Tok Sciences Hard and Soft PDF
Tok Sciences Hard and Soft PDF
Tok Sciences Hard and Soft PDF
1. Define science:
Explain the difference between hard and soft sciences:
2. Using the list of separate fields below, group the sciences into categories of hard and soft.
Astronomy
Electronics
and computer science
Evolution
Anthropology
The scientific study of the origin, the behavior, and the physical, social, and
cultural development of human beings
Mathematics
Economics
Earth sciences
Human anatomy
study of the structure of living organisms which also includes physiology, the
study of the various systems of the human body
Chemistry
Animal behavior
Ecology
Psychology
Philosophy
branch of metaphysics that studies the soul, the mind, and the relationship
of life and mind to the functions of the body.
Political science
Physics
concerns matter and energy )force and motion, light, sound, electricity,
magnetism, structure of matter)
Sociology
History
Linguistics
Biology
The science of life and of living organisms, including their structure, function,
growth, origin, evolution, and distribution. It includes botany and zoology
and all their subdivisions
Hard Sciences
Soft Sciences
Provide specific examples of problems with adapting the social sciences to the twelve specific claims of
Natural Science Make sure to vary the fields used from the list on the preceding page
Natural Science
1. hypothesis is verified by experiment
Social Science
Science (Latin scientia, from scire, to know), term used to denote systematized knowledge in any field, but applied
usually to the organization of objectively verifiable sense experience. The pursuit of knowledge in this context is known
as pure science, to distinguish it from applied science, which is the search for practical uses of scientific knowledge, and
from technology, through which applications are realized.
Origins of Science
Efforts to systematize knowledge can be traced to prehistoric times. The oldest written records of protoscientific
investigations come from Mesopotamian cultures; lists of astronomical observations, chemical substances, and disease
symptoms, as well as a variety of mathematical tables, were inscribed in cuneiform characters on clay tablets. Ancient
papyrus documents have been discovered in the Nile Valley, containing information on the treatment of wounds, on the
distribution of bread and beer, and on finding the volume of a portion of a pyramid.
Rise of Scientific Theory
Among the first Greek scholars to seek the fundamental causes of natural phenomena was the philosopher Thales, in
the 6th century BC. The mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras established a movement in which mathematics
became a discipline fundamental to scientific investigation. At the Academy of Plato, deductive reasoning (see
Deduction) and mathematical representation were emphasized; at the Lyceum of Aristotle, inductive reasoning and
qualitative description were stressed. The interplay between these two approaches to science has led to most
subsequent advances (see Logic).
During the so-called Hellenistic Age, foundations were laid for mechanics and hydrostatics, botany, trigonometry, and
anatomy and physiology. In the 2nd century AD the geocentric (earth-centered) system, advanced by the astronomer
Ptolemy, and the medical works of the physician and philosopher Galen became standard scientific treatises.
Medieval and Renaissance Science
During the 13th century, Chinese innovations led to European processes for manufacturing paper and gunpowder, and
the use of printing and the mariner's compass. In 1543 the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus revolutionized
astronomy, and Belgian anatomist Andreas Vesalius corrected and modernized the anatomical teachings of Galen.
Vesalius's work led to the discovery of the circulation of the blood.
Modern Science
Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo led the development of modern scientific methods by systematic verification
through planned experiments, using new instruments such as the telescope, the microscope, and the thermometer. In
1687 English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton published his universal law of gravitation. The invention of
calculus led to today's sophisticated level of science and mathematics.
Confidence in the scientific attitude inspired the so-called Age of Enlightenment. Scientific developments during the 18th
century paved the way for some broad generalizations in science, including the atomic theory of matter, theories of
electromagnetism, and the law of the conservation of energy (see Electromagnetic Radiation; Energy;
Thermodynamics). Charles Darwin put forth evolution, the most comprehensive biological theory of the time. But as
biology became more firmly based, physics was shaken by the consequences of quantum theory and relativity.
Scientific Communication
Throughout history, scientific knowledge has been transmitted chiefly through written documents.
Since the Renaissance (14th century to 17th century) the fostering of scientific activity has been
shared by universities and scientific societies. Governmental support of science led to the
founding of the Royal Society of London (1662) and the Acadmie des Sciences de Paris (1666).
During the 18th century academies of science, many of which publish journals, were established
by other leading nations. Since the late 19th century, communication among scientists has been
facilitated by the establishment of international organizations. The unions hold international
congresses every few years, the transactions of which are usually published. Numerous major
industrial firms also have research departments, some of which regularly publish accounts of their
work.
Fields of Science
The pure natural sciences are generally divided into the physical sciences and the biological sciences, both of
which can be subdivided.
The principal physical sciences are physics, astronomy, chemistry, and geology;
The chief biological sciences are botany and zoology. All classifications of the pure
sciences, however, are arbitrary. In the formulations of general scientific laws,
interlocking relationships among the sciences are recognized. These
interrelationships are considered responsible for much of the progress today in
several specialized fields of research, such as molecular biology and genetics.
Several interdisciplinary sciences, such as biochemistry, have arisen. Advances can
be the result of research by teams of specialists representing different sciences, both
pure and applied. 1
Social Sciences, sciences concerned with human society and the institutions, relationships, and ideas involved in
social life. Fields include anthropology, sociology, political science, economics,
history, law, psychology, criminology, and social psychology. 2