2000 Stryker Burke - Past Present Future Identity Theory
2000 Stryker Burke - Past Present Future Identity Theory
2000 Stryker Burke - Past Present Future Identity Theory
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Social PsychologyQuarterly
2000,Vol. 63,No. 4,284-297
2
Identitytheorywas firstpresented at the 1966
meetingsof the American Sociological Association.
At the end of the presentation,McCall approached
*Send all correspondenceto Peter J.Burke, Departmentof Sociology,WashingtonState University, Strykerand exclaimed "You've just presented our
book!" (The book had notyetappeared.) Clearly,the
Pullman,WA 99164-4020;email:burkep@wsu.edu.
fundamentalideas involved were in the air at the
1 See the extended discussion,most of whichlies
time.Not yetin place was a body of researchtesting
outside the concernsof thispaper,in Cerulo (1997),
and extendingtheseideas.
or themorelimitedtreatmentin Stryker(2000).
284
IDENTITY THEORY
285
butnotidenticalto thoseunderlying
thepreEXTERNAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE
AND THE STRUCTURE OF SELF
sentpaper,and bystudentsof multipleroles
and identitiesand theirconsequences(e.g.,
Identitytheorytraces its roots to the
Reitzesand Mutran1995;Thoits1983;Wiley
ofGeorgeHerbertMead (especially
writings
1991).
1934) whichpresenta framework
underwritWe limitourattention
hereto thestrand
ing the analyses of numeroussociological
of theorizingand researchrepresentedby,
and social psychological issues. In themand developingfrom,
our earlierwork.Since
selves,however,
theydo notpresenta testable
1966,thisworkhas appearedunderthelabel
theoryof anyissue.Many observersbelieve
identity
theory;in the restof thispaper we
thatthissituationis due to the ambiguity
of
retainthatusageto simplify
presentation.
centralconceptsandto theattendant
difficulIdentity
theoryhas evolvedin twosometyofoperationalizing
suchconcepts(Meltzer
whatdifferent
butcloselyrelateddirections.
1972; Stryker1980). In highlysimplified
of a theoreticaland
Both are instantiations
form,Mead's framework
asserteda formula:
researchprogramlabeledstructural
symbolic
"Societyshapesselfshapessocial behavior."
interactionism
(Stryker1980),whose goal is Identity
theorybeganbyattempting
to specito understandand explainhow social strucfyand make researchablethe conceptsof
turesaffectself and how self affectssocial "society"and "self"in Mead's frameand to
behaviors.
The firstaspect,however,concen- organizethese as explanationsof specified
trateson examininghow social structures behaviors;such putativeexplanationscould
affectthestructure
of selfand howstructure be testedin systematicempiricalresearch
oftheselfinfluences
socialbehavior,
whereas (Stryker
1968).
the second concentrates on the internal
This specificationaccepts the utilityof
dynamicsof self-processesas these affect Mead's framework,
but departsfromMead
socialbehavior.Thus,relatively
speaking,the to adopta viewconsistent
withcontemporary
firstneglects internal dynamics of self- sociologist's imagery:societyis seen as a
processes,whilethesecondneglectswaysin mosaicof relatively
durablepatternedinterwhichexternalsocial structures
impingeon actionsand relationships,
differentiated
yet
theinternalprocesses.
The first
is represented organized,embeddedin an arrayof groups,
by work of Strykerand colleagues (e.g., organizations,
and institutions,
communities,
Stryker1980; Strykerand Serpe 1982), the andintersected
boundariesof
bycrosscutting
second by work of Burke and colleagues class, ethnicity,age, gender,religion,and
(e.g., Burke 1991; Burke and Reitzes 1991; othervariables.In addition,personsare seen
Burkeand Stets1999).By explicitly
articulat- as livingtheirlives in relativelysmall and
ingtherelationbetweenthesetwobodies of specializednetworksof social relationships,
work,we can refineand expandthescope of through
rolesthatsupporttheirparticipation
the structural
frame in suchnetworks.
symbolicinteractionist
The embeddednessof patand suggestnew applicationsof the frame ternedinteractions
and relationships
implies
The presentpaperis a structuralsymbolicinteractionistarguand derivativetheories.
directedto thesepurposes.
ment:the probabilityof enteringinto the
We begin by presentingthe variantof concrete(and discrete)social networksin
identity
theoryand relatedresearchfocusing whichpersonslivetheirlivesis influenced
by
on linksbetweenexternalsocial structure largersocial structures
in whichthose netand thestructure
ofself;we providemetathe- worksare embedded.That is, social strucoreticalconsiderationsnecessaryto under- turesoutside given social networksact as
standingthe conceptsand propositions.In boundariesaffecting
theprobability
thatperthenextsectionwe presentthevariantfocus- sonswillenterthosenetworks.
ingon theinternaldynamicsof self-processThese considerationsled to the initial
es. We then articulate the two variants. identitytheoryspecificationof Mead's forFinally,we discussextensionsand applica- mula.Mead's "socialbehavior"became"role
tionsof thearticulated
frame,as wellas new choice behavior." The theory sought to
frame.
answerthisquintessentialquestion:Given
questionsopenedbythearticulated
286
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
QUARTERLY
IDENTITY THEORY
287
288
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
QUARTERLY
self-relevant
thespousalidentity,
meaningsinto agreementwith verifying
lead to reduced
theidentity
standardis self-verification;
to thatidentity.
This commitment
Scholarsexpanded the focuson meanis accomplished
byaltering
thecurrentsituation or by seekingand creatingnew situa- ingsto includenot onlysymbolicmeanings
tions in which perceived self-relevant (as traditionallyunderstood in symbolic
butalso signmeanings,
which
meaningsmatchthose of the identitystan- interactionism)
are not necessarilyshared(Lindesmithand
dard.
This model clarifiesseveral processes, Strauss1956).Drawingon theworkofFreese
none unique to the model,whichnow are (1988),Freeseand Burke(1994) showedthat
broughttogetherin a commonframework. meaningderivedfromsignsallowsone to act
in orderto alterthelevel
First,byseeingbehavioras a function
ofthe on theenvironment
relationshipbetween what a person per- and flowof resourcespresentin a situation,
ceivesin thesituationand theself-meanings so as to matchstandardsheld in an identity.
theory
held by the individual(Burke 1997; Heise The inclusionof resourcesin identity
1979; Stets 1997) one can view behavioras allowsthetheoryto take advantageofwork
goal-directed:
behaviorchangesthesituation on exchange and to tie it into relatively
in orderto matchmeaningsperceivedin the recentemphaseson meaningsin exchange
situationwithmeaningsheldin thestandard. theory.Such meaningswerefirstintroduced
This view gives agency to the individual by Emerson(1969,1981) and laterentering
(Burkeand Gray1999;Tsushimaand Burke into Molm and Cook's (1994) treatmentof
As a result,identity
exchangetheory.
theory
1999).
is
able
to
consider
the
more
mundane
expecSecond, emotion can be incorporated
tations
for
a
person
occupying
a
role,
such
as
intothemodel,as withaffectcontrol
directly
preparing
food,earninga livtheory(Heise 1979)andself-discrepancy
the- usingmaterials,
ory (Higgins,et al. 1986). The model views ing,and buyinggoods and services(Burke
emotionas due in part to the relationship 1997).
betweenperceivedself-meanings
in thesituPUTTING TOGETHER THE TWO
ationand theself-definitional
meaningsheld
STRANDS
in the identitystandard (see Carver and
Scheier1990;Stryker1987).A mismatchor
In thissectionwe movetowardsintegratincreasingan discrepancy(i.e., problemsin
ing the two parts of identitytheory:one
resultsin negativeemotion;
self-verification)
emphasizesthe social structuralsourcesof
a matchor a decreasingdiscrepancy(selfidentityand the relationsamongidentities,
verification)results in positive emotion
and the otherfocuseson internal,cognitive
(Burke and Stets 1999; Ellestad and Stets
identity
processes.The twomeetat behavior
1998;Smith-Lovin
1995;Stetsand Tsushima that
oftenin interaction
expressesidentities,
1999). For example, Stets and Tsushima
withothers.4
The formerarrivesat behavior
(1999) findthatthe intensityof anger and
to commitbymovingfromsocial structures
how long anger lasts are functionsof the
mentsto relationshipsthroughthe consekindsofinterruptions
of theself-verification
quent salience of the identityto behavior.
process.
The lattermovesfrominternalizedidentity
Yet,in additionto emotionand affectas standardsand perceptionsof self-relevant
emotionsare rec- meanings,
outcomesofself-processes,
througha comparisonof the two
ognizedas havingtheirown consequences, thateitherverifiestheidentitiesor indicates
bothdirectlyon the individualwho experi- a discrepancy,
to behaviorthatrepairsthe
encesthemand on othersas outwardexpres- discrepancy
thesituationorcreatbyaltering
sions of the individual's state. Emotions ingnewsituations.
signalto selfand to otherswhatthatstateis,
Thisdescription
suggeststhattheselines
makingthe state part of the situation to of theorizingdeveloped independentlyof
whichall parties,includingthe self,respond
(Frank 1988; Stryker1987). For example,
4 McCall and Simmons(1966) also note the meetBurkeand Stets(1999) findthatdepression ing of self-processesand social structurein interacand distress,
whichresultfromproblemsin tion.
IDENTITY THEORY
289
5 Social identitytheory,
on the otherhand,focuses
on category-basedidentities.
We discussthe relation
290
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
QUARTERLY
IDENTITY THEORY
ily(Thoits1987).Earlier,scholarsaddressed
relatedthemesregardingthe existenceand
consequences of status inconsistency
(Jackson and Burke 1965; Lenski 1954;
and Macke 1978).
Stryker
Yet, conceptualizationsof persons as
occupying
multiplestatusesormultiplesocial
roleexpectations
positionswithdivergent
do
not fullyincorporateor anticipatea "multiple identities"
conceptionofself,northetheoreticaland researchpossibilities
in
inherent
such conceptualizations.
These requirethe
of role-relatedexpectations
internalization
and theirorderingin a hierarchy
of salience.
They also require the filteringof identity
standardsthroughperceptionsrelevantto
the self;the existenceof suchperceptionsis
one compelling reason why identityand
identitysalience cannotsimplybe inferred
fromsociallocations.
In brief,the identity-theoretic
model is
fromrole-conflict
different
and statusinconsistency models and opens up different
thando thosemodels.The posopportunities
sibilitiesofthismodelare exhibitedin recent
workon gender-related
topics(Simon 1995;
Stets1995a,1995b;Thoits1986). Ever here,
however,theopportunities
are notexploited
in partbecause of limitations
in
thoroughly,
current
measurement
approachesto multiple
identities.
To visualize those opportunities,we
reviewa recentattemptto applyidentity
theory to theorizingand research on social
movements(Stryker
2000).As notedearlier,
studentsof social movementsrecentlyhave
borrowedfromsocial identitytheorythe
witha
conceptof identityas identification
social category(Tajfel 1982). This concept,
andtheconceptofcollectiveidentity
as a culturalemergentfromtheinteraction
of social
movementmembers,are keysto the literature on "new social movements"(Larana,
and Gusfield1995). Indeed,some
Johnston,
sociological studentsof movementshave
used identitytheory'sconcept of identity
salience to explainwhypersonsjoin social
movements(McAdam and Paulsen 1993).
None of these efforts,
however,adequately
treatvariationsin ratesand kindsof movementmembers'participationin movement
activities.
None deal successfully
withquestions such as the reasons for variationin
291
members'willingnessto contributemoney,
time,or otherresources-includingriskof
life-to a movement.
Suchquestionscan be approachedwitha
conception of self composed of multiple
identities
tiedto participation
in networks
of
social relationships
or in groupswithpotentiallydifferent
agendasand expectationsfor
members,
each affectedby perceptionsrelevantto theself.Thisconceptionvisualizesthe
even the likelihood,of competipossibility,
tion among identities.By recognizingthe
interplay
ofmultipleidentities,
an analystcan
accountforvariationin persons'participation in social movementsby referenceto
ways in whichcommitments
and identities
of
reinforce,
conflict
with,or are independent
one another.
Thisillustration
can be generalized.Any
social networkor groupis likelyto contain
members(and the larger the networkor
group,the more likelyit is to includesuch
persons) whose membershipin othernetworksor groupsmay create identitiesthat
eitherreinforce
or impedevariousformsof
participation.Althoughthis insightis not
new,its use has been limited;it could be
appliedwidelynot onlyto spousal and parent-childrelationships,
but also to broader
kin,religious,
voluntaryassociational,political, and any othertypeof relationshipthat
allowsvariationin levelsor kindsof participation.
AmplifyingExpectationStates Theory
and Status Characteristics Theory.
Sociological social psychologistscurrently
runtherisk-visiblein theworkof our psychologicalcounterparts-ofcreatingnumerous specializedtheoriesto deal withequally
numerousspecializedresearchtopics.These
theoriesdo notappearto bearmuchrelationshipto one another.Thatriskmustbe avoided ifpossible;thustherelatingofideas across
specialized theoreticaland researchtraditions is valuable. Bringingidentitytheory
intotheframework
ofexpectationstatestheory(Berger1988;Fisek,Berger,and Norman
1995;Ridgewayand Berger1986) and status
characteristicstheory(Berger,et al. 1972;
Foschi 1989;Wagnerand Berger1993) can
help clarifycentralprocessesemphasizedin
thesetheories(see Stetsand Burke1996).
292
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
QUARTERLY
Withinthe identitytheoryformulation, workneeds to be done beyondthisimmedivalue or worthcan be conceivedas a cogni- ate challengeto extendtherangeand applictheory?
made to thoseresourcesthat abilityofidentity
tiveattribution
Amongtheimportant
One criticaltaskis to findwaysofimpleallowself-verification.
resources incorporatedinto participant's mentingin researchdesignsthe conceptual
attachedto a viewof
of and theoretical
insights
standardsfortheaccomplishment
identity
a sharedgoal are the skillsand the perfor- self as composed of multiple identities.6
themselves. Thereis good reasonto believethatthefeedmancelevels of the participants
value to theindi- back processesmodeled by Burke need to
mayattribute
Participants
viduals(includingthemselves)who possess accommodatesuch multipleidentities.We
these resources, thus according status, suggest that self-verificationprocesses
willthemselvesbe
a singleidentity
respect,and esteem to those individuals involving
(again includingthemselves).Participants affectedby the existenceof otheridentities
meaningsand/or
whoreceivestatus,respect,and esteemfrom implicatedin self-relevant
be aidedin identitystandards.7Neithersocial life nor
otherparticipants
willthemselves
consistof elementscompletetheself-verification
process.In turn,theyare self-cognitions
likelyto accordstatus,respect,and esteemto lyisolatedfromone anotherotherthanaenaotherswhohelpintheirownself-verification.lytically.
theidea thatin
theoryreinforces
Identity
Certainlythereis reasonto believethat
the absence of specificinformationabout the postulatedlinks betweencommitment
skillsand performance
levelsrelevantto the and identitysalience,and betweenidentity
task,participantsin a group that seeks to salienceand rolebehavior,fora givenidentisolve a collectiveproblemwill draw upon tytiedto a givennetworkof social relationculturalmemorycontainedinpreviousstatus shipswillbe affectedby otheridentitiesand
As suggestedearand esteemallocationsto obtaininformation othergroupmemberships.
about possible resourcesavailable forthe lier,however,researchto date generallyhas
taskat hand.In thissense,status,respect,and not faced squarelythe implicationsof the
esteem are symbolic; they represent "multiple identities" conceptualization
availableforsuccessful exceptin thelimitedcase ofpairsofconflictresourcespotentially
ofthetaskand thusforself- ing identitiessuch as of spouse and labor
accomplishment
In sucha case,oppositional
verification(Ridgeway and Berger 1986; forceparticipant.
andperstandards,
identity
Ridgeway,Johnson,and Diekema 1994). roleexpectations,
Manipulationof symbolsand resourcesin ceptions of self-relevantmeaningscan be
function ascertainedfairlyreadily.
orderto obtaingoalsis an important
The reason is so is obvious:the greater
of identities(Freese and Burke 1994). In
thegreater
createvalue;and bycre- the numberof relatedidentities,
doingthis,identities
with
of dealingsimultaneously
atingvalue,identitiescan bothincreasethe the difficulty
amongthem.Thereis no clear
level of commitment
to groupsthatunderlie relationships
way of attackingthe issue at hand.Perhaps
the identitiesand increasetheirsaliencewill thisissue could be handledby adaptingthe
thatis,thelikelihoodthattheseidentities
Burkeand Reitzes(1981) techniqueofestabbe activatedin othersituations.
of meaningsof identity
lishingcommonality
to
commonalityof
and
behavior
establish
Challenges
meaningsamonglarge(r)numbersof identiAn immediatechallengeis entailed in ties.8Or perhapsthischallengecouldbe met
suggestingways in whichthe two parts of
theoryare linked.It lies in designing
identity
6Again,one mustkeep in mindthat"multipleidenand conductingresearch examininghow tities"is not equivalentto "multipleroles."
7 This iS one area in whichBurke's (1997) simulato networksof social relationcommitment
tion
of network exchange with an identitytheory
ships and identitysalience affectsidentity
model needed furtherdevelopmentto match some
standardsand perceptionsof self-relevant empiricaloutcomes.
meanings,
and vice versa.Here,however,we
8 Stets(1995b) suggestedlinkingidentitiesthrough
are interestedin a larger question: What sharedmeanings.
IDENTITY THEORY
293
294
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
QUARTERLY
IDENTITY THEORY
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AmericanJournalofSociology84:1-23.
ofSociology,
IndianaUniversity-Bloomington,
Professor
Distinguished
SheldonStryker,
in socialpsychology
perspective
in a symbolicinteractionist
interests
has long-standing
ofselfandinthedeveloponselfandtheconsequences
structural
constraints
emphasizing
PasteditorofSociometry
deriving
fromthatperspective.
Theory,
mentand testofIdentity
recipient
ofthe
SociologicalReview,
andtheAmerican
Quarterly)
(nowSocialPsychology
to
contribution
Awardforlifetime
Cooley-Mead
ASA's Sectionon Social Psychology's
Interaction
MeadAwardfor
fortheStudyofSymbolic
socialpsychology
and theSociety
Hunt,inveswithRichardSerpeand Matthew
research,
hiscurrent
Lifetime
Achievement,
tosocialrelationships.
locationon commitments
theimpactofsocialstructural
tigates
and
StateUniversity
at Washington
and ResearchScientist
PeterJ. Burkeis Professor
into
His current
workextends
identity
theory
Section.
ChairoftheASA SocialPsychology
include"Levels,
Recent
publications
andsociallearning.
areasofemotion,
grouprelations
(withT Tsushima)in Social Psychology
Agency,and Controlin theParentIdentity"
(withJ.Stets)
Context,"
Verification
inan Identity
1999,"Trust
andCommitment
Quarterly,
Theory"
Theoryand Social Identity
2000,and "Identity
Quarterly,
in Social Psyc'hology
2000.
Quarterly,
(withJ.Stets)inSocialPsychology