The Study of Great Leaders in Latin America *

Gamaliel Perruci, Ph.D.

McDonough Center for Leadership and Business
Marietta College
Ohio, USA

Leadership carries certain stereotypes when applied to Latin America. We often
envision a painting of a caudillo figure a military dictator on a horseback or a
photograph of a populist in a balcony waving to an adoring crowd below.
1
Great leaders
are those who get things done, a man (or woman) of action. In reality, the study of
great leaders is much more complex than a photo opportunity. Latin America is filled
with leaders who are considered great, but many of them died in the agony of defeat.
So, what makes them great?
In this essay, we interpret greatness as a sociopolitical phenomenon the
product of unique leader-follower relationships that endure beyond the leaders exit from
power, or even beyond his/her life. We approach this abstract phenomenology through
three levels of analysis: (1) human; (2) superhuman; and (3) meta-human. Each provides
the elements for the construction of a narrative that blends both myth and reality; legends
and facts. The study of greatness, therefore, involves both the understanding of leadership
as an art form the expression of the human spirit in search of transcendental meaning
and as a science the knowledge of human behavior as rational and predictive. Artistic
expressions within a society often serve to elevate great leaders into this meta-human
condition, while celebrating superhuman qualities.


The Study of Great Leader(ship)

The scientific study of great leadership traces its roots to the Industrial
Revolution and the rise of large corporations in the early 20
th
century, which ushered in a
hierarchical view of leadership with top managers and their subordinates/followers.
2

Studies focused on the traits of top managers as great leaders. The literature was
dominated by the perspective that leaders were endowed with great attributes, such as
self-confidence, extroversion, emotional stability, and enthusiasm, which naturally placed
them at the top of their organization/society.
Scholars of the period, including the great German sociologist and economist,
Max Weber (1864-1920), devoted considerable research into uncovering the secrets of
personal traits that would make someone an effective leader.
3
This analytical focus is
known today in leadership studies circles as The Great-Man Theory often used in a
negative connotation because of the popular belief in the early part of this century that
only great men could be leaders.
4
From this perspective, leaders were born, not made.
By the 1940s, the academic focus on the characteristics of great leaders had run
out of steam primarily because scholars could not agree on the essential traits of great
leaders. If great leaders, for instance, are supposed to be tall and imposing, as the
leadership theorists of the period would have us believe, how does one account for the
slight-built Getlio Vargas deep impression on Brazils struggle for modernization in the
1930s.
5

The lack of consensus on the essential traits of great leaders led scholars to
concentrate instead on great leadership as a behavior act specific behaviors that
produce effective leadership. This change in focus did not eliminate interest in the study
of leadership style and traits. Rather, scholars turned to action as an essential
component of great leadership.
6
This shift was consistent with the behavioral
revolution that swept the social sciences after World War II. The focus was no longer on
the individual leader but on the structural conditions that shaped his/her greatness. Trait
theory gave way to the study of structural variables, such as income and education, as
determinants of social behavior.
This second phase produced two major approaches: behavioral and situational.
Behavioral Theory, popularized by scholars such as Ralph Stogdill and Harold Lasswell,
focused on the way great leaders treated their subordinates coercion versus rewards.
7

This theory is also referred to as a functional approach to the study of leadership,
because it studied the classification of functional roles in groups. Kenneth Benne and
Paul Sheats, for instance, argued that there were three types of group roles: (1) task-
related roles; (2) roles related to group building and maintenance; and (3) individual
roles. Using a similar approach, D.G. Bowers and S.E. Seashore conceptualized
leadership in terms of functional roles by individuals in an organization. Leaders could
play four possible roles in order to obtain organizational effectiveness: (1) supporter of
others; (2) interaction facilitator; (3) goal emphasizer; and (4) work facilitator. These
leadership styles centered on the leaders ability to behave in a way that would maximize
the achievement of organizational objectives.
8

The Situational Approach to leadership, popular in the 1960s and 1970s, focused
on the factors that influenced the effectiveness of a leader. Behavior was not the only
variable that produced effective leadership. Situation was added as a variable. Fred E.
Fiedler, for instance, suggested a contingency model of leadership under which there
were three primary factors that controlled the amount of influence a leader had over
followers: (1) position power (the great leaders ability to reward and punish); (2) task
structure (highly structured/unstructured environments); and (3) leader-members relations
(good/poor relationship). The most favorable conditions under this model would be good
relationship between leader and followers, highly structured tasks, and a strong position
power.
9
The behavioral and situational approaches to leadership provided the foundation
for the rise of organizational theory in the social sciences after World War II. In
business schools across the United States, management programs turned to the latest
scientific techniques, such as statistics, for the empirical study of human behavior. A
certain degree of optimism, given the economic expansion in the United States and
Western Europe in the 1950s, seemed to add credence to the notion that leadership
studies had finally reached a mature stage in the social sciences.
This perception began to change in the 1970s, as economic crisis in the United
States challenged the view that the countrys accepted organizational models were
adequate. As other economic rivals appeared in Europe and Asia in the 1970s, we began
to reevaluate our old managerial ways and conceptualize new ones. The central idea that
2
emerged during this period of self-reflection was the need to change thus the emphasis
on transformation. The old ways were no longer acceptable.
By the end of the 1970s, a new movement took hold in the leadership studies
literature one focused on the interaction among leaders and followers. The new focus
on interaction had as its basis the need to transform the existing relationship between
leader and followers. In the view of the scholars of this third phase, the United States, as
a highly industrialized society, could not continue to use outdated management models,
which viewed followers as subordinates and leaders as occupying the top of the
organizational hierarchy. In a way, American economic decline was explained in part by
the countrys inability to adapt to a new economic environment, which required more
flexibility and less hierarchical structures.
The new literature draws a distinction between transactional and
transformational styles. While the former is associated with management, or
organizational skills, the latter represents leadership, with an emphasis on innovation and
creativity. J ames MacGregor Burns, in a seminal study of leadership, suggested that as
societies achieved the basic needs of their citizens, transformational leaders would lift
their followers to a higher moral plane of self-actualization.
10
This inspirational
leadership style was developed within the context of advanced industrial societies such as
the United States, whose high level of capitalist development had supposedly met their
citizens physiological, safety and social needs.
Bernard Bass, another important transformational leadership theorist, suggested
that transactional leadership was associated with passive behavior (status quo), while
transformational leadership required active behavior (creative, interactive, visionary, and
passionate).
11
Abraham Zaleznik, in his insightful distinction between managers and
leaders, argued that the former is associated with maintaining the balance of operations,
while the latter create new approaches and imagine new areas to explore.
12
While
Zaleznik does not discount the possibility of the two co-existing in the same society, he
suggests that the presence of one may stifle the growth of the other.
J oseph Rost even went so far as to borrow from the futurists the perspective that
the Western world is at present in a state of transition to a postindustrial paradigm.
13

Although Rost would like to be perceived as advancing a new paradigm
(postindustrial), in actuality he is still part of the transformation movement, popular
since the late 1970s. His very notion of a paradigm shift suggests that his approach is
centered on the idea that the study of great leadership is an exercise in understanding
change. He clearly belongs in the group of scholars who have focused in recent decades
on the nature of interaction between great leader and followers within a context of change
and transformation the relative decline of the United States leadership role in the world
and the rise of competing economic powers. Great leaders set the stage for transformation
and meaningful change, as the following section will discuss.


Great Leaders as Transformational Leaders

The trend in the recent transformation movement has rekindled interest in
visionary leadership, particularly focusing on charismalike relationships between
leaders and followers. Ann Ruth Willner has offered one of the most significant
3
contributions in recent decades to the study of charismatic political leadership. In her
1986 study, The Spellbinders, she conceptualized the great leader relationship with
his/her followers as involving four dimensions: leader-image, idea-acceptance,
compliance, and emotional. First, a great leader produces strong images savior, seer
that followers come to perceive as setting him/her above ordinary members of the
community. This leader-image dimension is associated with what followers consider to
be extraordinary qualities, such as the ability to operate effectively under tremendous
pressure. J ay A. Conger, in an insightful study of great leaders, argues that the
mystique of exceptional leadership comes from these strong images seeing beyond
current realities, communicating a vision that inspires, building impressions of
trustworthiness and expertise, empowering others to achieve the dream, and encouraging
extraordinary commitment in followers.
14
Decisiveness is also mentioned as a possible trait of a great leader, particularly
when high risks are involved. The heroic feat of a leader in rescuing followers from
impending calamity casts the image of the leader as a demigod if not a god himself. As
historian Herbert Herring suggests about Perus Victor Ral Haya de la Torre, Haya
became a demigod to his ecstatic followers and a target for virulent abuse from almost
everyone else.
15
Although he never became president, Haya dominated Peruvian politics
for almost six decades, ultimately shaping the constitutional order of the civilian
governments in the 1980s before his death in 1979.
The second dimension in the great leader-follower relationship involves what
Willner calls idea-acceptance. It refers to the extent to which followers internalize
ideas that the leader espouses. While leaders may have excellent communications skills,
the content of their message matters just as much as the delivery. If followers can accept
the message and incorporate it into their belief system, the relationship is strengthened. In
turn, the personal authority of the leader grows deeper roots. In Latin America, the
Argentinean doctor-turned revolutionary, Ernesto Che Guevara, became a great
leader figure once he assisted Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution of 1959. Ches image
is still strong in the minds of many Cubans.
16

In the Latin American case, great leaders have never achieved the type of high
idea-acceptance, as prescribed in Willners model. Smon Bolvar (17831830) finished
his military career disillusioned with the regions lack of support for his republican
ideals.
17
From his perspective, the Americas were not ready for the liberal republican
governments that he had fought to establish. Bolvars leadership skills won praises in the
battlefield where soldiers readily accepted his idea of a free and united Spanish America.
In the liberated cities, however, the political elite challenged his greatness and
eventually drove him to depression and a sense of failure. However, Bolvars idea of
unity in the Americas persists to this day. We find Bolvars concepts even in popular
culture. In a recent concert, the popular Latin rock star, Ricky Martin, revved up the
crowd by invoking the Liberators image: One of his dreams was to unite the Americas,
and were going to do some of that tonight.
18

The third dimension of the relationship involves compliance the followers
obedience to a leaders directive. There are many possible reasons as to why followers
obey, including respect for the law, fear of sanctions, and expectation of rewards.
However, as Willner argues, followers comply with a great leader because for them it is
sufficient that their leader has given the command. If he has ordered, it is their duty to
4
obey.
19
Willner provides a tough standard from which to assess these relationships
because the compliance dimension involves probing deep into the followers psyche to
evaluate their motivations. Nevertheless, this dimension calls attention to the depth of
commitment followers have for their great leader. If they consistently obey their leader
over a wide range of directives, we can surmise then that the compliance dimension runs
deep within the followers. Aprismo comes closest to Willners standard. The militant
phase of Hayas American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (Alianza Popular
Revolucionaria Americana, APRA) in the 1920s and 1930s represented the strong belief
by Hayas followers that the transformation of the country could no longer wait.
20
The fourth dimension of a great leader-follower relationship involves the
emotional commitment of the followers toward their leader. This emotional dimension
gauges the intensity of feelings in a relationship and commitment to the leaders vision.
In particular, Willner argues that followers respond to great leaders with devotion and
blind faith. These strong emotions, she adds, come close to religious worship.
21
The cult
of Che, for instance, has approached this level. As his body was brought back for final
burial in Cuba in 1997, a devoted follower remarked,

In Che, I have found a kind of god because he embodies such sacrifice, the
ultimate sacrifice, which was death. When I seek inspiration to go on, this is what
I see in his corpse. In this period of our history, when we are facing a tough
economic crisis, we need to follow his principles of struggle and hope. We need
the strength of Che.
22

Aside from these four dimensions that Willner discusses in her study of political
charisma, we also need to point out that this relationship has a specific historical context.
As K.J . Ratman argues, In many cases it may be relevant to look not at the leaders
themselves but at their societies to explain their exceptional popularity.
23
The traditional
conception of charisma, going back to Max Webers formulation, invariably includes
some type of extreme social stress or crisis that serves as the background from which the
charismatic leader rises.
24
As Willner argues,

If political authorities seem unwilling or unable to cope with or alleviate the
crisis, people become alienated from the political system and susceptible to the
political appeal of a strong leader who can be seen as the symbol and the means of
rescue from distress.
25

This classic interpretation of the generation of political charisma ties great leaders
and their followers to a specific historical condition (crisis situation and followers
distress) that opens the system to the possible development of a sociopolitical
phenomenon, under which an aspiring leader offers his/her vision of deliverance. Bolvar
took advantage of Napoleons control over the Iberian peninsula in the early 1800s to
foment his wars of liberation. Likewise, Eva Mara Duarte Pern built on economic crisis
in the 1930s and her husbands popularity to fight for los descamisados the shirtless
ones in Argentina.
26
Getlio Vargas pursued a similar strategy in Brazil by mobilizing
the labor movement on the heels of the Great Depression and the collapse of the landed
5
aristocracy.
27
Che Guevaras rise to prominence cannot be separated from the Cold War
as an underlying context influencing U.S. policies in Latin America.
28
While Willner accepts the general tenets of the conventional formulation
(Weberian), she argues that it does not adequately emphasize the role of the leader as
active initiator in the relationship. While the conventional formula assumes the
existence of crisis prior to the rise of a leader, Willner stresses the possibility of a crisis
induced by a leader. The former places the emphasis on context, while the latter focuses
on the element of leadership as a catalyst. Bolvar, for instance, brought fighting to Peru
through his vision of liberty from Spanish rule, even though the local elite seemed
content with the status quo.
Another important element of great leadership, which Willner does not provide
sufficient discussion of, is the dynamic nature of historical context. Willners focus is on
creative leadership as a catalyst in the making of charisma. This proposition is
particularly important in explaining the rise of great leaders to power. However, we
cannot discount the element of continuity; that is, what happens to a great leader after
power is attained? Many great leaders, who reach office with wide acclaim, leave the
same office in disgrace.
In Bolvars case, for instance, he retired disgusted with the way his republican
vision had been subverted by the regional caudillos. Bolvars vision was a contradictory
one. He amassed power, including the title of Supreme Dictator, in order to realize his
vision of a united Spanish America. Yet, the more power he used to stave off anarchy, the
more despised he became. In the end, the same adoring crowds that once welcomed the
Liberator eventually cheered his exit from Lima in 1826.
29
Why is it that so many of these great leaders are unable to sustain their vision and
go down in history as failures? A possible explanation lies in what Conger calls the dark
side of charismatic leadership. The advantage of the great leader impatience with the
status quo can also become a liability: a price must be paid for such impatience. In
large organizations, the charismatics intolerance for the status quo may alienate
others.
30
As great leaders attempt to make dramatic changes, opponents balk in
predictable fashion. The more power a leader uses to attain his/her goal of
transformation, the more his/her vision becomes associated with the leaders personal
political survival. Eventually, perception changes and followers become disillusioned
with the dictatorial methods of their once-considered great leaders.
Once the initial crisis that propelled the leader to office is overcome, such as the
end of Spanish rule or hyperinflation, power and the image of greatness are used to
control the political system, thus compromising the transformational gains. As Weber
argues:

It is usually the wish of the master himself, and always that of his disciples and,
even more, of his charismatically led followers to change charisma and the
charismatic blessings of his subjects from a once-for-all, extremely transitory free
gift of grace belonging to extraordinary times and persons into a permanent,
everyday possession. The inexorable concomitant of this change, however, is a
change in the inner character of the structure.
31

6
Ultimately, opponents attempt to undermine the success of great leaders. Amid
gridlock and opposition, the great leader centralizes more power in order to remain
effective; that is, popular. In the end, vision is lost and power politics takes over.
Candidates for the title of great leaders, therefore, are well advised to leave the scene
before this historical shift takes place, thus guaranteeing their perpetuity as the defender
of their original vision. Such were the cases of Vargas in Brazil, Evita in Argentina, and
Che in Bolivia. Bolvar, however, had the unfortunate experience of a slow decline in his
health, and in the meantime, witnessed his power and prestige slipping away.


Levels of Analysis

The previous discussion of transformational leadership and the development of
charismatic relationships suggest three levels of analysis that can be used to study great
leaders as both art and science. First, we have to investigate greatness imbedded
within a human experience. This human level presupposes the common linkage
humanity that exists between the leader and the individual. Leaders are born, bleed and
die like everybody else. Second, leaders seem to have certain traits that stand out when
compared to average humans. Despite the critics maligning the great-men theory of
many decades ago, we continue to be fascinated by leaders, regardless of gender or race,
who seem to have a prodigious memory and a natural ability to connect with followers.
Third, we have to take into consideration a meta-human level of analysis; that is, the
way followers (and even societies) elevate their leaders to a historic level, beyond even
their seemingly superhuman abilities. At this level of analysis, society itself creates myths
and legends that bestow greatness to certain leaders.

1. Human Level: Great leaders are associated with ordinary deeds that we all
share, particularly those that characterize our human experience on earth life and death.
This ordinariness is important because it is essential to our understanding of our
leaders behavior. We celebrate success in the midst of adversity, but we characterize
certain experiences as adversities precisely because of our recognized limitations as
human beings. The great-men theorists of the last century and recent studies on
charisma often fail to recognize this important quality in great leaders.
There were no angels singing to shepherds in the fields when Ernesto Che
Guevara de la Serna was born in Rosario, Argentina, on J une 14, 1928. Likewise, the
earth did not tremble when he was killed in Bolivia on October 9, 1967, following his
capture by counterinsurgency troops. In between these two events, Che suffered from
asthma a debilitating condition that tested the limits of his physical endurance.
Before she met J uan Pern and rose into popular acclaim, Evita was a minor
actress with little prospect for great stardom. She had to struggle for many years to
develop her acting career. She rose to prominence in the radio industry, which placed her
in contact with the military government that came to power in the 1940s. Otherwise, she
would have become a minor footnote in the countrys history. Her death from cancer at
the age of 33 also provided another human connection to her followers, who felt robbed
by fate of many more years with their popular leader.

7
2. Superhuman Level: Great leaders are associated with extraordinary deeds that
elevate them above ordinary life. These deeds are usually a product of unusual personal
characteristics (e.g., high endurance and energy levels, ability to communicate a goal)
combined with specific historical circumstances that provide the perfect mix that give rise
to great leaders. The two components (personal characteristics and specific historical
context) are imperative. The great-men theorists often underestimated the latter, while
overestimating the former. The situational theorists underestimated the former, while
overestimating the latter. In studying great leaders, we need a balance between the two.
In Ches case, for instance, if he had chosen to stay in Argentina and practice
medicine, as he had been trained to do, we would not be writing about him in this paper.
However, his decision to explore Latin America, coupled with events in Guatemala in
1954, eventually put him in touch with Cuban exiles in Mexico City, which led to his
inclusion in the Gramna expeditionary force that ultimately toppled the Batista
dictatorship in 1959.
32
Given a certain combination of circumstances, great leaders emerge. History is
filled with leaders with impressive personal characteristics who did not face historical
conditions that tested their creative abilities. Likewise, we also find leaders who were
only recognized as great once faced with specific situations. For instance, when Getlio
Vargas came to power in 1930 through a military coup, he was considered an
unimpressive leader brought to power largely through his connections with the Rio
Grande do Sul elite conspiring with the generals. However, once he amassed enough
power to extend his tenure in office, his political ambitions blossomed to the point that he
deeply transformed the country from an agricultural oligarchy to an incipient industrial
power. Every Brazilian president since then, including even the military leaders in the
1964-1985 period, have drawn from the Vargas leadership model of extending the power
of the executive vis--vis the other branches of government.
33

3. Meta-human Level: While we appreciate their humanity, we also elevate them
above that same humanity. Artistic expressions play a role in developing the myths and
legends associated with great leaders.
34
This paradoxical process of detachment
canonization, some might say instills the reverence and status that great leaders attain in
history. In his August 1954 suicide note, Vargas was well aware of this dynamic, when
he wrote: Serenely I take my first step on the road to eternity and I leave life to enter
history.
35
Great leaders often have to die before they reach this third level, because it is
through their death usually a dramatic event in itself that they gain a symbolic status
as a great leader. In reflecting on their lives, we impart certain leaders with ideals and
dreams that may not have been articulated at the time. Or, the leader himself/herself may
embody the dreams of a society, thus representing the collective aspirations of the whole.
The martyrdom quality of sacrifice and death elevates our leaders to the level of
saints. It was this fear that led military officials to ship Eva Perns body to Italy for an
obscure burial site in the 1950s.
36
When Ches body was found in Bolivia in the 1990s
and brought back to Cuba in 1997, Che was eulogized once again throughout Latin
America as a symbol of the commitment to the struggle against injustice and oppression.
He was presented as an example someone whom others should strive however
imperfectly to emulate knowing that there can only be one Che!
8
The true test of a great leader, therefore, is his/her staying power the way
societies make him/her live in their collective memory through artistic expressions (e.g.,
poems, film, theatre, literature).
37
Therefore, the study of great leaders is always an art
work in progress because memories may fade with time, or, as a result of historical
revisionism, may grow. Revisionism also runs the risk of manipulation by certain leaders
who want to gain personal political advantage. Artistic expressions serve as the
barometer for the greatness of a leader within a society.
38

This meta-human level can also affect the way we use the superhuman level of
analysis. Superhuman qualities may be given to undeserving leaders. The cult of
personality the study of great leaders has to be mindful of this possibility affects the
way history is written. For instance, Fidel Castro exploited Ches image as a way of
boosting his own image in the 1990s, as Cuba faced a difficult economic transition
following the end of the Cold War. Under Mexican President Alvaro Obregns careful
plan to court the agrarian sector in the 1920s, Zapata went from el Atila del Sur (the
Attila of the South), as the Mexican conservative press characterized him during the early
revolutionary period, to the defender of Democracy; or the Great Sacrificed One; or
even the Apostle of Agrarianism.
39
Today, Zapata is revered in Mexico as a great
leader even to the point of appearing on the countrys currency.


Concluding Remarks

This essay has explored the nature of great leadership. The suggested three
levels of analysis draw from the different approaches that have been articulated over the
past decades since leadership studies began in the early years of the 20
th
century. These
three levels take us from the most basic human condition life and death to the
mythological realm produced through collective memories in artistic expressions. In
between these two points, we should strive to understand the nature of the relationship
between leaders and followers.
The study of great leaders is always a work in progress. We should be prepared
to demystify those who have been canonized by history in order to understand the
humanity of the subjects. At the same time, we need to understand the historical
processes and collective angst that give rise to mythologies around great leaders. Not
surprisingly, this academic enterprise lends itself to controversy. Many so-called great
leaders turned out to be not demigods but demons incarnate, but that is a topic for
endless debate: was Bolvar seduced by his own ego to become the Napoleon of the
Americas? Was Vargas a manipulative schemer who took advantage of the poor? Was
Evita a whore or a saint? Was Che an angel of liberation or an agent of the Evil Empire?
Ultimately, great leadership as in the beauty of art is in the eyes of the beholder
(potential follower).
9
NOTES



* Paper presented at the Second Art of Management and Organization Conference in
Paris, France, September 7-10, 2004; organized through The Essex Management Centre,
University of Essex, United Kingdom, in association with ESCP-EAP European School
of Management (Paris, France).

1
For examples of Latin American caudillismo, see W. J ohn Green, Gaitanismo, Left
Liberalism, and Popular Mobilization in Colombia (Gainesville: University Press of
Florida, 2003); J ohn Lynch, Argentine Caudillo: Juan Manuel de Rosas (Wilmington,
Del.: SR Books, 2001); Roland H. Ebel, Misunderstood Caudillo: Miguel Ydigoras
Fuentes and the Failure of Democracy in Guatemala (Lanham, Md.: University Press of
America, 1998).

2
For instance, Pitrim A. Sokorin, Monarchs and Rulers: A Comparative Statistical
Study, Social Forces 4 (September 1925): 22-35; Gordon W. Allport and Hadley
Cantril, J udging Personality from Voice, Journal of Social Psychology 5 (February
1934): 37-55; Leta S. Hollingsworth, What We Know about the Early Selection and
Training of Leaders, Teachers College Record 40 (April 1939): 575-592.

3
Max Weber helped establish the foundations of modern sociology. See H.H. Gerth and
C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1958). Weber looked at questions of authority, status and legitimacy.
He offered three ideal-types of leadership styles: (1) charismatic; (2) traditional; and (3)
rational-legal. As societies evolved, they would move from the first type through the
second and achieve the third type, which he saw as the pinnacle of modern society.

4
Edgar F. Borgatta, Robert F. Bales, and Arthur S. Couch, Some Findings Relevant to
the Great Man Theory of Leadership, American Sociological Review 19 (December
1954): 755-759.

5
Richard Bourne, Getulio Vargas of Brazil, 1883-1954: Sphinx of the Pampas (London:
C. Knight, 1974); J ohn W. F. Dulles, Vargas of Brazil: A Political Biography (Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1967.

6
Warner Burke, Leadership Behavior as a Function of the Leader, the Follower, and the
Situation, Journal of Personality 33 (March 1965): 60-81.

7
Ralph M. Stogdill, Personal Factors Associated with Leadership: a Survey of the
Literature, Journal of Psychology 25 (1948): 35-71; Harold D. Lasswell, Power and
Personality (New York: Norton, 1948).

8
Benne and Sheats, Functional Roles of Group Members, Journal of Social Issues 4
(1948): 41-9; Bowers and Seashore, Predicting Organizational Effectiveness with a
Four-Factor Theory of Leadership, Administrative Science Quarterly 2 (1966): 238-63.
10


9
Fred E. Fiedler, A Note on Leadership Theory: The Effect of Social Barriers between
Leaders and Followers, Sociometry 20 (J une 1957): 87-94; Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory of
Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967); Fred E. Fiedler, The Effects
of Leadership Training and Experience: A Contingency Model Interpretation,
Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (December 1972): 453-470.

10
J ames MacGregor Burns, Leadership (New York: Harper & Row, 1978).

11
Bernard Bass, Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation (New York: The Free
Press, 1985).

12
Abraham Zalenik, Managers and leaders: Are they different? Harvard Business
Review 55 (May-J une 1977): 67.

13
J oseph Rost, Leadership for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Praeger, 1991).

14
J ay A. Conger, The Charismatic Leader: Behind the Mystique of Exceptional
Leadership (San Francisco: J ossey-Bass Publishers, 1989).

15
Hubert Herring, A History of Latin America: From the Beginning to the Present, 3
rd
ed.
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 601.

16
Enrique Ros, Ernesto Che Guevara: mito y realidad (Miami: Ediciones Universal,
2002); Manuel Pieiro, Che Guevara and The Latin American Revolutionary Movements,
selected and edited by Luis Suarez Salazar; translated by Mary Todd (New York: Ocean
Press, 2001).

17
Gabriel Garca Mrquez, The General in His Labyrinth (New York: Penguin Books,
1990).

18
J ess Cagle, Ricky Martin, Entertainment Weekly, 1999 Year-End Special, p. 23.

19
Willner, 7.

20
Walter Ampuero Vsquez, Aprismo y cambio socioeconmico en el Per (Lima:
Centro de Documentacin Andina, 1987); Imelda Vega Centeno, Aprismo popular: mito,
cultura e historia (Lima: Tarea, 1985); Robert J . Alexander, Aprismo: The Ideas and
Doctrines of Victor Raul Haya de la Torre (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1973).

21
Willner, 7.

22
As quoted in Serge F. Kovaleski, In an Island of Communism, Guevara Still a Potent
Symbol; Cubans Crowd Havana Square to Honor Hero's Remains, The Washington
Post, October 12, 1997, p. A29.

11

23
K.J . Ratman, Charisma and Political Leadership, Political Studies 12 (1964): 347.

24
For an excellent compilation of Webers writings on charisma, see S. N. Eisenstadt,
ed., Max Weber on Charisma and Institution Building: Selected Papers (Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1968).

25
Willner, 43.

26
Nicholas Fraser and Marysa Navarro, Evita: The Real Life of Eva Pern (New York:
W.W. Norton, 1996).

27
J ohn W. F. Dulles, Vargas of Brazil: A Political Biography (Austin: University of
Texas Press, 1967); Kenneth Paul Erickson, The Brazilian Corporative State and
Working-Class Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).

28
Louise I. Gerdes, ed., The Cold War (San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2003).

29
Bolivar, in fact, is listed in one account as number 43 in a rank of the 100 most
influential persons in history. See Michael H. Hart, The 100: A Ranking of the Most
Influential Persons in History (Secausus, N.J .: Carol Publishing Group, 1998); as a
military leader, he is ranked number 12 in Michael Lee Lanning, The Military 100: A
Ranking of the Most Influential Military Leaders of All Time (Secaucus, N.J .: Carol
Publishing Group, 1996); see also Steven I. Davis, Leadership in Conflict: The Lessons of
History (New York: St. Martins Press, 1996), 24-9.

30
Conger, 5.

31
Max Weber, Selections in Translation, trans. by E. Matthews (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1978), 236.

32
Eric Luther, The Life and Work of Che Guevara (Indianapolis, Ind.: Alpha, 2001).

33
Eduardo Mascarenhas, Brasil: de Vargas a Fernando Henrique: conflito de
paradigmas (Rio de J aneiro: Editora Nova Fronteira, 1994).

34
See, for instance, Toms Eloy Martnezs macabre comedy, Santa Evita (Madrid:
Alfaguara/Santillana, 2002).

35
As translated by Robert Levine and published in its entirety in his Father of the Poor?
Vargas and His Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 150-2.

36
Carlos de Npoli, Evita: el misterio del cadver se resuelve (Miami: Grupo Editorial
Norma, 2003).

12

37
See, for example, Patrick Symmes, Chasing Che: A Motorcycle Journey in Search of
the Guevara Legend (New York: Vintage Books, 2000).

38
For instance, Madonna, Antonio Banderas, J onathan Pryce, and J immy Nail starred in
the 1996 motion picture Evita, based on the musical play by Andrew Lloyd Webber.

39
Ilene V. OMalley, The Myth of the Revolution (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1986),
58.
13