Exxon Valdez oil spill

The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William

Sound, Alaska, on March 24, 1989, when Exxon Valdez,
an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, struck
Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef at 12:04 a.m.[1] local time and spilled 11,000,000 to 38,000,000 gallons of
crude oil[2][3] over the next few days. It is considered to be
one of the most devastating human-caused environmental
disasters.[4] The Valdez spill was the largest in US waters until the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in terms
of volume released.[5] However, Prince William Sounds
remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or
boat, made government and industry response eorts
dicult and severely taxed existing plans for response.
The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and During the rst few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil covered
large areas of the surface of Prince William Sound.
seabirds. The oil, originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay
oil eld, eventually covered 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of
coastline,[6] and 11,000 square miles (28,000 km2 ) of
ocean.[7]
According to ocial reports, the ship was carrying approximately 55 million US gallons (210,000 m3 ) of oil,
of which about 10.1 to 11 million US gallons (240,000
to 260,000 bbl; 38,000 to 42,000 m3 ) were spilled
into the Prince William Sound.[8][9] A gure of 11 million US gallons (260,000 bbl; 42,000 m3 ) was a commonly accepted estimate of the spills volume and has
been used by the State of Alaskas Exxon Valdez Oil
Spill Trustee Council,[6] the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and environmental groups such as
Greenpeace and the Sierra Club.[5][10][11] Some groups,
such as Defenders of Wildlife, dispute the ocial estimates, maintaining that the volume of the spill, which was
calculated by subtracting the volume of material removed
from the vessels tanks after the spill from the volume of
the original cargo, has been underreported.[12] Alternative calculations, based on the assumption that the ocial reports underestimated how much seawater had been
forced into the damaged tanks, placed the total at 25 to
32 million US gallons (600,000 to 760,000 bbl; 95,000
to 121,000 m3 ).[2]

Beginning three days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed

large quantities of fresh oil on to the rocky shores of many of the
beaches in the Knight Island chain.[13] In this photograph, pooled
black oil is shown stranded in the rocks.

widespread throughout the industry, prompting

a safety recommendation to Exxon and to the
industry.[14]
The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload.[14]
Exxon Shipping Company failed to properly maintain the Raytheon Collision Avoidance System
(RAYCAS) radar, which, if functional, would have
indicated to the third mate an impending collision
with the Bligh Reef by detecting the radar reector, placed on the next rock inland from Bligh Reef
for the purpose of keeping boats on course via radar.
This cause has only been identied by Greg Palast
(without evidentiary support) and is not present in
the ocial accident report.[15]

Identied causes

Multiple factors have been identied as contributing to

the incident:
Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the
master and provide a rested and sucient crew
for Exxon Valdez. The NTSB found this was
1

2 CLEAN-UP AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Captain Joseph Hazelwood, who was widely reported to

have been drinking heavily that night, was not at the controls when the ship struck the reef. However, as the senior ocer, he was in command of the ship even though
he was asleep in his bunk. In light of the other ndings,
investigative reporter Greg Palast stated in 2008, Forget
the drunken skipper fable. As to Captain Joe Hazelwood,
he was below decks, sleeping o his bender. At the helm,
the third mate never would have collided with Bligh Reef
had he looked at his RAYCAS radar. But the radar was
not turned on. In fact, the tankers radar was left broken and disabled for more than a year before the disaster,
and Exxon management knew it. It was [in Exxons view] Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiled
just too expensive to x and operate. [16] Exxon blamed shoreline
Captain Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker.[15]
Other factors, according to an MIT course entitled Software System Safety by Professor Nancy G. Leveson,[17]
included:

2 Clean-up and environmental impact

There was use of a dispersant, a surfactant and solvent

1. Tanker crews were not told that the previous practice
mixture. A private company applied dispersant on March
of the Coast Guard tracking ships out to Bligh Reef
24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket. Because
had ceased.[18]
there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant
with the oil in the water, the use of the dispersant was
2. The oil industry promised, but never installed, state- discontinued.[22] One trial explosion was also conducted
of-the-art iceberg monitoring equipment.[19]
during the early stages of the spill to burn the oil, in a region of the spill isolated from the rest by another explo3. Exxon Valdez was sailing outside the normal sea lane sion. The test was relatively successful, reducing 113,400
to avoid small icebergs thought to be in the area.[19] liters of oil to 1,134 liters of removable residue, but because of unfavorable weather no additional burning was
attempted.[23][24] The dispersant Corexit 9580 was con4. The 1989 tanker crew was half the size of the 1977 sidered and tried but was not used for shore clean-up due
crew, worked 1214 hour shifts, plus overtime. The largely to concerns about toxicity. According to the bookcrew was rushing to leave Valdez with a load of let Shoreline Treatment Techniques published in 1993 by
oil.[20]
the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation,
while it eectively assisted in clean-up, It had not been
5. Coast Guard tanker inspections in Valdez were not tested, scientic data on its toxicity were either thin or
incomplete, and it had operational problems. In addition,
done, and the number of sta was reduced.[20]
public acceptance of a new, widespread chemical treatment was lacking. To landowners, shing groups, and
6. Lack of available equipment and personnel ham- conservation organizations, the idea of dumping chemipered the spill cleanup.[18]
cals on hundreds of miles of shorelines that had just been
oiled seemed much too risky - especially when there were
[23][25][25][26]
This disaster resulted in International Maritime Organi- other alternatives.
zation introducing comprehensive marine pollution prevention rules (MARPOL) through various conventions.
The rules were ratied by member countries and, under
International Ship Management rules, the ships are being
operated with a common objective of safer ships and
cleaner oceans.

According to a report by David Kirby for TakePart, the

main component of the Corexit formulation used during
cleanup, 2-butoxyethanol, was identied as one of the
agents that caused liver, kidney, lung, nervous system,
and blood disorders among cleanup crews in Alaska following the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill.

In 2009, Exxon Valdez Captain Joseph Hazelwood offered a heartfelt apology to the people of Alaska, suggesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster:
The true story is out there for anybody who wants to
look at the facts, but thats not the sexy story and thats
not the easy story, he said.[21] Yet Hazelwood said he
felt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake.

Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterwards using

booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily
available during the rst 24 hours following the spill, and
thick oil and kelp tended to clog the equipment.Despite
civilian insistence for a complete clean, only 10% of total
oil was actually completely cleaned.[9] Exxon was widely
criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster

3
and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez, has said his community felt betrayed by Exxons inadequate response to
the crisis.[27] More than 11,000 Alaska residents, along
with some Exxon employees, worked throughout the region to try to restore the environment.

Both the long-term and short-term eects of the oil spill

have been studied.[31] Immediate eects included the
deaths of 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds, at
least 2,800 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300
harbor seals, 247 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, and an unknown number of salmon and herring.[8][32]
In 2003, fteen years after the spill, a team from the
University of North Carolina found that the remaining
oil was lasting far longer than anticipated, which in turn
had resulted in more long-term loss of many species than
had been expected. The researchers found that at only a
few parts per billion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
caused a long-term increase in mortality rates. They reported that species as diverse as sea otters, harlequin
ducks and killer whales suered large, long-term losses
and that oiled mussel beds and other tidal shoreline habitats will take an estimated 30 years to recover.[33]

Clean-up eorts after the 'Exxon Valdez' oil spill

Because Prince William Sound contained many rocky

coves where the oil collected, the decision was made to
displace it with high-pressure hot water. However, this
also displaced and destroyed the microbial populations
on the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g. plankton)
are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others
(e.g. certain bacteria and fungi) are capable of facilitating the biodegradation of oil. At the time, both scientic advice and public pressure was to clean everything,
but since then, a much greater understanding of natural
and facilitated remediation processes has developed, due
somewhat in part to the opportunity presented for study
by the Exxon Valdez spill. Despite the extensive cleanup
attempts, less than ten percent of the oil was recovered
and a study conducted by NOAA determined that as of
early 2007 more than 26 thousand U.S. gallons (98 m3 )
of oil remain in the sandy soil of the contaminated shoreline, declining at a rate of less than 4% per year.[28][29]

In 2006, a study done by the National Marine Fisheries

Service in Juneau found that about 9.6 kilometres of
shoreline around Prince William Sound was still aected
by the spill, with 101.6 tonnes of oil remaining in the
area. Exxon Mobil denied any concerns over any remaining oil, stating that they anticipated a remaining fraction that they assert will not cause any long-term ecological impacts, according to the conclusions of the studies
they had done: We've done 350 peer-reviewed studies
of Prince William Sound, and those studies conclude that
Prince William Sound has recovered, its healthy and its
thriving.[34] However, in 2007 a NOAA study concluded
that this contamination can produce chronic low-level exposure, discourage subsistence where the contamination
is heavy, and decrease the wilderness character of the
area.[29]
The eects of the spill continued to be felt for many years
afterwards. As of 2010 there were an estimated 23,000
US gallons (87 m3 ) of Valdez crude oil still in Alaskas
sand and soil, breaking down at a rate estimated at less
than 4% per year.[35]

In 1992, Exxon released a video titled Scientists and the On March 24, 2014, the twenty-fth anniversary of the
Alaska Oil Spill. It was provided to schools with the label spill, NOAA scientists reported that some species seem
to have recovered, with the sea otter the latest creature
A Video for Students.[30]
to return to pre-spill numbers. Scientists who have monitored the spill area for the last 25 years report that concern
remains for one of two pods of local orca whales, with
fears that one pod may eventually die out. [36] Federal
scientists estimate that between 16,000 and 21,000 gallons of oil remains on beaches in Prince William Sound
and up to 450 miles away. Some of the oil does not appear to have biodegraded at all. A USGS scientist who
analyses the remaining oil along the coastline states that
it remains among rocks and between tide marks. The
oil mixes with seawater and forms an emulsion...Left out,
the surface crusts over but the inside still has the consistency of mayonnaise or mousse. [37] Alaska state senator Berta Gardner is urging Alaskan politicians to demand
that the US government force ExxonMobil to pay the Wildlife was severely aected by the oil spill.

4 POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES AND REFORMS

nal $92 million (57 million) still owed from the court
settlement. The major part of the money would be spent
to nish cleaning up oiled beaches and attempting to restore the crippled herring population.[37]

Litigation and cleanup costs

stock, recused himself from the case.[40] In a decision issued June 25, 2008, Justice David Souter issued the judgment of the court, vacating the $2.5 billion award and remanding the case back to a lower court, nding that the
damages were excessive with respect to maritime common law. Exxons actions were deemed worse than negligent but less than malicious.[41] The punitive damages
were further reduced to an amount of $507.5 million.[42]
The Courts ruling was that maritime punitive damages
should not exceed the compensatory damages,[42] supported by a peculiar precedent dating back from 1818.[43]
Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Patrick J. Leahy
has decried the ruling as another in a line of cases where
this Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional intent to benet large corporations.[44]
Exxons ocial position was that punitive damages
greater than $25 million were not justied because the
spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent
an estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges.
Attorneys for the plaintis contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company put a
drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound.[45]

Eagles rescued from the oil spill

In the case of Baker v. Exxon, an Anchorage jury

awarded $287 million for actual damages and $5 billion
for punitive damages. To protect itself in case the judgment was armed, Exxon obtained a $4.8 billion credit
line from J.P. Morgan & Co. J.P. Morgan created the
rst modern credit default swap in 1994, so that Morgans would not have to hold as much money in reserve
(8% of the loan under Basel I) against the risk of Exxons
default.[38]

Exxon recovered a signicant portion of clean-up and

legal expenses through insurance claims associated with
the grounding of the Exxon Valdez.[46][47] Also, in 1991,
Exxon made a quiet, separate nancial settlement of damages with a group of seafood producers known as the
Seattle Seven for the disasters eect on the Alaskan
seafood industry. The agreement granted $63.75 million to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafood
companies would have to repay almost all of any punitive
damages awarded in other civil proceedings. The $5 billion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seattle Sevens share could have been as high as $750 million
if the damages award had held. Other plaintis have objected to this secret arrangement,[48] and when it came
to light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have told
the jury at the start that an agreement had already been
made, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxon
would have to pay.[49]

Meanwhile, Exxon appealed the ruling, and the 9th U.S.

Circuit Court of Appeals ordered the original judge, Russel Holland, to reduce the punitive damages. On December 6, 2002, the judge announced that he had reduced
the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justied by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive.
Exxon appealed again and the case returned to court to be
considered in light of a recent Supreme Court ruling in a
As of December 15, 2009, Exxon paid all owed $507.5
similar case, which caused Judge Holland to increase the
million punitive damages, including lawsuit costs, plus
punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest.
interest, which were further distributed to thousands of
After more appeals, and oral arguments heard by the 9th plaintis.[50]
Circuit Court of Appeals on January 27, 2006, the damages award was cut to $2.5 billion on December 22, 2006.
The court cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative to
4 Political consequences and relimits on punitive damages.
Exxon appealed again. On May 23, 2007, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobils request for
a third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owes
$2.5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon then appealed to
the Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case.[39] On
February 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments for 90 minutes. Justice Samuel Alito, who at the
time, owned between $100,000 and $250,000 in Exxon

forms

4.1 Coast Guard report

A report by the US National Response Team summarized
the event and made a number of recommendations, such
as changes to the work patterns of Exxon crew in order
to address the causes of the accident.[9]

4.2

Oil Pollution Act of 1990

In response to the spill, the United States Congress passed

the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). The legislation included a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March
22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than 1 million
US gallons (3,800 m3 ) in any marine area, from operating
in Prince William Sound.[51]
In April 1998, the company argued in a legal action
against the Federal government that the ship should be
allowed back into Alaskan waters. Exxon claimed OPA
was eectively a bill of attainder, a regulation that was unfairly directed at Exxon alone.[52] In 2002, the 9th Circuit
Court of Appeals ruled against Exxon. As of 2002, OPA
had prevented 18 ships from entering Prince William
Sound.[53]
OPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase in of a
double hull design, providing an additional layer between
the oil tanks and the ocean. While a double hull would
likely not have prevented the Valdez disaster, a Coast
Guard study estimated that it would have cut the amount
of oil spilled by 60 percent.[54]
The Exxon Valdez supertanker was towed to San Diego,
arriving on July 10. Repairs began on July 30. Approximately 1,600 short tons (1,500 t) of steel were
removed and replaced. In June 1990 the tanker, renamed S/R Mediterranean, left harbor after $30 million
of repairs.[53] It was still sailing as of January 2010, registered in Panama. The vessel was then owned by a Hong
Kong company, who operated it under the name Oriental
Nicety. In August 2012, it was beached at Alang, India
and dismantled.

5 Economic and personal impact

In 1991, following the collapse of the local marine population (particularly clams, herring and seals) the Chugach
Alaska Corporation, an Alaska Native Corporation, led
for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. It has since
recovered.[55]
According to several studies funded by the state of
Alaska, the spill had both short-term and long-term economic eects. These included the loss of recreational
sports, sheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of what
economists call "existence value", which is the value to
the public of a pristine Prince William Sound.[56][57][58]
The economy of the city of Cordova, Alaska was adversely aected after the spill damaged stocks of salmon
and herring in the area.

6 See also
List of oil spills
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
Ixtoc I oil spill
Dead Ahead: The Exxon Valdez Disaster, 1992
HBO movie
Into Great Silence: A memoir of discovery and
loss among vanishing Orcas. Eva Saulitis: Boston,
Mass.: Beacon Press, Copyright 2013

7 References
4.3

Alaska regulations

In the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor Steve Cowper issued an executive order requiring two tugboats to escort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through Prince
William Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance. As the plan
evolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats was
replaced with a 210-foot (64 m) Escort Response Vehicle
(ERV). The majority of tankers at Valdez are no longer
single-hulled. Congress has enacted legislation requiring
all tankers to be double-hulled by 2015.

4.4

Opposition to oil drilling

The Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International

Union, representing approximately 40,000 US workers,
announced opposition to drilling in the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) until Congress enacted a comprehensive national energy policy.

[1] http://library.thinkquest.org/10867/spill/timeline.shtml
[2] Elizabeth Bluemink (June 10, 2010). Size of Exxon spill
remains disputed. Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved
June 29, 2010.
[3] Riki Ott (June 18, 2010). How Much Oil Really Spilled
From the Exxon Valdez? (audio/transcript). Interview
with Brooke Gladstone. On The Media. National Public
Radio. Retrieved June 29, 2010.
[4] Frequently Asked Questions About the Spill. Exxon
Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Archived from the original on June 30, 2007. Retrieved October 11, 2010.
[5] Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division
(September 1992). Oil Spill Case Histories 19671991,
Report No. HMRAD 92-11 (PDF). Seattle: National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. 80. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
[6] Questions and Answers. History of the Spill. Exxon
Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Retrieved May 26,
2009.

REFERENCES

[7] Brandon Keim (March 24, 2009). The Exxon Valdez

Spill Is All Around Us. Wired Science. Retrieved June
29, 2010.

[27] Baker, Mallen. Companies in Crisis What not to do

when it all goes wrong. Corporate Social Responsibility
News. Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[8] Graham, Sarah (December 19, 2003). Environmental

Eects of Exxon Valdez Spill Still Being Felt. Scientic
American. Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[28] Marybeth Holleman (March 22, 2004). The Lingering

Lessons of the Exxon Valdez Spill. The Seattle Times.
Retrieved July 21, 2010.

[9] Skinner, Samuel K; Reilly, William K. (May 1989). The

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (PDF). National Response Team.
Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[29] MacAskill, Ewan (February 2, 2007). 18 years on, Exxon

Valdez oil still pours into Alaskan waters. The Guardian.
Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[10] Exxon Valdez disaster 15 years of lies. Greenpeace

News. Greenpeace. March 24, 2004. Retrieved March
10, 2008.

[30] D. Michael Fry (November 19, 1992). How Exxons

Video for Students Deals in Distortions. The Textbook
Letter. Retrieved July 21, 2010.

[11] 16 Years After Exxon Valdez Tragedy, Arctic Refuge,

Americas Coasts Still At Risk (Press release). Sierra
Club. March 23, 2005. Retrieved March 10, 2008.

[31] SC Jewett, TA Dean, and M Hoberg (2001). Scuba Techniques Used to Assess the Eects of the Exxon Valdez
Oil Spill. In: SC Jewett (ed). Cold Water Diving for
Science. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences, 21st Annual Scientic Diving Symposium. Retrieved June 27, 2008.

[12] Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: Fifteen Years Later (Press release). Defenders of Wildlife. March 24, 2004. Retrieved
March 10, 2008.
[13] Exxon Valdez Photos. NOAA. p. 7. Archived from
the original on 2005-07-14. Beginning 3 days after the
vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh
oil onto the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the
Knight Island chain.
[14] Practices that relate to the Exxon Valdez. Washington, DC:
National Transportation and Safety Board. September 18,
1990. pp. 16.
[15] Ten years after but who was to blame?". Greg Palast.
March 21, 1999. Retrieved July 21, 2010.
[16] Court Rewards Exxon for Valdez Oil Spill
[17] Leveson, Nancy G. (July 2005). Software System
Safety (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
pp. 1820. Archived from the original on November 8,
2010. Retrieved July 30, 2010.
[18] Leveson, p.20
[19] Leveson, p.18
[20] Leveson, p.19
[21] Loy, Wesley. Captain of Exxon Valdez oers 'heartfelt
apology' for oil spill. Anchorage Daily News. March 4,
2009. . Retrieved March 24, 2011.
[22] http://www.pwsrcac.org/wp-content/uploads/filebase/
programs/environmental_monitoring/report_on_non_
mechanical_response.pdf
[23] Oil Spill Case Histories. Report No. HMRAD 92-11
(NOAA). September 1992. Retrieved July 21, 2010.
[24] http://www.pwsrcac.org/wp-content/uploads/filebase/
programs/environmental_monitoring/report_on_non_
mechanical_response.pdf
[25] http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/static/PDFs/
deccleanuptechniques.pdf
[26] Oil Spill Facts - Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council

[32] "Exxon Valdez: Ten years on. BBC News. March 18,
1999. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
[33] Williamson, David (December 18, 2003). Exxon Valdez
oil spill eects lasting far longer than expected, scientists
say. UNC/News (University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill). Retrieved March 9, 2008.
[34] Exxon Valdez oil spill still a threat: study. Australian
Broadcasting Corporation. May 17, 2006. Retrieved
March 9, 2008.
[35] Federal Register / Vol. 75, No. 14 / Friday, January 22,
2010 / Notices
[36] 25 years later, scientists still spot traces of oil from Exxon
Valdez spill | PBS NewsHour
[37] Exxon Valdez - 25 years after the Alaska oil spill, the court
battle continues - Telegraph
[38] Lanchester, John (January 7, 2009). Books: Outsmarted. The New Yorker. Retrieved July 21, 2010.
[39] Sta writer (October 29, 2007). Supreme Court to review Exxon Valdez award. CNN. Retrieved March 10,
2008.
[40] Sta writer (February 27, 2008). High Court may lower
Exxon Valdez damages. CNN. Associated Press. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
[41] Savage, David G. (June 26, 2008). Justices slash Exxon
Valdez verdict. articles.latimes.com (Tribune Company).
Retrieved June 26, 2008.
[42] Exxon v. Baker, 554 U.S. (Supreme Court of the United
States of America June 25, 2008).
[43] Smith, Sharon. Exxons Legal Guardians. CounterPunch. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
[44] Reaction Of Sen. Leahy On Supreme Court Ruling In
Exxon v. Baker. Leahy.senate.gov. June 25, 2008. Retrieved February 25, 2009.

[45] Egelko, Bob (January 28, 2006). Punitive damages appealed in Valdez spill. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
[46] Bandurka, Andrew; Sloane, Simon (March 10, 2005).
Exxon Valdez D. G. Syndicate 745 vs. Brandywine
Reinsurance Company (UK) Summary of the Court
of Appeal Judgment. Holman Fenwick & Willan. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
[47] Exxon Corporation 1993 Form 10-K. EDGAR. U.S.
Securities and Exchange Commission. March 11, 1994.
Archived from the original on March 4, 2008. Retrieved
March 10, 2008.
[48] Erb, George (November 3, 2000). Exxon Valdez case
still twisting through courts. Puget Sound Business Journal. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
[49] Exxon v. Baker, CV-89-00095-HRH (9th Cir. 2006).
[50] News and Information. Exxon Qualied Settlement
Fund. Retrieved 21 March 2013. December 15, 2009
[...] Exxon has now paid to the EQSF all monies owed
in the EVOS litigation pursuant to the punitive damages
judgment
[51] Oil Pollution Act of 1990 Summary. Federal Wildlife
and Related Laws Handbook. August 18, 1990. Retrieved
March 10, 2008.
[52] Carrigan, Alison. The bill of attainder clause: a new
weapon to challenge the Oil Pollution Act of 1990.
Boston College Environmental Aairs Law Review (Fall
2000). Retrieved March 10, 2008.
[53] Exxon Valdez Is Barred From Alaska Sound. The New
York Times. November 2, 2002. Retrieved March 10,
2008.
[54] Kizzia, Tom (May 13, 1999). Double-hull tankers face
slow going. Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved March 10,
2008.
[55] Loshbaugh, Doug (2000). School of Hard Knocks.
Juneau Empire. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved May 18, 2010.
[56] Carson, Richard; Hanemann, W. Michael (December 18,
1992). A Preliminary Economic Analysis of Recreational Fishing Losses Related to the Exxon Valdez Oil
Spill (PDF). Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council.
Retrieved March 10, 2008.
[57] An Assessment of the Impact of the Exxon Valdez Oil
Spill on the Alaska Tourism Industry (PDF). Exxon
Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. August 1990. Retrieved
March 10, 2008.
[58] Economic Impacts of Spilled Oil. Publications. Exxon
Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Retrieved March 10,
2008.

8 External links
NTSB safety recommendation to address crew management deciencies at Exxon and in industry.
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council
ExxonMobil updates and news on Valdez
Exxon Valdez oil spill at National Ocean Service
EVOS Damage Assessment and Restoration at
National Marine Fisheries Service
Exxon Valdez at United States Environmental Protection Agency
US National Response Team
Exxon Valdez oil spill at Encyclopedia of Earth
Ronen Perry, Economic Loss, Punitive Damages,
and the Exxon Valdez Litigation, Georgia Law Review (2010)
The story behind the oil spill verdict originally
published in San Diego Union-Tribune
Alaskan Regional Response Team report on the
Exxon Valdez disaster.
BP Played Central Role in Botched Containment
of 1989 Exxon Valdez Disaster video report by
Democracy Now!
The short lm Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Assessment
(April 24, 1990) is available for free download at the
Internet Archive
The short lm Exxon Valdez: One Year Later (March
22, 1990) is available for free download at the
Internet Archive
Photos related to the oil spill from the Alaska Resources Library and Information Services (ARLIS)
25 Years After Exxon Valdez, BP Was the Hidden
Culprit. Truthdig. Mar 23, 2014

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Exxon Valdez oil spill Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon%20Valdez%20oil%20spill?oldid=650435813 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Hotlorp, Camembert, Olivier, Mbecker, Edward, JohnOwens, Lquilter, Cyde, SebastianHelm, Minesweeper, Alo, Ahoerstemeier, Susan Mason, Bueller 007, Nikai, Big iron, Robertkeller, Raven in Orbit, Conti,
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File:Alaska-StateSeal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Alaska-StateSeal.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: ATSDR (part of the CDC) series of state-specic fact sheets. Bitmap versions have been seen on US Embassy websites.
Direct PDF URL [1] Original artist: U.S. Government
File:EVOSWEB_013_oiled_bird3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/EVOSWEB_013_oiled_bird3.
jpg License: Attribution Contributors: http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/Gallery/gallery-spill.htm#nogo Original artist: ?
File:Exval.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Exval.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://
response.restoration.noaa.gov/photos/exxon/02.html Original artist: ?
File:Exxon_Valdez_Cleanup.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Exxon_Valdez_Cleanup.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/DVIC_View/Still_Details.cfm?SDAN=DNSC8907300&JPGPath=/Assets/
Still/1989/Navy/DN-SC-89-07300.JPG Original artist: PH2 POCHE
File:Flag_of_Alaska.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Alaska.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:OilPoolFromValdezSpill.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/OilPoolFromValdezSpill.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Complex01 using CommonsHelper.
Original artist: Original uploader was Mav at en.wikipedia
File:OilSheenFromValdezSpill.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/OilSheenFromValdezSpill.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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