The Characteristics of the Abbasid

Empire











Doha Elsohemy
Student No. 78




Dr. Tariq AbdelHaleem
Dar Al-Arqam Islamic Centre
History of Islamic State











August 29, 2004
Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 3
INTERNAL POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS.............................................................................. 4
THE 1
ST
ABBASID ERA: 132H-232H..................................................................................................... 4
THE 2
ND
ABBASID ERA: 233H-334H..................................................................................................... 5
THE 3RD ABBASID ERA: 334H-467H................................................................................................... 6
THE 4
TH
ABBASID ERA: 467H-656 H.................................................................................................... 6
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON THE ABBASID RULE.................................................................. 8
ARTS AND SCIENCES....................................................................................................................... 11
ASTRONOMY ...................................................................................................................................... 11
MATH................................................................................................................................................. 12
OPTICS................................................................................................................................................ 12
MEDICINE........................................................................................................................................... 12
ART.................................................................................................................................................... 13
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIQH...................................................................................................... 14
MALIK IBN ANAS: 97H-179H............................................................................................................. 14
ABU HANIFA: 80H-150H................................................................................................................... 15
IMAM ASH-SHAFAII: 150H-204H ..................................................................................................... 16
AHMAD IBN HANBAL: 164H-241H..................................................................................................... 16
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................... 18
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 19
APPENDIX I: MAPS OF ISLAMIC WORLD DURING THE ABBASID RULE......................... 20
Introduction

The Abbasids kingdom lasted for more than 500 years with thirty-nine
Caliphs, which spanned four distinct eras. During this time, the Muslim world was
facing a great number of changes. After the fall of the Umayyad Empire in 132H, The
Abbasid house (the Prophets PBUH uncle lineage) came into power. With them
came the influence of the Persians, and the Turks. The influence of these two cultures
changed the political and cultural arena of the Abbasids Empire. The Arabs
themselves were summoned to decline from their high stature, which was prevalent in
the Umayyad reign, and be treated as secondary citizens. Of course, this led to a
power struggle between the Turks and Persians that eventually led to outside forces
threatening the empire; namely the Crusades and the Mongol invasion. However,
there were great advancements in worldly and Islamic knowledge during the Abbasid
dynasty.

It was during the early periods of the Abbasids Empire that progression in the
arts and sciences such as medicine, astronomy, optics, mathematics, and calligraphy
reached high scholarly levels. To most Muslims however, especially Sunni Muslims,
the great treasures at the time came in the development of Fiqh, collection of Hadith
and development of sciences of Hadith, and formation of Tafseer sciences. The
development of Fiqh will be examined, particularly the main characters of this
development: Anas Ibn Malik, Ash-Shafaee, Abu Hanifa, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
Their knowledge and courageous personalities came to the test when faced with the
Abbasids Caliphs. Yet, they left an everlasting mark in Islamic history.

Through all the hardships and prominent times that the Abbasids had to
endure, there were many patterns and characteristics that befell them. The following
areas will be discussed:
The internal political characteristics of each Abbasid era.
External influences on the Abbasids such as state formations and revolts.
The great collection and development of knowledge in the arts and sciences.
The development of Fiqh from the four major Imams and their relationships
with the Abbasid Caliphs.

The objective of this paper is to describe the characteristics in each area stated above.
In the end, there is more to know about the Abbasid Empire than its political history.
Indeed, this period of history is rich in many other aspects than simply politics.


Internal Political Characteristics
The 1
st
Abbasid Era: 132H-232H
The beginning of the Abbasid movement is characterized as being secretive
(1). This was done in order to overthrow the Umayyads from power. The movement
had a secret hierarchy of leadership. The workers who were spread through the
Muslim empire did not know the leaders that were above them in the hierarchy. The
leader, Imam, was unknown to them. Secret meetings were done in order for this new
movement to be successful. Indeed, this system was very successful. Not only due to
its secretive manner of work but also who the Abbasids brought in to help them;
namely the Persians. The Abbasids sought the aid of the Persians because the
Umayyads led a biased rule of Arabs over Non-Arabs. This led the Persians, and other
cultures, to be secondary citizens. Strategically, the Abbasids used the Persians to
increase their force. Also, the Abbasids are considered to be part of the Household of
The Prophet PBUH. This attracted the Alawites (the descendents of Ali RA) which in
turn attracted the Persians who were sympathetic to the Alawites. However, as will be
shown, the Persians had a separate goal compared to the Abbasids. They wanted to
revive the legacy of the old Persian Empire. Therefore, they too had to work in secret.
The Persians adopted the same secret hierarchy system that the Abbasids invented in
order to fulfill their interests.

The Imam named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Ali put a Persian in charge of
their affairs in the East, Abu Muslim Al-Khurasani. Abu Muslim also wanted to
revive the Persian Empire to its past glory but he sought a different way to do it. He
tried to penetrate the higher ranks of the soon-to-be new government in order to
control it from within. Of course, this was all done in secret because Persians like
Shiites are very secretive of their intentions.

The first era of the Abbasids had nine Caliphs and the first one was named
Abu Abbas Al-Safah. He put Abu Muslim in charge of the army. At this time as well,
other Persian families were rising as major influences on the Caliphate; The Baramiki
and The Fadl families. However, the Persians received a great setback when Abu
Jafar Al-Mansour came into power. He saw the great influence that the Persians had
on the empire and he killed Abu Muslim out of his fear of his power. This murder
enraged the people of Khurasan and, as will be shown later, led to the emergence of
heretic sects. After Al-Mansour, his son Al-Mahdi faced the group called Al-Zindiqs.
These were individuals who say they were Muslim but say things, like cursing the
Kabba, which revealed that they are not Muslims. Al-Mahdi himself made a ministry
specifically to get rid of them. Similarly, the Baramkis were also killed by the famous
Caliph, Haroon Al-Rasheed. Such setbacks did not last for too long. When Al-
Mamoun came to power, the Persians reached their pinnacle influence on the Empire.

Al-Mamoun was the son of Al-Rasheed and he violently took over the
Caliphate by killing his brother, Al-Amin, which was done by the help of Persians.
Al-Mamoun was a son of a Persian and he was raised by a Persian named Fadl ibn
Sahl. Therefore, his loyalty to the Persians was great to the extent that he wore a green
turbine symbolizing the Persians. He also accepted the ideology of the Mutazila sect
and said that the Quran was created. The Persians also had the same belief because the
Quran is proof that their ideology is wrong and decreasing the value of the Quran puts
their wrong beliefs into the right. After moving the capital of the empire from
Baghdad to Khurasan, Al-Mamoun was counselled by his successor Ali Al-Rida. Al-
Rida was an Alawite who had a great influence on Al-Mamoun. He told the Caliph
that ibn Sahl was causing chaos in Baghdad. Al-Mamoun took his advice and decided
to kill ibn Sahl but soon after, Al-Rida past away as well. For now, the Persians are
defeated and a new power will emerge; The Turks.

After Al-Mamoun, his brother Al-Mutasem came into power. Al-Mutasem
was born to a Turkish mother and thus had loyalty to the Turks. The head of his army,
Ifsheen (a Persian), was having secret delegations with the fire worshippers of Persia.
Outraged, Al-Mutasem replaced the Persian and installed the Turks as masters of the
army. His loyalty to the Turks was to such an extent that Al-Mutasem built the city of
Samara for his mothers people. By the time of Al-Wathiq, the Turks held all major
positions of the government. In 232 H, Al-Wathiq died without declaring a successor.
Therefore, the powerful Turks had the freedom to choose the next Caliph.

In all, this first era is characterized as having strong Abbasid Caliphs with a
centralized government. In addition, the Persian influence over the Caliphs was high.
Finally, heretic movements like the Zindiqs were eliminated. When the second era of
the Abbasid began, some of these characteristics changed.
The 2
nd
Abbasid era: 233H-334H
The thirteen Caliphs in this new era had to face a new system of government;
a decentralized government. The Caliphs stronghold on the Empire weakened when
the Turks started to choose who will be the next heir to the Caliphate. The Turks had
such great power that even if they did not like the Caliph that was present at the time,
they would overthrow him and kill him. This is what happened to Al-Mutawakil, Al-
Mutasem, Al-Muhtadi, Al-Qahir and Al-Muttaqi. Just like the Persians, the Turks
moved the capital from Baghdad but to Samara (1).

Also, the government had ministers who started delegating their commands.
The Caliphs gave their authority to the ministers and the ministers gave their authority
to vice-governors. These vice-governors started sovereign states. Even though they
were loyal to the Caliphate, they ruled separately from the empire. The states kept
changing when new states rose and defeated them. For instance, the Tahari state
began in the second era and was overtaken by the Safari state, which was then taken
over by the Saminids. Thus, the Abbasid government was decentralized.

Typically in any controlling family and empire, internal fighting starts to
emerge. Indeed, the Turks started to fight among themselves for the title of Amir-ul-
Umara. Internal chaos usually decreases the authority of those in power. This
happened when a new force, the Buwayhids, overturned the bickering Turks.

The second era is the time when the Abbasid Caliphs became weaker due to
being appointed by those outside the Caliphate (the Turks). Additionally, this era was
the start of the formation of sovereign states. Even though they started in the name of
the Caliph, they decreased the authority of the Abbasids because the land that they
controlled was shrinking.


The 3rd Abbasid Era: 334H-467H
The Buwayhids took over from the Turks and became the new masters over the
Abbasids (1). However, unlike the Turks, the Buwayhids let the Caliphs last longer
but only as figure heads. The five Caliphs in this era lived as Caliphs for decades but
only as servants to the new Shiite leaders. The Buwayhids were from an are south
west of the Caspian Sea. They believed themselves to have a right to rule since they
descended from a ruling Persian dynasty. They were obedient servants to the people
of Samanid but they had their own ambitions for power. The Buwayhids were a group
of Shiites who used the Abbasid Caliphs as puppets. Even though there was a Shiite
Caliph in Egypt (The Fatamids) who rivalled the Iraqi Caliphs, The Buwayhids did
not support the Fatamids as Caliphs. The Buwayhid rule would be unjustifiable under
the Fatamids. Therefore, they continued along the same pattern as the Turks by
treating the Abbasids as pawns.

The Buwayhids even affected certain religious doctrines in the empire. As
Shiites, they cursed the Companions of the Prophet PBUH like Abu Bakr RA, Umar
RA and Aisha RA. They also started the celebration of the day of Hadrat Husseins
death by mourning him and Ghadeer Kham in which they believe that the Prophet
declared Ali RA as his successor. The Abbasid Caliphs could not overturn these new
rules due to his submission under the Shiite rulers. The Buwayhids ended the
sovereign stat of Hamdan in Mosul. Also, the Ghaznavids defeated the Samanids in
the East. The Buwayhids began the terrible system of Lordship. This system is
characterized as appointed Lords to control large pieces of land and have low paying
workers farming on their land.

Again, just like the Turks, the Shiite rulers started to fight for power among
themselves. A new emerging power from the East would soon overthrow the
Buwayhids. These were the Seljuks.

In conclusion, this era is known for the Abbasid Caliphs as being puppets of
their Buwayhid commanders as well as the internal fighting that happened between
the Buwayhids. The final period of the Abbasids began on a good note but ultimately
perished due to the Shiites.
The 4
th
Abbasid Era: 467H-656 H
The Seljuks had control of India and Afghanistan before setting their sights on
Baghdad. These were a group of Sunni Muslims who, at first, returned the authority to
the Abbasid Caliphs (1). Sunnis believe that the authority of the state resided on the
Caliph and the Seljuks, being Sunni, followed this rule. The first Seljuki sultan to
arise was Tughril Beg. Instead of a Shiite cursing the Companions in Friday khutbahs,
Beg cursed those Buwayhids on Fridays. After Beg, came his son Alb-Arsalan. He
was famous in preventing the Christians to move to Jerusalem. This was one of the
main causes for the Crusades to begin.

This era of the Abbasids also gave way to the Attibica state. This state was run
by the Zinky family and they were loyal to the Caliphs. This state then became the
Ayyubi state that defeated the Fatamids and the Crusaders. Their leader who stood
against these enemies was the famous Turk-Kurd, Salah-Al-Din.
Once again, the characteristic of internal family conflict arose in this period.
The Seljuks, in the later part of this era, began to fight with each other. This is a
strong characteristic that happens when there is a powerful nation being controlled.

The fall of the Abbasid Empire began when the Seljuks selected sub-
governors (Shahs) to control the Muslim land. The most famous Shahs are
Khawarizm Shah. They used to trade with the Mongols. When the Shah killed one of
the Mongolian merchants, Haluko (Genghis Khans grandson) was furious and he led
an assault against the Shah and killed him. The Abbasid Caliph at the time was Al-
Mustasim. One of his ministers named Muwayyid ud Din Muhammad ibn Al-Kami,
who was Shiite, had communication with the Mongols. The Shiites still wanted to
overthrow the Arab Caliph from power and they saw the chance in the ruthless
Mongols. Again the Persian were not to be trusted since their motive was to
overthrow the Arabs and return the glory to the Persian Empire. Ibn Al-Kami
proposed to the Mongols to come to Baghdad. That is exactly what happened. The
Shiites opened the gates of Baghdad and the Mongol army came in and massacred the
Sunnis and saved the Shiites. Also, the great libraries and books were burned by the
Eastern savages. Thus, that was the end of the Abbasid Empire.

In all, this era was known for the return of power to the Abbasid Caliphs. This
was due to the Sunni Seljuki power who overtook the Shiite Buwayhids. Most
importantly, the revenge that the Shiite or Persians wanted over the Arab rulers led to
the destruction of this Muslim Empire. The Shiites, once again, caused havoc in the
Muslim world but this time the Sunnis and all the great knowledge collected for
centuries were destroyed.


In conclusion, the internal political scene throughout the Abbasid rule changed
between each era. The first era was where the caliphs had real power and every era
after indicates a decline of the Caliphs authority (until the very end but it was too
late; the Mongols defeated the Arabs). Also, the internal authority was competed by
the Persians, Turks, Buwayhids and Seljuks. The constant alteration of power between
these groups is a strong trait of the Abbasid eras. Also, the sovereign states and
independent states that arose was the first time the Caliphate had to endure the
shrinkage of the Muslim empire.

In the following section, these independent and loyal states will be discussed.
External Influences on the Abbasid Rule

Even though there were many internal political issues that the Abbasids had to
endure, the most unique events happened from external stimuli. Indeed, one of the
differences between the Umayyad dynasty and the Abbasid dynasty is the severing of
the empire into petty states. The Abbasids could not prevent the formation of
independent nations but it was something they endured throughout their regime and
this is an important characteristic of the Abbasid Empire.

Type of State State Began(Hijra) Ended (Hijra)
Independent Umayyad 138 422
Independent Adarisah 172 364
Independent Fatamids 297 567
Independent Qaramita 261 469
Independent Zaidis 250 355
Sovereign Aghlabids 184 296
Sovereign Taharids 205 259
Sovereign Saffarids 254 298
Sovereign Samanids 261 389
Sovereign Ghaznavids 384 582
Sovereign Ghuriyya 543 686
Sovereign Tolonids 254 292
Sovereign Ikhsheedis 323 358
Sovereign Hamadanis 296 388

Table 1: The names of the independent and sovereign states during
the time of the Abbasid Empire. The independent states were not
loyal to the Abbasid Caliphs while the sovereign states were. Also
included is which year the states had begun and ended. Refer to
Appendix 1 for the geographical distribution of the states within the
Abbasid Period.

The first nation to break away from the Abbasid rule was the Umayyad
Empire (3). After, Al-Safah became the first Abbasid Caliph, all the Umayyad princes
were slaughtered except for one; Abdel-Rahman. He managed to escape to Andalusia
(Spain) and setup an Umayyad state. For three hundred years, the Umayyads
controlled Spain despite many failed attacks by the Abbasids to overrun them.

Probably the most notorious nation to break away during the Abbasid
Caliphate was the Fatamid state. This Shiite controlled sate spread from Morocco to
Syria. Despite its population being of Sunni majority, Christians, Jews, or Coptic, it
was only the Shiites who governed. They, as well as the Umayyads, denied the rule of
the Abbasids. However, such a state did not last when a group called the Ayyubids
defeated them. The Ayyubids were Kurd-Turkish slaves who were recruited in the
Fatamid army. Being Sunni Muslims, the Ayyubids detested the Fatamid policies that
were against the Sunnah. They provided one of the most celebrated Muslim leaders;
Salah-al-Din. He was responsible for freeing Jerusalem and Al-Sham from the early
Crusaders.

The Seljuki state dominated Central Asia as well as parts of India (1). They
conquered the Turkish state of the Ghaznavids and declared themselves as having
power in most of Asia. These military powerful nations became loyal to the Abbasids.
In fact, their leaders were awarded as Sultan by the Abbasid Caliphs themselves. They
dominated the political scene in Baghdad and its surrounding areas. Even though the
Sultans did not continually have control over the Arab rulers, their ultimate end came
when the Mongols invaded their land as well as the Abbasid land.

There were many other small and petty states that were constructed during this
time. There were those that revolted against the Abbasid such as the Al-Adarisah state
of Western Africa (these were descendents of Hadrat Al-Hussain). Also, there were
those who were faithful to the Caliphs like the Toloni state of Egypt and Hamdani
state of Mosul. Accept for the Al-Adarisah state, most of these states were unstable
and did not last for too long. Indeed many overtook other sovereign states. The
Taharia state was overtaken by the Safars then they were taken by the Samanids. The
Samanids were then defeated by the Ghaznavids and in 582 H, then the Ghurayya
state took over.

Hence, the breakdown of the Muslim Empire is indeed a common feature of
the Abbasid era. However, the separation of the empire into states was not the only
conflict the Abbasids had to face, there were many revolts politically and religiously
against the Abbasids.

The first revolt occurred during Abu Jafar Al-Mansours Caliphate when the
Alawites (Shiites) under Al-Nafs Al-Zakiyah and his brother revolted against the
house of Abbass. The Alawites were descendents of the Ali RA and they saw
themselves as having the right to inherit the Caliphate. Conversely, the Abbasids
prevented them by killing their rebellious leaders. Also, During Al-Hadis time
another Alawite revolt occurred but this time it was crushed before it grew. These
Shiite revolts arose even up to Al-Mutazzs Caliphate when they were revolting in
Mecca and Medina. The Shiites caused many revolts during the early Abbasid era and
their strong hatred to the Arab rulers lasted till the fall of the empire at the hands of
the Mongolians.

Also, in the era of Al-Mutaz, the destructive force of Al-Zinjs began in Basra
in 254H. These were African slaves who detested the oppressive rule of the Abbasids.
They were vicious in that they killed many Muslims. They were eventually stopped
during the time of Al-Mutamid. Their King named Bahbooz was killed in 270H by
the Caliphs brother Al-Muwafaq.

The heretical movements that occurred during the Abbasid timeline happened
early in their leadership (1). Al-Mansour himself had to face the sect of Khurammi
who regarded Abu Muslim Al-Khurasani as incarnation of God. Al-Mansour took
military action against these Persians and was successful. His son Al-Mahdi stood
against a few heretical forces too. The first was the Manwis who believed in two
Gods; of light and dark. They also had free sexual practices among themselves.
Alhamdulillah, they were defeated by the Abbasid army. Then, Al-Mahdi stood
against Al-Muqanaa (The Masked). This figure declared himself ot be God. Before
the Abbasid army could get to him, he and his followers jumped into fire to deter
themselves from the punishment of Al-Mahdi. Also, The Qaramita emerged during
that time. These atheists spread chaos in the empire when they began stealing
children, and promoting immoral marriages. Again, they were defeated. In all, these
anti-Sunni movements were characteristically prominent during the Abbasid period.
The Abbasid had to chase them and defeat them in order to secure their right to rule as
well as to prevent the spread of sacrilegious ideas through the empire.

In all, The Abbasids endured many revolts during their reign. These rebellions
were common throughout their leadership and it is truly a trait that sets the Abbasids
apart from their predecessors; The Umayyads.

The external influences that occurred are unique to this Empire. The many
revolts whether heretical or political took a lot of resources from the Abbasids
because they were constantly happening. The low resources and geography also
prevented the Abbasids to take out independent nations and bring them back under
one Muslim nation. Yet, the Abbasids did try, depending on the era, to overcome
these obstacles.

Arts and Sciences

The Abbasid era was a time of great cultural and scientific importance. Indeed,
historians called this era the Golden Age (4). Many of the trades and sciences that
began in the West (Greece and Rome) and East (China and India) came together in
the Islamic world. There are many reasons why there was an increase in scholarship at
the time of the Abbasids. The following are just a few reasons for the increase of
knowledge:
There was a need to satisfy the people due to the vastness of the Empire. There
was need for improvement, and new technologies.
The Muslim Empire encompassed from North Africa to Iran. Therefore, there
was a great overlap of cultures coming together and with it the spread of new
ideas and inventions.
Arabic in the ninth century became the language of scholarship.
This language became the important because the Caliph Al-Mamoun was
eager in finding and collecting knowledge of ancient civilization, he wanted
this knowledge to be preserved by the language of the Arabs.
Al-Mamoun encouraged scholarly programs in his famous Bait-Al-Hikmah,
the House of Wisdom. In this building the ancient texts of the Romans,
Greeks and Indians were translated into Arabic. When this was done, now
Muslim scholars can further study and put their efforts in expanding and
creating the sciences.

Since there was a lot of sciences and arts developed during the Abbasid rule, a few
will be discussed as well as those who contributed to each field. The most important
fields studied were astronomy, mathematics, optics, chemistry, medicine and art.
Astronomy

In Arabic, astronomy is called ilm-al-falak, ilm al-hay or ilm al-azyaj (5). The
Muslim scholars first began working in this field by translating texts from India,
Persia and Greece. For instance, during Al-Mansours era, Mohammad ibn Ibrahim
al-Farazi and Yaqub ibn Tariq translated Indian astronomical tables. Even though
foreign influences affected their studies, there was original Arab astronomy input as
well. The great scientist Al-Khawarizimi denoted tables of solar and lunar
movements. He did the same for five other planets. Al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi
Jawami Ilm-al-Nujum which made calendar calculations. Most of the
accomplishments in astronomy were done in the time of the Abbasid Caliph Al-
Mamoun. His great love for knowledge led to illustrious educational programs, which
were done in the famous House of Knowledge in Baghdad.

Most of the discoveries and theories were done for practical reasons. The
Muslim empire was vast and in great need for knowledge of locations, Qibla
directions and the beginnings of Islamic months were a necessity as well. Thus, many
of the Muslim astronomers started the way for calculations of the Qibla in each major
city, times of prayers as well as the lunar month calculations to be formed.
Math

It is without a doubt that Muslims had an influence on modern day
mathematics. Probably the most well known Muslim mathematician was Mohammad
ibn Musa Al-Khawarizimi. Al-Khawarizimi himself took up the field of algebra and
wrote a complete text on the subject called Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. The Europeans
derived the word Algebra from his text. Therefore, Al-Khawarizimi is known as the
father of Algebra (6). This scholar explained the use of zero which was developed by
the Arabs. His work spread to composing trigonometric tables containing sine
functions, and the development of the decimal system and system of numerals. Under
the rule of Al-Mamoun, Al-Khawarizimi collaborated with other scholars to measure
the volume and circumference of the earth. Thus, Al-Khawarizimi was the greatest
mathematician that the Abbasid era produced.
Optics

The scholars in Baghdad were fascinated by the use of lenses and particularly
the eye. A scholar named Ibn Al-Haythem became intrigued by the study of optics.
He discovered that an image of an object is formed by the reflection of light from that
object to the eye. This was in complete opposite to the theory of the Greeks who had
upheld this theory for centuries.

Chemistry

The term chemistry was derived by the Arabic term Al-Kimya (6). Thus, it
can be understood that the Arabs themselves were great intellectuals in chemistry.
One name in particular seems to resonate through out the centuries. His name of Jabir
ibn Haiyan and he is known to be the father of chemistry. His work encompassed the
time of Haroon Al-Rasheed, where he perfected many techniques such as
crystallization, distillation, evaporation and sublimation. He made a special apparatus
called the alembic to make the process of distillation easier for scientists. Other than
discovering minerals and acids, ibn Haiyan developed the science of applied
chemistry. In this field, he helped in developing steel, dyes for cloth, prevention of
rusting and he introduced the use of manganese dioxide in glass making. His two
famous works called Kitab al-Kimya and Kitab al-Sabeen were translated into Latin
and other European languages. These texts became the prime resource of chemistry
knowledge for centuries.

Despite many of the sciences and trades that began in the Abbasid era (i.e.
textiles, irrigation projects, etc), one field dominated the others and became the gem
of the scholarly world. That field is medicine.
Medicine

The greatest contribution of the Arab empire of Abbasid to this field is the
formation and administration of hospitals. The first hospital was built during the reign
of Jafar Al-Mansour and later expanded by Al-Mugtadir (5). Al-Mugtadir built two
hospitals in Baghdad. One in the east named Al-Sayyidah and one in the west named
Al-Mugtadi. The hospitals were open to everyone despite his/her race, religion,
gender and social class. Due to proper Islamic etiquette, there were separate wards for
men and women with each having doctors and nurses of the same sex. The Abbasids
went even further by building mobile clinics that went to far away cities and villages.
It was just not the hospitals that the Abbasids were famous for but it was their
physicians that made Baghdad a place of medical knowledge.

The most prominent physician was present during the life of Al-Mansour. His
name was Al-Razi. Like many scholars at the time, Al-Razi was well educated in
many fields other than medicine. He mastered in philosophy, physics and chemistry.
He wrote the famous medical book called Al-Mansouri. This comprehensive
encyclopaedia of clinical medicine was used by doctors (both Muslim and Non-
Muslim) for many generations.
Art

As Muslims, the Arab Abbasids despised illustrations of humans and animals.
However, at the time the Persians still practiced this type of art. The Abbasids
decorated many of their textiles, books and homes. Many decorations were done on
copies of The Quran and buildings using geometric shapes that resemble stems,
flowers and leaves (5). This mode of decoration is called Arabesque and it was
created in the Abbasid era. In fact, many copies of The Quran that were made in
Baghdad were copied by Ali-ibn Hilal. He was a famous calligrapher who was known
for his beautiful Arabesque patterns (5).

In conclusion, the time of the Abbasid rulers, especially Al-Mamouns, had a
great need and development of the arts and sciences. Many historians can easily
characterize this era as the time of great scholarly workmanship and technological
advancement. This area of the Abbasid system was probably its greatest positive trait
that it had during the time. It raised the status of Arabs and other Eastern cultures as
citizens of wisdom and open mindedness. At a time when the Europeans were living
in the Dark Ages, Baghdad and other Muslim cities were relaxing in luxurious
atmospheres due to the increase in inventions, intellectual programs and discoveries.
However, such an affluent time did not last for long. The destructive forces of The
Crusades and The Mongols destroyed the pathway of knowledge by burning books
and libraries (4).




In a religious level, the Abbasid era produced many scholars of Islamic
sciences as well. The most famous scholars to appear during this time were those who
developed the science of Fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence.
The Development of Fiqh

The Abbasid period was a time of great scholarly knowledge. Even though
most individuals refer to this time as the age of science and art, Sunni Muslims refer
to this age as the period of great Islamic knowledge of Fiqh enhancement. There were
mainly four Imams that were responsible for the development of the Fiqh were
present and working during the early Abbasid era. These men are Malik ibn Anas,
Abu Hanifa, Imam Ash-Shafii and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (7). Their great influence over
the Islamic world had transcribed through the years till the present. They even had
confrontations with the Abbasid Caliphs during their time. However, some of these
confrontations led to dire consequences for the Imams.
Malik ibn Anas: 97H-179H
Malik ibn Anas was born in the city of Medina (7). At that time, the Umayyad
Caliph Al-Walid ibn Abdel Malik was the ruler. Being grown up with the Followers
and in the city of the Prophet PBUH had a great affect on the Fiqh he developed. He
grew up studying Hadith and traditions of the Prophet PBUH. Indeed, his grandfather,
Malik ibn Abi Amir, was a great man of knowledge at the time of the Tabiun (the
Followers). He had the experience of being the student of Rabia and ibn Hurmuz. He
was taught the fatwas of the companions and the Tabiun and the Followers of the
Tabiun. This greatly affected his Fiqh. Just like the other great Imams, ibn Anas
memorized The Quran and many Hadiths. When at a certain age, he was finally able
to teach and in the Masjid of the Prophet PBUH. Even though he lived in a city of
peace, ibn Anass life was about to be disturbed by the Abbasid Caliph, Jafar Al-
Mansour.

In 147 H, Malik ibn Anas was whipped by the order of the governor of
Medina. There were three theories to why this had happened. First, it was said that ibn
Malik openly apposed the Abbasids having temporary marriages. This cannot be the
reason of his punishment because the source of this theory was unreliable. Second,
Malik was said to have preferred Uthman RA than to Ali RA and this made the
Abbasid ruler upset. Again, this was said by a weak source. However, the third and
the most reasonable reason for his punishment were during a time of the Alawite
rebellion against Al-Mansour. Malik had said a hadith There is no divorce for
anyone who is compelled. The rebels mistakenly took this into a meaning that Al-
Mansours reign was invalid. The Governor of Medina was alarmed by this and
whipped ibn Malik. The people of Medina grew furious over the torture of their Imam
that their fury grew against the Abbasids. When, ibn Malik was released by order of
Jafar, he resumed his teaching and studies as before. Al-Mansour felt guilty for his
part in ibn Anass torture that he went to visit him in Medina when he was in Hajj. He
apologized to ibn Malik and ibn Malik being the great man that he was accepted the
apology. Malik did not think that the rulers at the time were ruling with Allahs SWT
laws but he did not fight them. Instead, he tried to guide the Caliphs by visiting and
writing encouraging letters to them. Ibn Malik even accepted gifts from the Caliphs
and used them to fund for his students. He believed that people should not revolt
against their leaders (in order to prevent bloodshed). In most cases, he remained
neutral.

Before ibn Maliks time, the knowledge that was transmitted from the Prophet
PBUH to the Followers of the Followers was not recorded. It was actually despised to
write down the knowledge in texts. However, since the Islamic empire had grown and
a lot of citizens needed knowledge, it was decided by consensus that knowledge had
to be written in order to be preserved. Therefore, Ibn Malik wrote down his
knowledge in his famous book of Fiqh called Muwatta. Completed in 159H, this
book of Fiqh of Medina had knowledge deriving from the rules of Hadith. It was said
that Al-Mansour himself wanted Malik to write such a book from Medina but Al-
Mansour did not live to the day it was completed. In all, the life of Malik ibn Anas
greatly evolved around Fiqh yet was tested by the hardships delivered to him by the
Abbasids.
Abu Hanifa: 80H-150H
1

Abu Hanifa was from Persian descent and was raised in Kufa (7). He became
engaged in trade early on in his life (in fact, he came from a wealthy family). He
always had an interest in acquiring knowledge. He had great awareness in literature
and poetry but he focused on obtaining wisdom in Fiqh after looking into many areas
of Islamic Knowledge. Like ibn Anas, he memorized the Quran and many hadiths. In
addition, he acquired information from his sole teacher Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman.
He remained a student of Abi Sulayman until the latters death. After the death of his
teacher, Abu Hanifa started to teach students on his own. Unfortunately, he started to
face some hardships.

It is well known that there are individuals who put Abu Hanifa in such a high
position than he, or anyone, deserves. Yet, there are others who despise him and
believe his fatwas were derived without any evidence to support them. It needs to be
said that Abu Hanifa had a strong and forceful personality, which made his Fiqh
spread through out the Islamic world. This led him to have supporters in addition to
opponents.

Abu Hanifa lived forty-two years under Umayyad rule and eighteen years
under the Abbasid rule. His loyalty under the Abbasid ruler Abu Jafar Al-Mansour
was tested under several events. First, Al-Mansour used to send gifts to Abu Hanifa
but unlike ibn Anas, he gently declined any gifts from him or any other ruler. He was
also an arbitrator between Abu Jafar and his wife. Abu Hanifa reminded the Caliph
that he can only marry four women if he will be fair to them but if not than marry just
one woman. This was in favour of the wifes stand and when Abu Hanifa left the
meeting, the wife of Al-Mansour had already sent him clothes, money, a slave girl
and a donkey. Of course, Abu Hanifa returned all of the gifts. He did not want to be
tempted by any offerings. Also, Abu Hanifa was sympathetic to the Alawites. During
a rebellion at the time of Al-Mansour, the Alawites named Nafs as Zakiyah and his
brother Ibrahim were killed. Abu Hanifa deplored such acts but he never took any
physical action. However, Al-Mansour was cautious of the Imam and gave him a final
test. When the Caliph offered Abu Hanifa the role of Qadi (judge) of Baghdad, the
Imam declined his offer. Abu Hanifas refusal left Al-Mansour in question of the
Imams loyalty to the Abbasids. When he did not accept after many offers, Abu

1
The majority of sources say that Abu Hanifa was born in 80 H. However, some sources say that he
was born 61 H. There is a complete consensus of the date of his death.
Hanifa was jailed and whipped by Abbasid associates. When they finally released
him, Abu Hanifa was barred from teaching and giving fatwas till his death.

Abu Hanifa himself did not write a book of Fiqh. It wasnt common to do such
a thing during his time. However, there were references of a musnad of hadiths and
traditions ascribed by him. His knowledge of Fiqh was transmitted by his students like
Abu Yusuf and ash-Shaybani. Abu Yusuf wrote Kitab Al-Athar in which fatwas of
Abu Hanifa were said in Kufa. Ash-Shaybani wrote Al-Masbut. This is a collection of
questions in which the Imam himself gave fatwas to.
Imam Ash-Shafaii: 150H-204H
Being raised by a poor family in Palestine did not prevent this great Imam in
following his thirst for wisdom. At a very young age, his father had died and his
mother took him to Mecca in order to learn from the scholars who resided there (7).
He memorized the Quran and many hadiths as well. One great trait about Ash-Shafaii
is his mastering of the Arabic language. His books reveal how well he understood this
dialect. He was a student of ibn Anas as well until the latters death in 178H. His
knowledge was vast due to his travels to many places. This was in order for him to
understand the different people and situations of their communities. When he had
accepted a justice post in Yemen, he confronted many people doing injustices and
Ash-Shafaii was not lenient towards them. He did not accept bribery nor did he
accept flattery from the Yemenites. Seeing that the Imam cannot be influenced put
fear into the Governor. The test came when the Abbasids were continually stopping
the Alawite revolts. The unjust Yemeni governor thought that Ash-Shafaii had
involvement with the Alawites and he sent word to the Caliph, Haroon Al-Rasheed.
When Ash-Shafaii and nine Alawites were sent to the Caliph, only the Imam was
saved. The great knowledge that he possessed saved him from death. Imam Ash-
Shafaii passed this test. Although he had a hard time in Baghdad, Ash-Shafaii stayed
in the city and studied its Fiqh under Abu Hanifas student Ash-Shaybani. At this
point, this Imam had knowledge of Fiqh from two area; Hijaz and Iraq. His Fiqh is
considered unique in that it is a collection of Fiqh from the two areas with his great
understanding of Arabic, analogy and opinions. Ash-Shafaii would leave Iraq for
Mecca to teach in The Haram and have discussions with other scholars. Indeed in
Mecca, he met with Ahmad ibn Hanbal. He would later return to Baghdad where he
started to write the Risala; fundamental principle of Fiqh. However, his stay was short
as soon as Al-Mamoun came into power. Ash-Shafaii did not like the new Persian
power that rose from this Caliphs reign. He especially detested the Mutazilites gain
of power. As Ash-Shafaii saw that these rebels had control, he left to Egypt in which
he completed the Risala. He died in 204H in Fustat. After his death, his students
carried on his tradition of Fiqh by writing Kitab al-Umm.
Ahmad ibn Hanbal: 164H-241H
Born in Baghdad, ibn Hanbal came from a family of soldiers but a family that
was very impoverished (7). Fortunately, this poverty was not an obstacle in his pursuit
of knowledge. He studied the Quran, Arabic, Hadiths, literature and traditions of the
Prophet PBUH and his Companions. His life was full of travels to Syria, Hijaz and
Iraq. In the Hijaz, he met with the other scholar of Fiqh, like Ash-Shafaii, and that
was the beginning of his interest in Fiqh. The hardship of poverty was not the only
blow that ibn Hanbal faced in his life. He had to face hardships under three Abbasid
Caliphs. It all began when Al-Mamoun declared for all the scholars to adopt the
Mutazali opinion that the Quran was created. If not, then they would receive hard
punishment. Of course the Quran was not created and Ahmad ibn Hanbal openly
refused such an act. This led to the Imam being taken away in chains to Al-Mamoun.
However, Al-Mamoun died before confronting ibn Hanbal. His successor and brother,
Al-Mutasim adopted the same Mutazali view. The new Caliph was harsh because he
carried out his duties and punishment by the sword. He put ibn Hanbal in jail and
whipped him for twenty-eight months. When he was released, he continued with his
studies and teaching until Al-Wathiq came into control of the Caliphate. Again,
Ahmad ibn Hanbal was imprisoned. When released, Al-Wathiq gave the ultimatum
that ibn Hanbal cannot be in the same city as the Caliph or he will be punished. In
spite of this, ibn Hanbal was hiding in Baghdad until the death of Al-Wathiq.
Therefore, the Abbasids were cruel to ibn Hanbal despite the latters reputation in
knowledge.

The most famous book that ibn Hanbal wrote was called the Musnad. It is a
full collection of hadiths in which ibn Hanbal himself collected through out his
travels. The writing of this book began when he was sixteen years of age until his near
death. Although, ibn Hanbal did not write any specific book on Fiqh, there were some
books on Hajj and prayer that were attributed to him.

The age of the Abbasids was an important period of the development of Fiqh.
The famous scholars of Fiqh had to endure hardships under the Caliph orders for
things that were misunderstood. The Abbasids were then unjust to these scholars of
Islam. However, the injustice that occurred did not prevent the development of the
Fiqh that is known till the present. The Imams works were the pinnacle of Islamic
scholarship.
Conclusion

To review, the main areas discussed about the Abbasid Empire were:

Internal political issues that the Abbasids endured.
External pressures such as the formation of independent and sovereign state
and rebellions against the Caliphs.
The great amount of work that Muslims did to advance in areas of art and
sciences.
The development of fiqh from the four major imams that is still present today.

In each of these areas, there were specific characteristics and qualities during the
lives of the Abbasids. For example, during the third and fourth eras of the Abbasids,
the Caliphs lost their political power to foreign influences (i.e. Buwayhids and
Persians) and the Abbasid Empire divided into many states (the first time in the
history of Islam).

Even though the Abbasids endured the humiliation of loss of authority to the
Persians, Turks and Buwayhids, there were many positive qualities to this period of
Islamic History. For instance, when the Europeans were suffering in the Dark Ages,
the Muslims had entered an era of intellectual enlightment that led to a great number
of advances that helped the Muslims. Those advances were medicine, astronomy,
optics, mathematic and chemistry. The art of calligraphy and arabesque also brought a
little beauty to the surroundings and possessions of the Muslims.

It can easily be said that their final demise was when The Mongols entered
Baghdad. This is all due to the Shiites constant goal in bringing down the right path of
the Sunnis and establishing their own Persian rule. History repeatedly portrays the
Shiites secretively acting against the Muslims interest and they will bring any force
to get what they want. To be clear, five hundred years of the Abbasid rule is not a
small issue but it is a fact that Muslims need to take pride in. However, the lessons in
the Abbasid era were not learned.

One only has to look at the present situation of Muslims in order to see the
comparison to this empire. Our nations are submitting to foreign Western powers
which makes our leaders, similar to the Abbasid Caliphs, as puppets. Since the fall of
the Ottoman Empire, Muslims forgo establishing a Muslim state. In fact, the Ottoman
Empire had been broken into smaller countries just like the Medieval Muslim Empire.
In addition, the current day Shiites have their independent agendas for power. They
always use foreigners to take down the Sunni Muslim influence. This is occurring in
Iraq today just like it occurred when they let in the Mongols in to Baghdad.

The biggest difference between the era of the Abbasids and the present is that
the Abbasids, despite the many sins that were committed, had a Shariah constitution.
Muslim countries today carry secular laws that wiped out all the Islamic laws. Despite
the many disgraces of the Abbasid Empire, one can only dream to return to that time
where Allahs SWT laws were established as being the righteous rules to live by.

References

(1) Hasan, Masudul. History of Islam. Islamic Publications Ltd, Lahore, p195-363
(2) August 16, 2004. www.wsu.edu/~dee/ISLAM/AASSID.htm . A brief history of
The Abbasid era which includes names of the Caliphs and their contributions in
the history of that empire.
(3) August 16, 2004. www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html . This
website gives brief information on the Umayyad dynasty in Spain, the Fatamids,
Ghaznavids, and Seljuks.
(4) August 27, 2004.
http:/www.sfusd.K12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/ScienceMath/Science_andMath.html
This useful website gives reasons for beginning and end of the Golden Age of
knowledge in the Abbasid era.
(5) Espisito, John.L. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press,
London. 1999. p155-238.
(6) August 27, 2004. http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/ . This is a site that
gives details of biographies of Al-Khawarizimi , ibn Haiyan and other Muslim
scholars of science.
(7) Abu Zahra, Muhammad. The Four Imams: Their Lives, Works and their
Schools of thought. Dar Al Taqwa Ltd., London. 2001. p1-422.










Appendix I: Maps of Islamic World during the Abbasid
Rule