscan is a close relative of Hurro-Urartean.
5. Conclusion
This survey of the clearest lexemes and morphemes of the Etruscan language reveals that this
language bears very strong genetic affinities with Hurro-Urartean. In my opinion the discovery that
Etruscan and Hurro-Urartean are related should have positive consequences when it comes to
understanding the language and disentangling its vocabulary and morphology. I hope to have
contributed with this paper to an improved decipherment of Etruscan.
Appendix
Etruscan and Hurro-Urartean sound correspondences are summarized in the following table:
E f/ ~ HU p

E t/s ~ HU t/

E z ~ HU s/

E c(h) ~ HU k

E p ~ HU b

E d/s ~ HU d/

E s/ ~ HU

E c(h) ~ HU g

E m ~ HU m

E n ~ HU n

E v ~ HU w

E l ~ HU l

E v ~ HU h

E i ~ HU y

E r ~ HU r/ll
Table2: Sound correspondences
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