Introduction To Research
Introduction To Research
Introduction To Research
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
What is research
Research comprises "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock
of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to
devise new applications. It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve
new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an
expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research
may replicate elements of prior projects, or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic
research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and
development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of humanknowledge. Approaches to
research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and
sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social,
business, marketing, practitioner research, etc.
Definiton of research
Systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by discovering
new facts. It is divided into two general categories: (1) Basic research is inquiry aimed at
increasing scientific knowledge, and (2) Applied research is effort aimed at using basic research for
solving problems or developing new processes, products, or techniques.
Nature of Research
place to place and time to time. The MR helps in identifying the consumption
pattern and also the availability of consumer credit in that particular place.
MR helps the marketer to identify:
Consumption pattern
Brand loyalty
Consumer behavior
Market trends, etc.
iv. Complex market: In a complex and dynamic environment, the role of MR is very
vital. MR acts as a bridge between the consumer and the purchaser. This is because
MR enables the management to know the need of the customer, the about demand
for the product and helps the producer to anticipate the changes in the market.
v. Problem-solving: The MR focuses on both short range and long range decisions
and helps in making decisions with respect to the 4ps of marketing, namely, product,
price, place and promotion.
vi. Distribution: The MR helps the manufacturer to decide about the channel, media,
logistics planning so that its customers and distributors are benefited. Based on the
study of MR, suitable distributors, retailers, wholesalers and agents are selected by
the company for distributing their products.
vii. Sales promotion: The MR helps in effective sales promotion. It enlightens the
manufacturer with regard to the method of sales promotion to be undertaken,
such as advertising, personal selling, publicity etc. It also helps in understanding the
attitude of the customers and helps how to design the advertisement in line with prevailing attitudes.
Positivist researchers remain detached from the participants of the research by creating a
distance, which is important in remaining emotionally neutral to make clear distinctions between
reason and feeling (Carson et al., 2001).
They also maintain a clear distinction between science and personal experience and fact and
value judgment. It is also important in positivist research to seek objectivity and use consistently
rational and logical approaches to research (Carson et al., 2001).
Statistical and mathematical techniques are central to positivist research, which adheres to
specifically structured research techniques to uncover single and objective reality (Carson et al.,
2001).
The goal of positivist researchers is to make time and context free generalizations. They believe
this is possible because human actions can be explained as a result of real causes that
temporarily precedes their behaviour and the researcher and his research subjects are
independent and do not influence each other (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
Accordingly, positivist researchers also attempt to remain detached from the participants of the
research by creating distance between themselves and the participants.
Especially, this is an important step in remaining emotionally neutral to make clear distinctions
between reason and feeling as well as between science and personal experience.
Positivists also claim it is important to clearly distinguish between fact and value judgement. As
positivist researchers they seek objectivity and use consistently rational and logical approaches
to research (Carson et al. 2001; Hudson and Ozanne 1988).
Interpretivism:
The position of interpretivism in relation to ontology and epistemology is that interpretivists
believe the reality is multiple and relative (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
Lincoln and Guba (1985) explain that these multiple realities also depend on other systems for
meanings, which make it even more difficult to interpret in terms of fixed realities (Neuman,
2000).
The knowledge acquired in this discipline is socially constructed rather than objectively
determined (Carson et al., 2001, p.5) and perceived (Hirschman, 1985, Berger and Luckman,
1967, p. 3: in Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
Interpretivists avoid rigid structural frameworks such as in positivist research and adopt a more
personal and flexible research structures (Carson et al., 2001) which are receptive to capturing
meanings in human interaction (Black, 2006) and make sense of what is perceived as reality
(Carson et al., 2001).
They believe the researcher and his informants are interdependent and mutually interactive
(Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). The interpretivist researcher enters the field with some sort of
prior insight of the research context but assumes that this is insufficient in developing a fixed
research design due to complex,
multiple and unpredictable nature of what is perceived as reality (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
The researcher remains open to new knowledge throughout the study and lets it develop with
the help of informants. The use of such an emergent and collaborative approach is consistent
with the interpretivist belief that humans have the ability to adapt, and that no one can gain prior
knowledge of time and context bound social realities (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
Therefore, the goal of interpretivist research is to understand and interpret the meanings in
human behaviour rather than to generalize and predict causes and effects (Neuman, 2000;
Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
For an interpretivist researcher it is important to understand motives, meanings, reasons and
other subjective experiences which are time and context bound (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988;
Neuman, 2000).
The following table summarizes the differences between the two research paradigms:
Ontology and epistemological differences of positivism and interpretive
(Adopted from Carson et al. 2001, p. 6)
Ontology
Positivist
Interpretivist
Reality
Epistemology
Possible to obtain hard, secure
objective knowledge
Grounds of knowledge/
relationship between reality and
research
Methodology
Focus of research
It has been stated that deductive means reasoning from the particular to the general. If a
causal relationship or link seems to be implied by a particular theory or case example, it might
be true in many cases. A deductive design might test to see if this relationship or link did obtain
on more general circumstances (Gulati, 2009, p.42).
In other words, when a deductive approach is being followed in the research the author
formulates a set of hypotheses that need to be tested. Then, through implementation of relevant
methodology the study is going to prove formulated hypotheses right or wrong.
Beiske (2007) informs that deductive research approach explores a known theory or
phenomenon and tests if that theory is valid in a given circumstances. The deductive approach
follows the path of logic most closely. The reasoning starts with a theory and leads to a new
hypothesis. This hypothesis is put to the test by confronting it with observations that either lead
to a confirmation or a rejection of the hypothesis (Snieder and Larner, 2009, p.16).
Moreover, deductive reasoning can be explained as reasoning from the general to the
particular (Pelissier, 2008, p.3), whereas inductive reasoning is the opposite. In other words,
deductive approach involves formulation of hypotheses and their subjection to testing during the
research process, while inductive studies do not deal with hypotheses in any ways.
Generally, studies using deductive approach follow the following stages:
1. Deducing hypothesis from theory
2. Formulating hypothesis in operational terms and proposing relationships between two
specific variables
3. Testing hypothesis with the application of relevant method(s)
4. Examining the outcome of the test, and thus confirming or rejecting the theory.
5. Modifying theory in instances when hypothesis is not confirmed.
Alternative to deductive approach is inductive approach, and the following table guides the
choice of specific approach depending on circumstances:
Wealth of literature
Abundance of sources
Scarcity of sources
Time availability
Risk
To avoid risk
Inductive approach starts with the observations and theories are formulated towards the end of
the research and as a result of observations (Goddard and Melville, 2004). Inductive research
involves the search for pattern from observation and the development of explanations
theories for those patterns through series of hypotheses (Bernard, 2011, p.7). In other words,
no theories would apply in inductive studies at the beginning of the research and the researcher
is free in terms of altering the direction for the study after the research process had
commenced.
Neuman (2003, p.51) affirms inductive research to begin with detailed observations of the
world, which moves towards more abstract generalisations and ideas. In other words, when
following inductive approach, beginning with a topic, a researcher tends to develop empirical
generalisations and identify preliminary relationships as he progresses through his research.
Inductive approach essentially reverses the process found in deductive research (Lancaster,
2005, p.25). Specifically, no hypotheses can be found at the initial stages of the research and
the researcher is not sure about the type and nature of the research findings until the study is
completed.
In inductive approach there is no theory at the beginning point of the research, and theories
may evolve as a result of the research:
Here is an example:
My nephew borrowed $100 last June but he did not pay back until September as he had
promised (PREMISE). Then he assured me that he will pay back until Christmas but he didnt
(PREMISE). He also failed in to keep his promise to pay back in March (PREMISE). I reckon I
have to face the facts. My nephew is never going to pay me back (CONCLUSION).
Type of reasoning
Deduction
Induction
Subjectivity
Objectivity
Meaning
Causation
Type of question
Pre-specified
Open-ended
Type of analysis
Outcome-oriented
Process-oriented
Numerical estimation
Statistical inference
Narrative description
Constant comparison
However, the statement above is not absolute, and in some instances inductive approach can
be adopted to conduct a quantitative research as well. The following table illustrates patterns of
data analysis according to type of research and research approach.
Qualitative
Quantitative
Inductive
Grounded theory
Deductive
When writing a dissertation in business studies it is compulsory to specify the approach of are
adopting. It is good to include a table comparing inductive and deductive approaches as the
one below and discuss the impacts of your choice of inductive approach on selection of primary
data collection methods and research process.
Attribute
Direction
Focus
Spatial scales
Deductive
Inductive
Top-Down
Bottom-Up
Prediction changes,
validating theoretical construct,
focus in mean behavior, testing
assumptions and hypotheses,
constructing most likely future
Understanding dynamics,
robustness, emergence, resilience,
focus on individual behavior,
constructing alterative futures
Single
Multiple
Temporal scales
Multiple
Multiple
(deterministic)
(stochastic)
Single
Multiple
(homogenous preferences)
(heterogeneous preferences)
Single
Single or multiple
High Low
Low-High
Low
High
Cognitive scales
Aggregation scales
Data intensity
for further research. Preliminary investigation of this type is called exploratory research.
Expert surveys, focus groups, case studies and observation methods are used to conduct
the exploratory survey.
Descriptive Research
The main purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of view as it exists at
present. Simply stated, it is a fact finding investigation. In descriptive research, definite
conclusions can be arrived at, but it does not establish a cause and effect relationship.
This type of research tries to describe the characteristics of the respondent in relation to
a particular product.
The manufacturer can come out with facilities which will make the television more
user-friendly. Some of the facilities are (a) Remote control, (b) Child lock,
(c) Different models for different income groups, (d) Internet compatibility etc.,
(e) Wall mounting etc.
Similarly, broadcasting agencies can come out with programmes, which can suit
Ultimately, the viewers who use the TV must be aware of the programmes appearing
viewers.
Viewers feel that TV is a boon for their children in improving their knowledge
that B might not have been caused A. In this type of analysis, there is no scope for
the researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher can only report what has
happened and what is happening.
Action Research
This type of research is undertaken by direct action. Action research is conducted to
solve a problem. Example: Test marketing a product is an example of action research.
Initially, the geographical location is identified. A target sample is selected from among
the population. Samples are distributed to selected samples and feedback is obtained
from the respondent. This method is most common for industrial products, where a trial
is a must before regular usage of the product.
Evaluation Research
This is an example of applied research. This research is conducted to find out how well
a planned programme is implemented. Therefore, evaluation research deals with
evaluating the performance or assessment of a project. Example: Rural Employment
Programme Evaluation or Success of Midday Meal Programme.
Library Research
This is done to gather secondary data. This includes notes from the past data or review
of the reports already conducted. This is a convenient method whereby both manpower
and time are saved.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
The research questions posed above express a need for learning more about the
dominant concepts of enterprise modeling as a research domain. Hence,
a qualitative research approach based on observations, document studies and
interviews taken from real world modeling projects is argued for in order to meet the
research objectives. However, a few alternative research approaches will also be
discussed.
Four alternative approaches
Below, a brief discussion of how each strategy could have been applied is provided.
The various approaches can to some degree be combined in the same research
project. However, the fundamental views on human inquiry and science underlying
them differ in many respects and extensive combination is not common. Figure 1.1
provides an illustration of the four approaches adapted to the needs of this project.
It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and
research
methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are
used
for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the
researchers
*At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods. Research techniques
refer to
the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording
data,
techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in
selecting and
constructing research technique. For instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data collection
can better
be understood from the details given in the following chart
From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the methods that generate
techniques.However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and when we talk of research
methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within their compass.
use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research
methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution
for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be
related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can
be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the
required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the
analytical tools of research.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the
various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem
along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know
how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the
standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also
need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what
would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that
certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All
this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as
the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a
building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and
on what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators,
uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to
expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify
very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can
be evaluated by others also. From what has been stated above, we can say that research
methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research
methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.
Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also
consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that
research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in
what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and
what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of analysing data has been
used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research
methodology concerning a research problem or study.
Steps in conducting research
Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research. The hourglass
model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information
through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in
the form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:
The steps generally represent the overall process, however they should be viewed as an everchanging iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.Most researches begin with a general
statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.The literature review
identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a
literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. A
gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question.
The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to
be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then
analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known
as Empirical research. The results of the data analysis in confirming or failing to reject the Null
hypothesis are then reported and evaluated. At the end the researcher may discuss avenues
for further research.
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is
only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods
can one have confidence in the results."
the group to involve in the study is always called the population. Defining the population assists
the researcher in several ways. First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large
population to one that is manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that the
researchers efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher
stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher
identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example in
table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as children ages 10 to 12
years. This narrower population makes the study more manageable in terms of time and
resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves
as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and
where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of numerous
decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the
researcher has decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The
group of participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population
specified for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the
community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher develops the
plan for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will be
collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan
specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has
carefully thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be
followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data.
The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research
question. Every study includes the collection of some type of datawhether it is from the literature
or from subjectsto answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on
a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study,
the programmers will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat,
cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the
class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program.
These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight,
body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is
ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will
be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this
analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight,
percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to the
measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data will be
analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the second
measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if
the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the study
validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable
information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.
As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific
research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot
conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done at
the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false conclusions or
conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.
This is an excerpt from Applied Research and Evaluation Methods in Recreation.