2.

Un spectru bntuie Europa

2. Un spectru bntuie Europa
New Criticism
Structuralism
Psihanaliza
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Bahtin
New Criticism
Structuralismul literar
Psihanaliza i structurile imaginarului

1.Mihail Bahtin
1.1.o prim intuire a intertextualitii
(definire pe scurt a paratextualitii, metatextualitii)

1.2.Teoria celor trei euri

-eu-pentru-mine
-eu-pentru-ceilali
-cellalt-pentru-mine
problema identitii, a transgresrii ntre o contiin i alta. Identitatea aparine legturii intre
indivizi, nu acestora. Este istoric, concret i mprtit. (vezi cronotopul)
It is here also that Bakhtin introduces an architectonic model of the human psyche
which consists of three components: "I-for-myself", "I-for-the-other", and "other-for-me". The
I-for-myself is an unreliable source of identity, and Bakhtin argues that it is the I-for-the-other
through which human beings develop a sense of identity because it serves as an amalgamation
of the way in which others view me. Conversely, other-for-me describes the way in which
others incorporate my perceptions of them into their own identities. Identity, as Bakhtin
describes it here, does not belong merely to the individual, rather it is shared by all. (Toward a
Philosophy of the Act)
Toward a Philosophy of the Act was first published in Russia in 1986
with the title K filosofii postupka. The manuscript of this early work was found in bad
condition with pages missing and sections of text that were illegible. It is for this reason that
this philosophical essay appears today as a fragment of an unfinished work.

1.3.Conceptul de carnavalesc
un mod literar cu tendin de subversiune (prezent istoric n perioada medieval i este o
tendin literar perpetu)
Carnivalisation thus "makes it possible to extend the narrow sense of life", or as
Foucault observes, it helps to "extend our participation in the present system". The aspiration
of carnival is to uncover, undermine - even destroy, the hegemony of any ideology that seeks
to have the final word about the world, and also to renew, to shed light upon life, the
meanings it harbours, to elucidate potentials; projecting, as it does an alternate
conceptualisation of reality.
Carnavalescul astfel "face posibil s se extind sensul ngust de via", sau cum Foucault
observ, l ajut s "extind participarea noastr n sistemul actual". Aspiraia carnavalescului este de
a descoperi, submineaz - chiar distruge hegemonia de orice ideologie care caut s aib ultimul
cuvnt despre lume, i, de asemenea cauta s-i rennoiasc sensurile acestea porturi, s fac lumin
asupra vieii, pentru a elucida potenialul, proiectarea , aa cum se ntmpl o conceptualizare
alternativ a realitii.

Dialogism is a fundamental aspect of the carnival - a plurality of 'fully valid

consciousnesses' , each bringing with them a different point of view, a different way of seeing
the world.
Dialogismul este un aspect fundamental al carnavalescului o pluralitate de constiinta pe
deplin valabil, fiecare pluritate aducnd cu ea un alt punct de vedere, un mod diferit de a vedea
lumea.

eul deschis spre alteritate

eul care rde: ireverent, sceptic, rezistent la ierarhii, certitudini

1.4. Dialogism
-eul rezistent la decizii, la finalizri
-dialogul este mereu populat de alte voci/ de vocile alteritii
-accentul pe exprimarea concret. Irepetabil, performat aici i acum
-aspectul dialogic/polifonic al romanului relevana vocilor, a focalizrii
Limbajul romanului se structureaz ntr-o interaciune dialogic nentrerupt cu
limbajele care l nconjoar (Mihail Bahtin, Probleme de literatur i estetic, p.266)
In Bakhtin's broad concept of dialogue, all human discourse is a complex web of
dialogic interrelations with other utterances. In "Discourse in the Novel," Bakhtin explains
how these dialogic interrelations preexist and shape each individual utterance: "The living
utterance, having taken meaning and shape at a particular historical moment in a socially
specific environment, cannot fail to brush up against thousands of living dialogic threads,
woven by socio-ideological consciousness around the given object of an utterance; it cannot
fail to become an active participant in social dialogue".
1.5. Diferene fa de formalism
-forma e consecina unei ideologii creatoare de form. Ideologia nu e un sistem de gndire, ci
o perspectiv asupra experienei, un set de obinuine
-limbajul e o intersectare de ideologii - romanul i are aciunea i sensul n orchestrarea
narativ a vocilor. E carnavalesc, anti-ierarhic, polifonic (problema surplusului de sens)
As an enemy of all comprehensive theories, Bakhtin opposed formalism and
structuralism, although he learned a good deal from them. Basically, he accepted the
usefulness of certain formal approaches and methods employed by these theoretical schools,
but insisted that human purposefulness and intentionality lay behind these formal models.
Unlike the formalists and structuralists, he developed a theory of language and the psyche that
was based on the concrete utterance (what people actually say), and on open-ended dialogue.

2. New Criticism
R.Wellek, IA Richards, W.Empson

2.1. tehnici de interpretare de tip close reading

exemplu concret
In literary criticism, close reading describes the careful, sustained interpretation of a
brief passage of text. Such a reading places great emphasis on the particular over the
general, paying close attention to individual words, syntax, and the order in which sentences
and ideas unfold as they are read.Close reading is sometimes called explication de texte,
which is the name for the similar tradition of textual interpretation in French literary study, a
technique whose chief proponent was Gustave Lanson. A truly attentive close reading of a
two-hundred-word poem might be thousands of words long without exhausting the
possibilities for observation and insight. To take an even more extreme example, Jacques
Derrida's essay Ulysses Gramophone, which J. Hillis Miller describes as a "hyperbolic,
extravagant... explosion" of the technique of close reading, devotes more than eighty pages to
an interpretation of the word "yes" in James Joyce's great modernist novel Ulysses.
- sensul se afl n text: paii necesari pentru a-l extrage. Ca un duman al tuturor teoriilor
cuprinztoare, s-au opus lui Bahtin formalism i structuralism, dei a nvat o afacere bun de la ei.
Practic, el a acceptat utilitatea anumitor abordri formale i metodele utilizate de aceste coli
teoretice, dar a insistat ca finalitatea uman i intenionalitatea se afl n spatele acestor modele
formale. Spre deosebire de formalisti i structuralisti, el a dezvoltat o teorie a limbajului i a
psihicului, care a fost bazat pe rostirea concreta (ceea ce oamenii spun de fapt), precum i pe
dialogul deschis. - textul i este suficient: conteaz individualitatea textului, n general rupt de

context sau de gen, dar nu i de tradiia literar, vzut ca o ordine simultan (n prelungirea
ideilor lui TS Eliot)
2.2. proiectul lui IA Richards din Practical Criticism (1929): sperana unei lecturi corecte,
rupte de ideologie, date etc.
Richards did not advance a new hermeneutic. Instead, he was doing something
unprecedented in the field of literary studies: he was interrogating the interpretive process
itself by analyzing the self-reported interpretive work of students.
- atenia pentru modelul interior al textului care i d unitate i semnificaie
- privilegierea textului liric
2.3. denunarea erorii intenionale i a erorii afective
The affective fallacy "is a confusion between the poem and its results (what it is and
what it does). It begins by trying to derive the standard of criticism from the psychological
effects of the poem and ends in impressionism and relativism.""The outcome of either fallacy
. . . is that the poem itself, as an object of specifically critical judgement, tends to disappear."
2.4. Rene Wellek, Austin Warren - Theory of Literature
-studiul intrinsec i extrinsec al literaturii
-obsesia pentru diciune, limbaj, norme interioare
-directie de analiza, de judecata
-credina n specificul literar (ca sistem nchis), n acelai timp expresie mai autentic a
umanului

With Ren Wellek, Warren authored the landmark classic A Theory of Literature in
1944-46, an influential and comprehensive analysis of the American New Criticism
movement. According to Wellek, the work was written with the idea between Warren and
himself that "we should rather combine our forces to produce a book which would formulate a
theory of literature with an emphasis on the aesthetic fact which cannot be divorced from
evaluation and hence from criticism."
2.5. Northrop Frye. Anatomia criticii (1957)
(studiul arhetipologic)
The purpose of the introduction is to defend the need for literary criticism, to
distinguish the nature of genuine literary criticism from other forms of criticism, and to clarify
the difference between direct experience of literature and the systematic study of literary
criticism.
Frye proposes a genuine literary criticism which draws its method from the body of
literature itself. Literary criticism ought to be a systematic study of works of literature, just as
physics is of nature and history is of human action. Frye makes the explicit assumption that in
order for systematic study to be possible, the body of literature must already possess a
systematic nature. Frye claims that we know very little about this system as yet and that the
systematic study of literature has progressed little since Aristotle.

3. Structuralismul literar

3.1. Patru premise ale structuralismului lui Saussure:

- natura sistematic a limbii
- concepia relaional a elementelor limbii
- natura arbitrar a elementelor limbii
- natura social a limbii
3.2. Definiia lui Roman Jakobson din 1929:
Orice set de fenomene examinat de tiina contemporan e tratat nu ca o aglomerare
mecanic, ci ca un ntreg structurat, iar funcia de baz a cunoaterii este dezvluirea legilor
interne ale sistemului. Zona de interes a preocuprii tiinifice nu mai e reprezentat de
stimulii externi, ci de premisele interne ale evoluiei: concepia mecanic a proceselor e
depit de problema funciei lor.
3.3. Situarea structuralismului literar
3.3.1. Cercul de la Praga (sfritul deceniului 3, prima parte a deceniului 4)
influenele formaliste
relevana metodei lui Propp de studiere a basmului
relaiile de combinare i contrast n discursul lingvistic i literar

The Prague School stresses the function of elements within language, their contrast to
one another, and the system formed by these elements. They developed distinctive feature
analysis, by which each sound is regarded as composed of contrasting articulatory and
acoustic features, with sounds perceived as different having at least one contrasting feature.
While they were known for their identification of the "distinctive features" of language, these
theorists also explored culture and aesthetics. In fact, Jakobson considered language to be a
means of the expression and development of culture. Thus, the general approach of the Prague
school can be described as a combination of functionalismevery component of a language,
such as phoneme, morpheme, word, sentence, exists to fulfill a particular functionand
structuralismthe context not just the components is what is important. In addition,
synchronic and diachronic approaches are seen as interconnected and influencing each other.
They regard language as a system of subsystems, each of which has its own problems but
these are never isolated since they are part of a larger whole. As such, a language is never in a
state of equilibrium, but rather has many deviations. It is these deviations that allow the
language to develop and function as a living system.

3.3.2. Semiotica
Pornind de la a patra premis a lui Saussure: studiul semnelor n interiorul societii
De la formalism la structuralism
Jakobson n 1921: conceptul de literaritate (literaturnost)
Obiectul tiinei literare nu este literatura, ci literaritatea, adic ceea ce
face dintr-o oper dat o oper literar".
Jakobson n 1933: funcia poetic a limbajului (literatura nu se distinge n gen de
non-literatur, ci n grad)
Consecin: literatura i studiul structural se pot extinde asupra tuturor formelor de discurs/
text.

3.3.3. structuralismul francez (1950-1970)

Lvi-Strauss i analiza structural a miturilor
nspre o gramatic a naraiunilor mitologice: o matrice algebric a posibilelor
formulri i permutri
extinderea acestui caz de antropologie asupra tuturor textelor i asupra cunoaterii
Lvi-Strauss's theories are set forth in Structural Anthropology (1958). Briefly,
he considers culture a system of symbolic communication, to be investigated with methods
that others have used more narrowly in the discussion of novels, political speeches, sports,
and movies.For Lvi-Strauss, the methods of linguistics became a model for all his earlier
examinations of society. His analogies usually are from phonology (though also later from
music, mathematics, chaos theory, cybernetics, and so on).The purpose of structuralist
explanation is to organize real data in the simplest effective way. All science, he says, is either
structuralist or reductionist. In confronting such matters as the incest taboo, one is facing an
objective limit of what the human mind has accepted so far. One could hypothesize some
biological imperative underlying it, but so far as social order is concerned, the taboo has the
effect of an irreducible fact. The social scientist can only work with the structures of human

thought that arise from it.Lvi-Strauss sees a basic paradox in the study of myth. On one hand,
mythical stories are fantastic and unpredictable: the content of myth seems completely
arbitrary. On the other hand, the myths of different cultures are surprisingly similar: "On the
one hand it would seem that in the course of a myth anything is likely to happen. [...] But on
the other hand, this apparent arbitrariness is belied by the astounding similarity between
myths collected in widely different regions. Therefore the problem: If the content of myth is
contingent [i.e., arbitrary], how are we to explain the fact that myths throughout the world are
so similar?" Lvi-Strauss proposed that universal laws must govern mythical thought and
resolve this seeming paradox, producing similar myths in different cultures. Each myth may
seem unique, but he proposed it is just one particular instance of a universal law of human
thought. In studying myth, Lvi-Strauss tries "to reduce apparently arbitrary data to some kind
of order, and to attain a level at which a kind of necessity becomes apparent, underlying the
illusions of liberty"

redescoperirea formalismului i revalorificarea noii critici

influena covritoare a structuralismului i tiinei literare
3.3.4. tiina literaturii
studiul literar e singurul potrivit pentru a analiza ntreaga cunoatere
tiina literaturii devine tiina cunoaterii ca sistem nchis, lingvistic, formal
studiul regulilor de funcionare, n afara iluziei mimetice sau a influenei istorice.
orice text e un sistem de posibiliti structurale
(orice discurs, orice apariie lingvistic a unei semnificaii e text. Literatura nu mai poate fi
separat de alte texte. ntr-un sens profund toate textele sunt literare, iar literatura e expresia
activitii semnificaionale)
sensul e dat numai ntr-un sistem de opoziii textuale i e obiect al unei analize obiective,
tiinifice
gramatica unui text poate fi stabilit definitiv i reprezint interpretarea sa corect
relaiile sunt fixe n sisteme i paradigme sincronice
eliminarea diacroniei, a istoriei i a temporalitii

4. Psihanaliza
4.1. Perioada timpurie
- interpretri de tip psiho-biografic
- presupune transparena tradiional ntre autor i text
- interpretarea textului e de fapt dezvluirea modelelor de dorin i aprare ale incontientului

- idealul construirii unor dicionare de simboluri i arhetipuri

4.2. Perioada postbelic
- reinterpretarea lui Freud prin opera lui Melanie Klein i Simon Lesser
- opoziie fa de primatul freudian al complexului lui Oedip. Efectul pentru Melanie Klein i,
mai trziu, Julia Kristeva e o nelegere diferit a feminitii, nesubordonat masculinitii
- opoziie fa de Noua Critic
- lectura i interpretarea sunt considerate forme de empatie, la nivelul incontientului
- lectura execut o micare dubl: fantasmatic i protectiv
- literatura e o transformare a materialului incontient
- vor influena anumite forme de reader-response criticism
4.3. Jacques Lacan
- destabilizeaz concepia tradiional (inclusiv psihanalitic) a ego-ului drept surs de
stabilitate psihic
- relaiile simbolice din limbaj pre-exist apariiei subiectului uman i i determina locul social
- subiectul e mai degrab ficional/ imaginar, e circumscris de limbaj
- nelegerea de sine depinde de felul cum subiectul i reprezint lumea i locul n ea
- lumea e simbolizat n experiena subiectului i ca atare prins n sistemul su de relaii
convenionale
-rmne ns ntotdeauna un rest ce rezist simbolizrii i astfel sistemului subiectului. Acesta
e definit drept realul