GIMENEZ English As A Lingua Franca A Brazilian Perspective
GIMENEZ English As A Lingua Franca A Brazilian Perspective
GIMENEZ English As A Lingua Franca A Brazilian Perspective
Proceedings of
The Fifth International Conference of
English as a Lingua Franca
May 2426 2012, Istanbul
Editors
Yasemin Bayyurt and Sumru Akcan
Bo gazici University
May 2013
Bogazici University Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ELF5: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference of English as a Lingua
Franca May 2426 2012, Istanbul / Editors: Yasemin Bayyurt and Sumru Akcan
xii, 424 pages; 26 cm.
ISBN 978-975-518-352-7
1. English language. 2. Language and languages Study and teaching. 3. English
language Foreign countries Discourse analysis. I. Bayyurt, Yasemin II. Akcan,
Sumru
PE1072
Printed by Bogazici University Press, 2013.
Publication No.: 1087
The publishers and editors of this volume do not guarantee the accuracy or completeness
of any information contained therein and hereby exclude any liability of any kind for
the information contained. The opinions expressed in the chapters of this book belong
to the author(s) alone and may not necessarily reect the opinions of the publishers or
editors.
Preface
The theme of the Fifth International Conference of English as a Lingua Franca was
Pedagogical Implications of ELF in the Expanding Circle. The aim of the conference
was nding out how current theories and principles underlying English as a Lingua
Franca studies contribute to research on possible pedagogical practices in ELF contexts.
There were 219 papers and 30 posters in total presented at 105 sessions during the
conference. The sessions were organized around the following broad themes:
ELF and Language Policy
ELF and Language Education
Describing ELF and Collecting ELF Corpora
Sociolinguistics of ELF
Contact Languages and ELF
ELF and Multilingualism
We would like to take this opportunity to thank all contributors to this e-book,
paper and poster presenters, the scientic committee members, reviewers, conference
sponsors, voluntary students and web designers who helped us to put this conference
together and made this book of proceedings possible after the conference was over.
Given that Turkey is a bridge between Asia and Europe, organizing this event in
Istanbul was particularly relevant and timely for the promotion of ELF research. Since
studies in the eld of ELF take place intensively in Europe and Asia, hosting this
conference in Istanbul was ideal to enable people from these two continents and other
continents to meet and exchange ideas about the use of English as a Lingua Franca in
their local contexts. It turned out to be a memorable event for both the organizers and
the conference participants.
Yasemin Bayyurt and Sumru Akcan
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the people who helped to make this collection a reality. We would
like to express our deepest gratitude to Professor Feza Kerestecioglu for all his eorts
and work in typesetting this volume using L
A
T
E
X and proofreading it over and over
again. We owe special thanks to Sevdeger C e cen for proofreading the nal copy of the
proceedings before it was typeset. In addition, we would like to thank Pnar Ersin, Filiz
Rzaoglu, Nur Basak Karatas, Derya Altnmakas, Hande Serdar and Ecehan Sonmez for
sorting and proofreading earlier versions of the abstracts of the proceedings papers. We
also want to thank each one of the contributors for their commitment in nalizing and
taking the responsibility to check and proofread their papers before submitting the nal
copies for publication. Last but not least, we are grateful to Professor G uzver Yldran,
the Dean of the Faculty of Education, for her support in realizing our dream of getting
ELF5 proceedings book published. We would also like to thank Mr. Birol Aydn, the
vice director of Bogazici University Publishing House, for his support throughout the
publication process of the proceedings.
Contents
Preface iii
Acknowledgements v
Problems Related to the Concept of Lingua Franca 1
I ELF and Language Policy 5
English as a Lingua Franca and Appropriate Teacher Competence 7
Elisabeth Weber
English as Mediator in Teaching Adyghe (Circassian) Cultural Values
to Repatriate Students of Circassian Origin 14
Elena Doludenko and Fatima Baste
A Dialectic Between ELF Policy and ELF Teaching in the Circles of
English: The Crossroads for Deeper Chords and Constructs 21
Kristine Harrison
II ELF and Language Education 29
Language Awareness of Prospective English Teachers in Hungary and
Turkey 31
Eva Illes
Non-Native English Speaker Accents in Swiss Elementary Schools: A
Summary of Pre-Service Teacher Research 97
Laura Loder B uchel
A Learner-Tailored Approach to EAP as a Lingua Franca Instruction 106
Chang Xinping and Liao Haiqing
The Role of Internet in the Acquisition of English: The Future of
English Language Teaching 118
Krassimira D. Charkova and Denitza D. Charkova
Teaching Business English and Arab Learners 129
Mira M. Alameddine
Adding ELF Perspectives to English Language Training Programs for
Japanese Company Employees 134
Akiko Matsumoto Otsu
Accents and Teaching Practices: Roles and Implications for Language
Teaching and Learning in the Expanding Circle 143
Ratchaporn Rattanaphumma
Visual Media and English as Lingua Franca 151
Roy F. Fox
Contents ix
English as a Lingua Franca in Portugal: What Students Want, What
Teachers Teach 159
Luis Guerra
Plain English as a Lingua Franca in the Legal English Classroom 167
Aleksandra Luczak
The Comprehension of English Idioms by Turkish ELT Students 176
Merve Kymaz
The Perspectives of Turkish Prospective Teachers on ELF and Their
Awareness of It in Their ELT Programs 183
Burak Tomak and Pnar Kocabas
Attitudes of Turkish Prospective EFL Teachers Towards Varieties of
English 190
Dilek Uygun
Re/Considering the English Language Teacher Education Programs in
Turkey From an ELF Standpoint: What Do the Academia, Pre-
Service and In-Service Teachers Think? 198
Dilek
Inal and Esra
Ozdemir
Healing English Pedagogys Achilles Heel: Testing ELF in Light of a
Democratic Complementary Model 207
Seyyed Bagher Mirshojaee
III Describing ELF and Collecting ELF Corpora 215
ELF vs. American and British English: Insights From Croatia 217
Branka Drljaca Margic and Dorjana
Sirola
Proles of Successful and Less Successful Learners of English Pronun-
ciation in Croatian Primary Schools 225
Visnja Josipovic Smojver and Mateusz-Milan Stanojevic
A Bilingual Approach to Developing English for Academic Purposes
in Science and English as a Lingua Franca With Young Adolescent
Immigrants and Their Families 233
Martha Allexsaht-Snider, Elif Karsli and Shakhnoza Kayumova
English as a Lingua Franca: A Brazilian Perspective 241
Luciana Cabrini Simoes Calvo, Michele Salles El Kadri and Telma
Gimenez
x ELF5 Proceedings
Constructing a Singapore Learner Corpus of English Writing for Ped-
agogy 249
Zhang Ruihua, Guo Libo and Hong Huaqing
An ELF Learner in a Globalized World 259
Andisheh Saniei
English as a Lingua Franca in a Turkish Academic Context: The Case
of the Third Person -s 263
Pnar Ersin, Zeynep Sena Abayl and Yasemin Bayyurt
IV Sociolinguistics of ELF 271
Cohesion as Interaction in ELF Spoken Discourse: An Analysis of
Question-Answer Sessions in University Contexts 273
Thomas Christiansen
An ELF Phonopragmatic Approach to the Analysis of Migration
Movies in Pedagogic Contexts: Linguacultural Dimensions of
Scripted Interactions 283
Pietro Luigi Iaia and Silvia Sperti
Paraphrases in ELF Interaction: A Case in a British Higher Education
Context 294
Mayu Konakahara
Speaking in Tongues Across Lingua Cultural Boundaries 302
Melicent Jalova
ELF Hybridization Strategies in the Western-Islamic Academic Dis-
course of Finance: A Pedagogical Approach 311
Mariarosaria Provenzano
Discourse Management in ELF Speakers Online Task-Based Discus-
sions 318
Umit Boz
International Intelligibility of Chinese-Accented English 327
Lingli Zhang
Interpreting Trauma Narratives in Crosscultural Immigration Encoun-
ters Between Outer-Circle and Expanding-Circle ELF Users: Socio-
linguistic Issues and Pedagogic Implications 335
Maria Grazia Guido
Contents xi
Investigating Meaning Making in English as a Lingua Franca Inter-
actions in an International Students Society in London 344
Bill Batziakas
V Contact Languages and ELF 353
Contact With and Use of English in Dierent Circles 355
Howard Doyle
ELF in a Domestic Labor Context: Perceptions and Attitudes of En-
glish in the Workplace 365
Kellie Gon calves
VI ELF and Multilingualism 373
Multilingualism and Motivation: The Role of English as a Lingua
Franca 375
Amy S. Thompson
Whose Language is It Anyway? ELF and the Absence of the Native
Speaker 386
Frank van Splunder
ELF and Multilingualism in Greek and Cypriot Educational System:
A Comparative Account of Teachers Beliefs 394
Eleni Griva, Dora Chostelidou and Panayiotis Panteli
But We Have a Way to Communicate With Others The Issue of
ELF in Italian Urban Multicultural Classes 404
Paola Giorgis
Giving Voice to Students Views on Various Languages in a Multicul-
tural Classroom Setting 414
Areti-Maria Sougari and Konstantina Iliopoulou
Problems Related to the Concept of
Lingua Franca
The Opening Speech of the Dean of the Faculty of Education, Bo gazici University
2 ELF5 Proceedings
There are many regional lingua francas throughout history. These seem to have
emerged out of the practical need to communicate primarily through trade, as well as
being the result of contact through war. Among the languages, which in broad sweeps
evolved chronologically into regional lingua francas are Chinese, the Turkic languages,
Greek, Persian, Latin, Arabic, Ottoman, Spanish, French, German and Russian.
An instrumental lingua franca for commerce and diplomacy emerged through the
Mediterranean around the time of the Renaissance. It was not a single language but a
mixture of several languages including Ottoman, Italian, French, Arabic, Greek, Spanish
and Portuguese. The composition of this language alludes to the commercial and
diplomatic relations as well as the operating power structures around the Mediterranean
at the time. At the height of the Ottoman Empire, eastern Ottoman ports and the
Italian and Spanish seaborne access to these ports, where goods were transported from
one end of the Mediterranean to the other, dened the commercial relations of the
time. For the trading cultures, instrumental usage of language related to the exchange
of goods must have become a functional necessity. It would be interesting to study
the composition of this mixed language. The following questions emerge apropos of this
particular lingua franca. Were there discernible linguistic patterns in the usage of these
dierent languages? If so, were these patterns aligned with the sources of the goods?
Was there any reection of diplomatic supremacy in the usage of semantic linguistic
patterns of this mixed language?
Around the 17th up to the mid-20th centuries, French serves as the lingua franca
of European diplomacy. The rst record dates to the peace negotiations of 1678 in
Nijmegen, where French was used among French, Spanish and Swedish diplomats. This,
then, became a model for European Diplomacy, where Academie Francaise actively
promoted the use of French. Even in Russian courts, the usage of French became a sign of
culture and renement. The second set of examples I would like to share is related to the
unilateral usage of lingua franca as a means of the colonization process. Geographical
and political power structures permeate cultural settings in the case of colonization,
where not only natural but also human resources of the colonized geography serve only
the stipulations of the colonizers. The lingua francas of the colonization process serve at
two levels with opposite value schemes; of unquestionable superiority for the colonizers
on the one hand, and the imposed inferiority for the colonized, on the other. The same
power structure in the use of English, for example in India and Africa; French in Africa,
and Dutch in Indonesia can be instrumentally evaluated around similar principles of the
use of political power over geographies, which are far away from the seat of such power.
In these instances of history, the lingua franca of the era is certainly instrumental in
establishing power relations and their implied transactions, only for the benet of the
colonizers.
Coming to the east, we see Chinese as the lingua franca of diplomacy until the
beginning of the 20th century in Far East Asia, again related to size, political prowess
and economic status. Arabic was the lingua franca of the Arab Islamic Empire from
the 8th century to 1492, covering geographical areas from China, North India, Central
Asia, Persia, Asia Minor, the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and Portugal. From
Problems Related to the Concept of Lingua Franca 3
the perspective of a social scientist, it would be very curious to investigate the usage of
eastern versus western lingua francas, and the value structures surrounding both sets.
There are also purposive content area lingua francas, such as Italian for the arts,
French for ballet, Arabic for Islamic studies, and Latin for medicine. How does a
purposive content area lingua franca dier from others in terms of learning motivation,
and bilateral power exchanges? This would also be of great interest to the social
scientist.
Coming to English as the lingua franca of post Second World War world, no one
would argue about the need for a shared language for political, economic, cultural and
sportive transactions, when communication through technology has broken almost all
barriers of time and space, as well as barriers of national, institutional, and personal
privacy. Except for the French and Francophones, few would also argue that the most
probable candidate has to be English, due to the present unipolar, not unied power
structure of the world, where the United States of America is the key actor due to its
economic and political status and inuence.
However (and there is reason for this however), will English as the lingua franca of
the era be a neutral language of world transaction, serving instrumentally world peace
with justice and equity for all parties, or will the transactions only protect the choices
of the present power structure? This is indeed a pertinent question, and to which
the response is not readily available in an optimistic political framework. Another
question is what happens to cultural diversity and the right to cultural heritages, when
technology threatens dierences and permeates cultural and individual lives with models
of life-styles rooted in the culture of the lingua franca.
I do not know the answers to these questions. But until the lingua franca necessary
for communication and transaction across cultures stops being partial to the origin of
the lingua franca, and strips itself from unilateral supremacies, it will not merit the value
of a shared language that promotes and preserves human dignity across the wonderfully
diverse and enriching cultural orientations, and their historical heritage.
As I leave you with these questions, let me welcome you once more to my country,
city and university, and share my hopes for an enhancing exchange of knowledge and
ideas during the conference.
G uzver Yldran
May 24, 2012
Part I
ELF and Language Policy
5
English as a Lingua Franca and Appropriate
Teacher Competence
Elisabeth Weber
Abstract
Currently, language education policy in the European Union assumes that En-
glish, just like every other language of the EU, is the property of its native speakers
who are therefore viewed as the ultimate authority of the language. For this
reason, native speaking assistants are recruited into classrooms in order to serve
as role models for real language use and guarantors of authentic culture-related
information. This assumption, appropriate as it may be for other foreign languages,
is not valid for English used as a Lingua Franca since the purposes and domains of
use of the language are way beyond those of the native speaker. If ELF is considered
as relevant for dening the subject English at schools, this calls for a reconsideration
of who might provide the most appropriate assistance in the English language
classroom. This paper argues that those with an experience of using English as
a Lingua Franca and a professional interest in language pedagogy are more likely to
support the teaching and learning of English in class. Accordingly, it proposes that
the current assistant program should be abandoned and replaced by an exchange
of pre- or in- service teachers of English from dierent lingua-cultural backgrounds
in order to highlight the importance of appropriate pedagogical competences in
English language teaching. It is suggested that the ELF perspective of such an
exchange program would be favorable to a more realistic and relevant approach to
the teaching of the language and enhance the motivation of learners. Furthermore,
it is argued, it would promote in learners the idea of plurilingualism as a basic
feature of common European citizenship.
Keywords: EFL, ELF, native speaker, foreign language assistant, language
policy
1 Introduction
In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms all across Europe we nd the situ-
ation today that the English native speaker (NS) is regarded as the ultimate authority
of the language. This comes from the common assumption that every language is the
property of its NSs. This view is supported not only by the general public but also by
the language policy of the European Union (EU). In the following I would like to discuss
the current EU Foreign Language Policy and the role of English. I will then question
these underlying assumptions that act as foundation for the design of the school subject
Abstract
The paper deals with social, cultural and pedagogical implications of ELF in the
multifaceted process of regaining ethnic self-consciousness by the representatives
of Adyghe (Circassian) people, a Northwest Caucasus indigenous ethnic group
who were displaced in the course of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the
19th century, especially after the Russian-Circassian War of 1862. The historic
development of the Adyghe nation has resulted in numerous Adyghe diasporas
scattered all over the world, many of which are desperately trying to preserve the
remnants of their original language and culture by maintaining contacts with their
counterparts in Russia. The English language often plays intermediary in such
contacts. The repatriation processes which started with the collapse of the USSR
also required a lingua franca to ensure the proper adaptation and socialization of
those who had had limited or no access to their ancestors culture and language
in diasporas. English also facilitated the adjustment to predominantly Russian
community, especially for the younger repatriates. The present study has been
carried out at the department of Foreign Languages of Adyghe State University
in Maykop, the capital city of the Adyghe province in Russia. The subjects of
the study are foreign and repatriate students and faculty of Circassian origin from
Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Kosovo etc. Along with the discussion of the study results,
the paper contains some practical ideas for using English to promote the Adyghe
culture acquisition, including those based on modern technological paradigms.
Keywords: EFL, repatriation, repatriate students, Adyghe (Circassian), ethnic
self-consciousness, culture acquisition
1 Introduction
In the modern world, English is no more regarded as a xed, all-dominating language
but as a exible communicative means interacting with other languages and integrated
into a larger framework of multilingualism (H ulmbauer et al., 2008). As House put
it, English as a lingua franca is nothing more than a useful tool: it is a language for
communication, a medium that is given substance with the dierent national, regional,
local and individual cultural identities its speakers bring to it. (House, 2001).
Abstract
This paper explores the discourse of language rights in relation to English as a
Lingua Franca (EFL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and educational
reforms as articulated through academia between language policy and teaching.
The goal at the policy level is to rethink the assumptions in the policy formulation
that are translated into institutional practice, the treatment of English as a natural
language to be learned at the cost of other languages; as well as the possibilities
of Multilingual Education (MLE). The goal at the teaching level is a pedagogical
approach that can mediate these policies in the absence of systemic change. For
academia the goal is to unify and not deconstruct each other and the whole eld of
language and language education.
1 Introduction
This paper addresses policymakers as well as teachers, and strives to look more deeply
at the implications of the English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) discourses and English
as a Foreign Language (EFL) educational reforms. Rather than arguing for either a
deconstruction or an essentialization, my goal is to conceptualize language through a
disciplinary unity especially between linguistics and education, by showing that the
dichotomy is not necessary.
It is ultimately about language and culture rights in education in hoping to establish
principles for multilingual education policies that will not leave the teacher as mediator.
The basic assumptions are that education and language both have fundamental and
decisive roles for individual and group prosperity and dignity. Principles in support of
such can be inuenced by policy, for individuals and groups to be able to choose from
a fairer and less dichotomous true/false equation.
Such a unity in the disciplines could help reshape ideologies that inform policies.
This transdisciplinary approach on the part of academia would contribute to the call
for a coherent theory to elaborate and rene a theoretical framework to understand
global and local language ecology and educational language policies (Phillipson, 2009;
McGroarty, 2002; Tollefson, 2002; Cummins, 1999) by considering how policies emerge
Eva Illes
, Sumru Akcan
Abstract
The paper investigates the target language-related challenges prospective En-
glish teachers face during their practicum in Hungary and Turkey. The research is
based on a comparative study at Bogazici University, Istanbul and Eotvos Lorand
University, Budapest, where class observations and interview sessions were con-
ducted with prospective English teachers. Linguistic challenges occurred in both
contexts mainly in cases where the target language forms diered markedly from
their L1 equivalents. Diculties pertaining to the use of English could also be
observed, especially with regard to spontaneous teacher-learner interactions and
giving instructions in an appropriate manner. The teachers observed showed oc-
casional gaps in their pedagogical grammar and a general disregard of varieties of
English, including a lack of awareness of their own English, while treating ENL as
the ideal target of learning. The initial ndings of the study imply that a heightened
language awareness, a reective approach to English and familiarity with ELF could
oer considerable benets to prospective teachers in both contexts.
Keywords: Language awareness, pre-service language teachers, ELF, practi-
cum
1 Introduction
The concern with teachers target language prociency and language awareness has come
to the fore in teacher education in recent years. The requirement that language teachers,
be they native or non-native, should be able to cope eectively with the challenges of
classroom communication has been highlighted in Basyurt-T uzel and Akcans study
(2009). The authors point out that in the case of non-native teachers, less adequate
command of the target language (TL) may threaten not only the ecacy of classroom
interaction, but teachers sense of security and condence as well (Basyurt-T uzel and
Akcan, 2009, p. 272).
The need to incorporate a thorough understanding of how language is organized
in the knowledge base of teacher education has been recognized in the eld of teacher
cognition (Yates and Muchisky, 2003). The issue has then gained importance in ELF
study, where researchers have suggested the inclusion of general language awareness
Eva Illes teaches in the Department of English Applied Linguistics at Eotvos Lorand
University, Budapest. She holds a PhD in ESOL from the Institute of Education,
University of London. She has a wide range of experience including teaching English in
Britain and Hungary. Her current research areas are pragmatics, translation, English
as a lingua franca, and teacher education.
Email: illes.eva@btk.elte.hu
Sumru Akcan is an assistant professor in the Department of Foreign Language Education
at Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey. She teaches undergraduate and graduate
courses in teacher Education, foreign language teaching methodology, and qualitative
research. Her research focuses on teacher education, language teaching pedagogy, and
English as a lingua franca (ELF).
Email: sumru.akcan@boun.edu.tr
Balint Feyer is a junior lecturer at the Department of English Applied Linguistics at
Eotvos Lorand University and is currently pursuing a PhD in language pedagogy. He
teaches Academic writing to undergraduate students and works as a business English
teacher at various companies in Hungary. His research interests involve sociolinguistics,
language variation, phonetics and phonology, language teaching and English as a lingua
franca (ELF).
Email: feyerbalint@gmail.com
References
Basyurt-T uzel, A.E. and Akcan, S. (2009). Raising awareness of pre-service English
teachers in an ELF context. European Journal of Teacher Education, 32(3), 271
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Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and Identity. Oxford: Oxford
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Toward a Critical Epistemology of World
Language Teaching and Learning
Timothy Reagan
Abstract
This paper argues that conceptualisations of language are both ahistorical and
atheoretical, and that they are grounded in a positivistic world view that leads to
misunderstandings in the context of language teaching and learning. It raises a
number of questions about the underlying ideological assumptions involved in the
discourse on language teaching and learning, and presents a case for the recognition
of the role of power relations in such eorts.
Keywords: Language, language teaching, language learning
Linguists, language specialists, and the public have generally viewed language from a
perspective that is fundamentally positivistic in orientation. As Smith noted,
There is an intuitive appeal to the notion that there is an external language
that dierent people speak. Indeed, it is so self-evidently true that it would
be pointless to deny it. However, when taken to its logical conclusion, the
idea turns out to be problematic, as the notion of language involved is
dierent from the notion that linguists theorize about. (2002, p. 102103)
Even more problematically, there has been an assumption that particular languages also
exist as knowable entities. Such assumptions are embedded in our discourse, and have
important implications for language teaching and learning. In educational settings, our
goal is to move the students linguistic behaviour in the target language closer to the
norms of the singular reality of that language. What we do, then, is to engage in the
objectication of language, which leads us to misunderstand the nature of language
and to accept technicist views of the teaching and learning of languages.
In its everyday sense, language is ahistorical and atheoretical. It is ahistorical
because it presupposes that language is in some sense xed and static that is, it is
a singular reality. Consider the case of English. The English speech community has
evolved over time. From a small community on the fringe of Europe, English speakers
have become the most powerful linguistic community in the world. The domination
and hegemony of English in international communication is unmatched in the history of
humankind. Not only has English spread, it has also evolved and changed in dramatic
ways. We distinguish among Old English, Middle English and Modern English, and
Abstract
This paper reports on a project to develop an entrance test for European univer-
sity students which is more valid than the ones currently on the market, designed
with an English native speaker environment (usually the UK or the US) in mind.
In Europe, and notably since the Bologna Declaration of 1999, a minimum entrance
level requirement (usually B1 or B2 of the CEFR) for all incoming university
students has now become the norm, reecting the need for English across a range of
courses and curricula. But which English? Research carried out at the University
of Venice, and sponsored by Trinity College London, suggests that much of the
language students will be exposed to in their university careers - whether oral or
written is of a non native speaker variety. This includes listening to visiting
professors, interacting with Erasmus students on mobility programmes, and using
the Internet for research. Real life tasks such as these informed the construct of
the online entrance test reported on, designed to have greater predictive value for
student survival in a European academic environment in which ELF has become
a daily reality for an increasing number of students, teachers, and administrative
sta. The test (provisionally called TEEUS, Test of English for European University
Students) was pre-trialled in Venice in 2011. As well as the rationale behind the
test, the paper will look at the test structure and student feedback on the tasks
(such as reactions to non-native accents), and conclude that a test with a strong
ELF component may be seen by test takers as both appropriate and uncontroversial.
Keywords: CEFR, testing, validity
1 The Need to Engage with ELF
In 2006 Jennifer Jenkins called for testing agencies to engage with ELF because, she
claimed, it is changes in teaching which keep pace with changes in testing, and not vice
versa. This call has gone largely unheeded. Tests, especially those produced by the
large international organizations, continue to be resolutely native speaker orientated
in the language models they oer, whatever the actual or intended purposes of the
test. Jenkins is clearly referring to the washback eect of tests on the teaching/learning
environment, and her concern that ELF needs to nd its way into the classroom. But
there are more immediate reasons why testers need to engage with ELF, and they are
Abstract
It has been suggested that ELF is developing separately from English, even,
some say, as an independent variety of English. Along with this certain questions
concerning the teaching of English to speakers of other languages become more
pertinent. Some of these are: How far do native speaker teachers believe that
their variety of English is the correct one? This question arises from Quirks
(1990) paper and the more recent discussion treated by Gn utzman (2005). To what
extent should teachers working in an ELF context be tolerant of mistakes ? This
question follows the ndings of Seidlhofer(2004) that certain erroneous items are
highly typical in ELF and tend not to impede communication. What stance should
native speaker teachers take on pronunciation? This question follows ndings by
Jenkins (2000) that certain items which are commonly mispronounced in ELF do
not impede communication. 20 native speakers of English who teach at universities
and private schools in Italy, Spain and Turkey are interviewed face to face or via
Skype in an open-format interview. Their responses are collated and analysed and
conclusions drawn as to their position on ELF and their attitudes to its pedagogy.
Through reference to the literature this paper will briey discuss some items in the
ELF debate that it has identied as being of direct concern to present teachers of
English for speakers of other languages. It will explain the method of information
collection and collation for the survey and then present an analysis of its results.
Finally it will present some conclusions regarding how closely the views of those
interviewed coincide with or dier from those of theorists in the eld.
Keywords: Native speaker, correctness, tolerance
1 Introduction
It is hard to imagine that teachers are unaware of the wide-ranging discussions in recent
years regarding English as a Lingua Franca. However, teachers are very busy people
and their practices are bound to be more immediately inuenced by the job in hand.
This may well translate as adapting to the changing world around them as well as to
the students in front of them.
This study was undertaken to investigate whether there was any indication that
the well-documented gathering phenomenon of ELF has impacted on the classroom
, Herbert Pierson
Abstract
It has been observed that English has become a global language, and that
the majority of its nonnative speakers (NNSs) use it as a Lingua Franca among
themselves and others. When international students come to universities, they are
no longer EFL learners (English as a foreign language) any more; instead English
becomes their second language (ESL) that has to be used in their academic and daily
life. This research, guided by concepts and theories in the eld of ELF, particularly
the Accommodation Theory (CAT), explores the attitudes that native teachers
have towards the English used by Chinese overseas students with a special focus on
whether teachers in English-medium institutions strive to accommodate overseas
Chinese students in the classroom and ordinary communication. The quantitative
and qualitative analysis of the survey responses found that while the majority of
the respondents do not agree that in subject teaching teachers should accommodate
their non-native students, quite a few of them still believe accommodation will
help or somewhat help in their academic study. Valuable results have also been
obtained with regards to what should be given priority to in the classroom of
subject teaching and whether there were particular features of the English used by
Chinese overseas students. The practical results will benet ESL teachers both in
the English-dominant academic world in China and arouse the attention of English-
speaking academics towards the importance of knowing more about the varieties of
English spread throughout the globe so that increased classroom communication is
achieved.
Keywords: Accommodation, native teachers, Chinese overseas students, EFL,
ELF
1 Introduction
With the ow of more and more Chinese students going abroad to study, we see a
large Chinese population in many universities and colleges in the US, Britain, Canada
and Australia. When those students come to the universities, they are no longer EFL
learners (English as a foreign language) any more; instead English become their second
language (ESL) that has to be used in their study and daily life. They communicate
with native professors or peer students in the type of English they have learned in the
, Ghasem Modarresi
and
Nasser Ranjbar
Abstract
New technology is used to allow the web to support English as an international
lingua franca. With the diusion of computers, digital technology, and cyber-
communication, accompanied by the process of globalization, the conceptions of
language learning especially reading and writing have changed dramatically. If we
consider literacy as a complex, social practice, then transmission approach of lling
students with information and facts and training approach of instructing them in
isolated decoding skills become untenable. These skills are not considered any more
as decoding and encoding abilities. It is recommended that these skills be enriched
with the abilities needed for the eective negotiation and communication; and
critical interpretation and evaluation. Teachers of English language learning classes
are expected to go beyond the basic and mechanistic levels of teaching reading and
writing and equip students with the strategies to handle new demands of the new
era which has been dominated by the Internet and telecommunications. Moreover,
English language learning teachers are required to accompany language learning
with thinking skills, which are of critical importance in todays world relationships.
Keywords: Internet, globalization, language, learning, reading, writing
1 Introduction
Computer has now become an eective component of second language learning peda-
gogy. Professionals in ELT, nowadays, recognize that utilizing computer technology and
its attached language learning programs can be convenient to create both independent
and collaborative learning environments and provide students with language experiences
as they move through the various stages of second language acquisition (Lam, 2000).
The practice of sharing resources, materials and ideas is one of the assumed advantages
of email communication (Vinagre, 2008). Other perceived benets refer to availability at
any time, spreading the news quickly fostering social communication, and encouraging
equal opportunity for participation in social interactions (Warschauer, 1999).
, Rita Bennett
Abstract
In foreign language teaching, dictionaries play an indispensable and important
part. Therefore, language learners must be trained to be competent dictionary
users of both bilingual and monolingual dictionaries. They use these dictionaries
to nd lexical equivalents either at word level or at sentence level. This study
aims at discovering which cognitive and translation processes intermediate Italian
learners use to make decisions on choosing appropriate words or phrases while they
are translating a passage from the foreign language (English) into their mother
tongue (Italian). The subjects have been given a sentence and a text to translate
and have been allowed to use a comprehensive bilingual dictionary and have been
encouraged to think aloud. Their verbalizations have been recorded on audiotape
and transcribed. In this way, evidence on mental strategies of the students during
translation and during dictionary reference acts has been discovered in order to
understand some of their translation problems. It has been seen that they have
used 11 translation processes and 14 cognitive processes. In conclusion, it is hoped
that this study will inform teachers of foreign languages on how to tackle translation.
To see what happens in the translators mind, TAP may be used both by teachers
and students of translation to research and highlight areas for improvement in their
translation and cognitive strategies.
Keywords: Thinking aloud, cognitive processes, translation, bilingual dictio-
nary
1 Introduction
In translation tasks in foreign language learning, dictionaries play an indispensable
and important part. Learners use monolingual or bilingual dictionaries to nd lexical
equivalents either at word or sentence level. However, they need to know that there
are not necessarily direct connections between the lexical representations of the two
languages at the form and conceptual level. As the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis points out
no two languages are ever suciently similar to be considered as representing the same
reality. The worlds in which dierent societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the
same world with dierent labels. (Sapir, 1929, p. 214). Additionally, learners need to
Eva Illes
Abstract
Although there have been changes in the way coursebooks present and teach En-
glish, their methodology still reects the traditional communicative approach which
is based on the assumption that parameters of future contexts of use are predictable
and denable in reference to native-speaker norms. ELF communication, however,
which is characterized by diversity and contexts of use where the norms are uid
and relative, seems to require a dierent, more process-oriented view of ELT. For
the teaching of ELF therefore, materials engaging learners in the communication
process on their own terms both linguistically and schematically can provide bet-
ter conditions for preparing learners for the challenges that ELF communication
presents with its wide variety of rst languages and multiplicity of cultures. This
paper aims to demonstrate why an old coursebook series can be made suitable, with
some modications, for the teaching of ELF. The Access to English books, which
were published in the 1970s, comprise well-written and motivating narratives and
dialogues that bear a close resemblance to literary works. By displaying elements of
ction, the texts present an alternative reality, the interpretation of which involves
learners in the kind of problem solving that the unpredictability and diversity of
ELF communication poses. The union of an old coursebook series and a dierent
communicative approach to the teaching of English may thus oer a fruitful means
of developing materials for the teaching of ELF.
Keywords: Communicative approach, ELF communication, teaching materi-
als, literary texts
1 Introduction
The main concern of this paper is the practical application of ELF in English language
teaching. ELF research has been closely connected to ELT and was, to some extent,
instigated by ELT practice. One impetus for the investigation of ELF was the apparent
clash between the reality of the use of English in international contexts and the dom-
inant, native-speaker oriented approach in ELT. The controversy, which characterized
the appraisal of non-native speaker language use too, has been highlighted by Seildhofer
(2001) as follows: . . . it is highly problematic to discuss aspects of global English,
however critically, while at the same time passing native speaker judgements as to what
is appropriate usage in ELF contexts (p. 137).
Eva Illes teaches in the Department of English Applied Linguistics at Eotvos Lorand
University, Budapest. She holds a PhD in ESOL from the Institute of Education,
University of London. She has a wide range of experience including teaching English in
Britain and Hungary. Her current research areas are pragmatics, translation, English
as a lingua franca, and teacher education.
Email: illes.eva@btk.elte.hu
References
Coles, M. and Lord, B. (1974). Access to English: Starting out. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Coles, M. and Lord, B. (1975). Access to English: Getting on. Oxford: Oxford
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Illes,
E. (2009). What makes a coursebook series stand the test of time?. ELT Journal,
63(2), 145153.
Illes,
E. (2011). Communicative language teaching and English as a lingua franca.
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Jenkins, J. (2009). English as a lingua franca: Interpretations and attitudes. World
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Medgyes, P. (2011). Aranykor [Golden age]. Budapest: Nemzeti Konyvkiado.
Murray, N. (2010). Pragmatics, awareness raising, and the Cooperative Principle. ELT
Journal, 64(3), 293301.
Seidlhofer, B. (1999). Double standards: Teacher education in the Expanding Circle.
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Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for the description of English
as a lingua franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 133158.
Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
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Non-Native English Speaker Accents in Swiss
Elementary Schools: A Summary of Pre-Service
Teacher Research
Laura Loder B uchel
Abstract
This paper summarizes the work carried out by pre-service elementary school
teacher trainees at the Zurich and Schahausen Universities of Teacher Education
during a Research and Development course entitled Everybody Should Speak
American, Right? in 2011. The main goal of the course was to teach pre-service
teachers basic research methods and provide them with the chance to develop
materials through the context of discovering to which degree aspects of English as
a Lingua Franca are taught to elementary school children in Switzerland through
several tasks including observations, textbook analysis, surveys and development
of pronunciation activities. Some ndings include: a mismatch between textbook
recordings and the Englishes heard on a regular basis in Switzerland; a general
openness towards various native speaker norms of English though not necessarily
towards a non-native variety; and childrens general feeling of not understanding
various Englishes but actually performing just as well on listening tests of native
and non-native varieties. This paper provides an overview of these ndings in the
hopes of lling a void in the research with younger learners of English.
Keywords: Non-native accents, primary school, elementary school, Switzer-
land, student research
1 Course Overview
Students at the Zurich and Schahausen Universities of Teacher Education are required
to take a Research and Development course aimed at providing basic skills in research
methods as well as space to develop materials for their future careers. The main aims
of Everybody Should Speak American, Right? was to see how English as a Lingua
Franca (ELF) is experienced, understood and represented as a principle of teaching
in the elementary school English classroom in Switzerland. The instructor wanted to
encourage students to get away from the idea that real English is that of native speakers
and that norms, classroom exchanges, and links to culture should only be from the few
countries where English is the ocial / national language. The full course syllabus,
student products and survey are located on the course site at http://elf.edacross.
org.
Abstract
ELF as a phenomenon has existed for a long time, but in-depth studies of the
reasoning behind this concept and its implications on actual classroom practice
have been scarce. One of the variants of ELF is English for Academic Purposes
(henceforth EAP). With the increasing demand for international interaction in
English in the world academic platform, Chinese scholars aspire to the mastery
of this special genre of the English language. This thesis reports a two-year free
summer training program designed particularly for learners with such purpose in
China. Language for academic listening and writing was incorporated into this
program as the main content. A learner-tailored approach was employed to facilitate
learners ability to communicate in EAP as a lingua franca in the world academic
circle. Five principles of being humanistic, needs-based, culture-accommodating,
learner-centered and task-based were applied to the whole process of the design
and implementation of course content and classroom activities. The questionnaire
survey at the end of the program indicates a positive attitude towards our course
design principles. The program helps us conclude that ELF classroom practice can
achieve its distinctive goal of serving international cross-cultural communication
if its orientation is clearly set and learner-tailored approach is well implemented.
Theoretically, this study inspires us to a reconsideration of our language teaching
purpose and principles involved in our choice of language materials and content and
our curriculum design.
Keywords: Learner-tailored, EAP, short-term program, Chinese situations
1 Introduction
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is frequently used for general purposes nowadays.
However, there are dierent varieties of English acting the role of a lingua franca within
dierent circles. One type of English performing this kind of role is English for Academic
Purposes (henceforth EAP). We consider EAP as a variant of ELF in this thesis, taking
into consideration its basic nature.
The English program we are reporting here is a response to Seidlhofers (2001)
call for more attention to research on ELF. It was initiated also as a response to the
increasing demand for more training in EAP by many Chinese researchers who have
been trying to voice their academic ndings either in written form or oral form in the
Abstract
The present research was conceived in view of the growing role of technology and
internet, the globalization of English, and the changing nature of English language
learning in the Expanding Circle as dened by Kachru (1986, 1996). Namely, it set
out to examine and re-examine three interrelated issues: a) the aordances of an
English-based internet environment for language learners in the Expanding Circle;
b) learners perceptions of the utility of English; and c) the traditional paradigms of
English foreign language environments vs. English second language environments.
The participants were 95 Bulgarian college students in intensive English programs
at a Bulgarian university. The research instrument included Likert scale and open-
ended questions. The data were analyzed through statistical and content analyses.
The results show that Bulgarian learners of English outside the Inner Circle have a
continuous access to language input through internet and other multimedia English
resources. The majority of the participants reported between 75% to 100% of their
internet use as being in English. As a result of the consumption of specialized
and general internet resources, they have experienced language benets vis-a-vis
building up their knowledge of formal and informal vocabulary, reading, writing,
and communication skills. In their narrative comments, participants repeatedly
dened English as a global, international, or world language, connecting people
of various cultures, religions, and geographic parts of the world. They associated
English with global communication, access to information resources, people and
cultures from all over the world rather than with native speaker varieties and their
cultural heritages. Both quantitative and qualitative results raise the question of
whether in a world permeated by English, there are still foreign language learners
of English. This studys ndings suggest that the traditionally made distinction
between EFL and ESL environments may no longer be as clear-cut as it used to.
Keywords: Global English, independent learning, international English, aor-
dances of English-based internet resources, revisiting ESL vs. EFL environments
1 Introduction
The onset of the 21
st
century has been dened by the diusion of information across
geographic borders (Fischer and Konomi, 2005). Internet has become the main vehicle
Abstract
Arabic and English language dier in many ways. Arab speakers face several
problems while learning English, such as phonological and morphological diculties.
When teaching English for Arab students, teachers have to keep in mind that the
Arabic writing system goes from right to left and that the letters are written with-
respect-to their position in the word.Keeping this in mind, teachers of business
English need to consider several factors when teaching Arab learners how to com-
municate in business using the English language. They need to become familiar
with the problems their Arab learners might face while acquiring the business
communication skills that these learners need at work. This manuscript discusses
some of the major problems that some Arab learners, as ELF learners, might face in
learning business English, which is L2. It also sheds light on the teachers work and
role in guiding their learners to overcome these obstacles when present. Some of the
major problems discussed in this work are: i) negative transfer, ii) dierent writing
strategies, iii) knowledge of prepositions, and iv) collocation patterns. Teachers
have to, therefore, prepare their learners to overcome negative transfer, provide
them with hands-on activities and authentic business environment that will help
them develop the correct expressions, and familiarize them with the English logic
and culture, so their messages become direct to the point and well understood.
Keywords: Business English, Arab learners, teaching
1 Introduction
English language is seen as a valuable language for Arabs, for it is at the moment the
lingua franca of the world. That is why more and more Arab learners are attending
English schools, English being in high demand in the business world. They want to
acquire the language because in the future, this acquisition will set them apart from
other candidates at work. Arab learners not only are learning English, but want to learn
business English, too. They need this skill to complete work-related needs. Hence,
these learners join business English courses in the hope that the skills learned will
land them good positions in multinational corporations located in the Arab world.
These corporations want their employees to be able to communicate with international
business people, respond to daily routine requests in the form of emails, memos, letters
or any other typical taste at work (Donna, 2000). This task is not easy for Arab
Abstract
The present study investigates how Japanese business professionals perceive
their needs to communicate in English as a lingua franca, and how an actual
training program for such learners is conducted in order to help them acquire
necessary skills. A case study of a construction company in Japan is taken up for
this purpose. The participants of the study are four employees who join an intensive
English language training program provided by their company with a prospect to
be assigned overseas projects in the near future. First, in order to clarify the
contexts of where and how these employees use English, a written questionnaire
and interviews were conducted. The ndings show that, though they have various
professional backgrounds, all of the four employees have in common a need to
improve their oral communication skills. More specically, it was identied that
they have diculties in small talk rather than in exchange of technical information.
Secondly, non-participant observation of the actual language classes was carried out.
An interaction between a teacher and a student is analyzed in detail in this paper.
Class instructions that do not take into account these students actual business
contexts sometimes hinder them from acquiring necessary skills. The discrepancy in
attitudes toward the use of English between teachers and students is explained using
the conceptual categories of language-focused and content-focused speakers of
English introduced by Ehrenreich (2009). Finally, possible pedagogical implica-
tions are proposed to improve corporate language training programs. Considering
that businesspeople are likely to use English mostly in ELF (English as a lingua
franca) situations, the current program should incorporate ELF perspectives to the
curriculum, and teachers should not spend too much time and energy in correcting
mistakes of students, but focus more on contents of interactions as if they are in
actual job situations.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca, English for business purposes, language
needs, classroom discourse
1 Introduction
One of the challenges that Japanese companies competing in the global market face is
to have their employees acquire necessary communication skills to work with colleagues
Abstract
The paper reports ndings on undergraduate students attitudes towards English
language teachers English accents and teaching practices. Instruments employed
in this study were questionnaire survey conducted with 348 non-native students
of English and semi-structured interviews gained from 23 students. The ndings
showed that native teachers of English accents gained the most preferable choice
while expanding circle English accents ranked the second. In terms of teaching prac-
tices, native teachers of English teaching practices received the highest preference,
whereas expanding circle teachers teaching practices gained the second highest.
This can be discussed that native accents represent the best practices and have
been highly valued. Similarly, Thai English accents can be clearly interpreted due
to shared linguistics features of L1. It is suggested that a lingua franca approach
should be practical to expanding circle contexts. Moreover, a model of collaboration
between three groups of language teachers should be promoted.
Keywords: English accent, teaching practices, English language teaching and
learning, Kachrus three concentric circles of Englishes
1 Introduction
English has become a global language. The language can be made the ocial language
of a country, to be used as a medium of communication in such domains as government,
the law courts, the media, and the educational system. Moreover, the language can be
made priority in a countrys foreign-language teaching (Crystal, 2003, p. 3). According
to Graddol (2006, cited in Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 1), the future development of English
as a global language has led to the enormous global demand for learning English,
with learners becoming ever more numerous, and beginning at an ever earlier age.
Consequently, there have been an increase number of English teachers with a wide
variety of language backgrounds (Moussu and Llurda, 2009, cited in Holliday and
Aboshiha, 2009, p. 670) and it has been conrmed by Liu (2009, pp. 1) that the
majority of English teachers worldwide are non-native English speakers: NNESTs. More
discussion has been made in the expanding circle countries where English has played
Abstract
This paper proposes that non-native English speaking students and teachers
employ visual media almost as much as they use language. The interactions between
these two symbol systems more eectively develops students thinking and language
abilities. Also, when students visual and verbal language explore personal issues,
their learning is again intensied and deepened.
Keywords: Visual media, writing, language, healing
This paper proposes that non-native speakers of English best learn this language when
they are liberated to focus rst on communicating what is most important to their lives
at the timeoften their own problems, concerns, questions, and even traumas. Also,
of course, such topics often lead students to the outside world of facts, gures, and
academic discourse. However, the dierence is that students are truly motivated to
explore languagefor their own purposes and satisfactions, and not merely to satisfy
their instructors or textbooks requirements. When students are internally motivated,
they explore the world more broadly and deeply, resulting in learning that is far better
internalized than rules and commandments about correct English.
On the other hand, total freedom can intimidate students, so I believe they should
have some initial guidelines before they are turned loose to construct their own learning.
My guidelines for instructors, explained in the following sections, are simple, but encom-
pass a broad spectrum of language and learning possibilities. After each guideline, I will
briey explain its theoretical and research rationale. I will conclude with an illustration
of student work.
First, encourage students to write about their problems and questionsto write
for therapeutic purposes. Wellness and healing simply mean physical and mental
health. I dene using language for wellness and healing as engaging in writing,
reading, speaking, listening, and viewing that in some way connects to any kind of
traumatic experienceany experience which harms, worries, fears, saddens, scares,
or makes writers ill or anxious; any experience which creates feelings of physical or
psychological pain, including violation, dissociation, isolation, alienation, confusion, de-
pression, or inferiority. Such topics can include suicide, violence (physical, psychological,
and virtual), racism, broken homes, substance abuse, learning disorders, illiteracy,
homelessness, hunger, self-mutilation, anger and other mental health issues, gangs,
body image, gender identication, bullying, AIDS/HIV infection, unwanted teen preg-
nancy, and sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs). The variety, severity, and ubiquity of
Abstract
This study seeks to show how Portuguese students and teachers view learning
and using English today and how their attitudes can inuence or be inuenced by
ELT policies and practices. It made use of two semi-structured questionnaires, one
for students (N = 247) and another for teachers (N = 26). The subjects were part
of four educational institutions two universities and two polytechnic institutes.
The methodology used in the analysis of attitudes toward the English language
should be diversied, integrating several means of data collection and focusing on
the identication of central aspects related to learning and teaching the language
such as native and non-native varieties and cultures, native and non-native speakers
use of English, learners goal, ownership of English, intelligibility of English, native
and non-native teachers and motivation to learn English. Essentially, subjects
displayed positive attitudes toward learning and using English as a Lingua Franca.
Furthermore, most subjects viewed learning about culture positively, displayed a
favourable attitude towards non-native speakers and their English, attached intrin-
sic value to both native and non-native teachers, and referred that the Portuguese
learner should aim to become a competent user of English as an alternative to
aiming to achieve native prociency. However, at the same time they seemed
to adopt a linguacentred view of English which emphasized the British variety
and culture. By recognizing students and teachers attitudes toward learning and
using English, this study also hopes to contribute to the ELT eld by helping set
approaches of investigation into the role of English as a Lingua Franca suggesting
relevant areas and methodologies such as ELT in basic and secondary education,
basic and secondary school teacher training programmes in universities, materials
writers, teaching ESP in universities, and ELT policies for basic and secondary
schools.
Keywords: Native and non-native varieties/cultures, motivation, learning
goals, language ownership, native and non-native teachers
1 Building a Paradigm of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
1.1 Intelligibility in ELF
Smith (1983) states that it is often maintained that the educated native speaker is
more likely to be intelligible to others than the educated non-native speaker (p. 49).
Abstract
The aim of this study was to nd whether ELT students of English at METU
comprehend English idioms in written language thoroughly. The main data source
for this study is the Turkish ELT students at METU, whose ages vary between 18
and 25. The research is planned as a quantitative research. Participants lled
out two multiple-choice tests rst including idioms without context, second in
context. This study showed us that Turkish students who are studying in FLE
department at METU comprehend idioms that have Turkish equivalents better
than the others which have not Turkish equivalents and Turkish students use
their Turkish background knowledge in comprehension of English idioms. It was
also found that idioms in context were comprehended better than idioms without
context. However, we could not nd a correlation between idiom comprehension
and the students class grades so future researchers can focus on this issue.
Keywords: English idioms, L1 to L2 transfer, background knowledge, words
in context, comprehension of idiomatic expressions
1 Introduction
We think that Turkish students learning English as a foreign language have diculty
in comprehension of idioms and metaphors even though they are advanced learners of
English. Our aim in this study is to nd out whether this situation is a valid problem
among the students at METU. This study carries socially and academically signicance
in that as prospective teachers of English, we will nd out to which extent the students
have diculty in comprehending metaphors and idioms so we hope to help our students
to overcome their comprehension problems with the help of this study. Thus, this paper
is about whether Turkish learners of English at METU whose ages vary between 18 and
25 comprehend English idioms in written language. In our study, we aim;
To analyze and assess how much advanced learners of English at FLE Department
at
METU comprehend idioms and metaphors in written language.
To nd out as the ELT students level of English at METU progresses, whether
the understanding of idioms in written English progresses either or not.
Abstract
English is one of the widely-used languages in the world as Konig (1990) conrms
this by stating that roughly 700 million people speak it. In some countries, it is
used as a mother tongue whereas in other countries it is used as a second language,
which means they use it as an ocial language even though they have their own
native tongue. In Turkey, English is considered as a foreign language and it
is taught/learnt for international communication with other nations. Thus, this
study was conducted with 94 students enrolled in two dierent prestigious state
universities located in Istanbul so as to determine their awareness of the recent
trends in ELT by taking ELF into account. The participants of this study are all
rst year students who are attending ELT department as freshmen. The aim of this
study is whether they are aware of this ELF issue and to nd out what they expect
from their department curriculums to meet their needs. Questionnaires were given
in two dierent state universities in Istanbul to two dierent groups showing similar
characteristics. Results of this study emphasize the importance of awareness-raising
lectures to these rst-year-students of ELT and the educational implications will be
discussed by giving some advice on the ELT curriculums of these universities.
Keywords: ELF, Turkish prospective teachers
1 Introduction
English was not chosen as a language to be taught in schools in Turkey out of blue.
However, before looking at the situation in Turkey, a brief looking at the English spread
in the world will also be benecial to understand the situation in Turkey. Konig (1990)
mentions that roughly 700 million people speak it. Phillipson (1992) claims that the
spread of English is due to the British cultural imperialism. Crystal (1997) seems to be
on Phillipsons side by conrming that a language does not become a global language
simply because of its intrinsic properties. He elaborates on the issue by saying that
British colonial dominancy was replaced by the twentieth-century American superpower.
It is also mentioned in an article on CNN.com in 2000 that Julius Caesar conquered
Gaul with the Roman legions, but the U.S. is doing it with Mickey Mouse, and the
Abstract
This paper presents the interim results of a survey which explores Turkish
prospective EFL teachers attitudes and beliefs regarding standard and non-stand-
ard varieties of English. With the current status of English as a Lingua Franca
(ELF) and with new varieties of English emerging throughout the world, teacher
education programs are faced with the challenge of preparing pre-service teachers for
teaching English as a lingua franca (e.g., Jenkins, 2006; Seidlhofer, 2004; Sifakis,
2007; Snow et al., 2006). On the route to making the necessary adjustments in
teacher training, a clear understanding of the prevailing attitudes of prospective
teachers to varieties of English is required. The present study investigates Turkish
prospective teachers views about: (a) their own English accent, (b) native and non-
native speaker accents, (c) teaching a standard variety, and (d) exposing students
to dierent varieties of English. The data were collected through a questionnaire
distributed to 102 students attending the ELT department of a state university.
The analysis of participants responses regarding the aforementioned issues illus-
trates that there is a dierence between prospective teachers evaluation of their
own accent for teaching English and their evaluation of their accent for personal
communication. The results also demonstrate that prospective teachers beliefs
about the importance of native speaker norms are stronger in relation to their own
pronunciation as teachers compared to their beliefs about these norms in relation
to their learners pronunciation practices. In addition, the results suggest that
Turkish prospective teachers own experiences and familiarity with a specic variety
of English have an important role in their preference for teaching that variety. The
results of the study are discussed with reference to their implications for teacher
training, including suggestions for ways of raising prospective teachers awareness
of ELF related issues.
Keywords: ELF, Turkish prospective teachers, EFL, attitudes, pronunciation
1 Introduction
The increase in the number of non-native speakers (NNS) of English and the emergence
of dierent varieties of English all over the world gave rise to several questions regarding
the use of native speaker (NS) models in language classrooms. With the introduction
of the concepts of English as an international language (EIL) and English as a lingua
Ozturk, H., C e cen, S. and Altnmakas, D. (2009). How do non-native pre-service English
language teachers perceive ELF?: A qualitative study. English as an International
Language Journal, 5, 137146.
Scales, J., Wennerstrom, A., Richard, D. and Wu., S.H. (2006). Language learners
perceptions of accent. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 715738.
Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209239.
Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 59, 339341.
Sifakis, N.C. (2007). The education of teachers of English as a lingua franca: a
transformative perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17(3),
355375.
Sifakis, N. C. and Sougari, A. (2005) Pronunciation issues and EIL pedagogy in the
periphery: A survey of Greek state school teachers beliefs. TESOL Quarterly,
39(3), 467489.
Snow, M.A., Kamhi-Stein, L. and Brinton, D. (2006). Teacher training for English as a
lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 261281.
Timmis, I. (2002). Native-speaker norms and international English: A classroom view.
ELT Journal, 56, 240249 .
Willis, J.W. (2007). Foundations of Qualitative Research. CA: Sage.
Re/Considering the English Language Teacher
Education Programs in Turkey From an ELF
Standpoint: What Do the Academia,
Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers Think?
Dilek
Inal
and Esra
Ozdemir
Abstract
This paper aimed to explore the perceptions of Turkish ELT academia, pre-
service and in-service English teachers on the concept of ELF and the necessity to
make it a part of the English language teacher education programs in Turkey. Three
subject groups, each consisting 100 subjects, from 42 cities in Turkey participated
in the study. The research instrument was pilot tested with 115 participants
and resulted with 0.86 Cronbach-Alpha value. Descriptive statistics and one-way
ANOVA were employed to assess how participants position themselves with respect
to the concept of ELF; and whether there was a signicant dierence among the
groups with respect to the paradigmatic changes such as participants perspective of
native/non-native, standard/non-standard dichotomy and about language learning
and teaching in the context of ELF. Independent Sample t-Test was conducted
to reveal the dependency between ELF familiarity, academic instruction on ELF
and participants attitudes towards ELF. The ndings revealed that pre-service
teachers embrace ELF signicantly more than the academia and in-service teachers.
Academias approach to ELF was twofold; they tend to provide both EFL and
ELF perspectives in educating teachers, but in evaluating ELT paradigms and
learning/teaching activities, they are pro-normative. In-service teachers, on the
other hand, keep the middle ground in all dimensions of the survey. The results
also indicated that there was a dependency between ELF familiarity, academic
instruction on ELF and participants attitudes towards ELF.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca, changing paradigms in ELT, native/non-
native dichotomy, standard/non-standard dichotomy, English language teacher edu-
cation programs
1 Introduction
In his book English Next, Graddol states that despite the many changes taking place
in the world, interest in learning English remains the same, leading to more people
than ever wanting to learn English (2006). Marking that this growing popularity has
become one of the few enduring facts of global modern life, Graddol draws attention
Abstract
If we consider one part of language pedagogy as a place of especial vulnerability
looking from ELF standpoint, that spot will be language testing. Each variety of
World Englishes (WEs) has its own norm. Based on their norms, their prociency
can be dened operationally. But the problem gets worse when it comes to testing
English from a global perspective since we do not know whose norms should be
used. The problem with TOEFL and IELTS tests is that their criteria for measuring
prociency are candidates use of particular features of English which are used and
accepted as standards by highly educated native speakers of English. Other nations
take shelter in TOEFL and IELTS because they lack such powerfully constructed
and globally administered and supported tests. An immediate action should be
taken to think about the most appropriate tests which take into account linguistic,
ethnic, cultural, ideological, social, and political realities of both the local and global
needs of English users. The democratic complementary model (DCM) oered in
this paper deems both local norms and global norms as standards and via such
standards all varieties have the same chance of appropriateness and degree of being
problematic. The model puts forward a democratic norm specication in which
all members of English varieties have the same challenge and common concern for
the same cause i.e. intelligibility. This paper will rstly deal with the problems of
language testing using native speaker (NS) norms; secondly introduce the model
and its exigencies and then deal with dening competencies using the tenets of this
model.
Keywords: ELF, ELT, democratic complementary model
1 Introduction
The success or failure of each pedagogical program is determined by the consequences
of tests. Finding the most reliable and valid means showing the results of educational
practices is a crucial part of each pedagogical program. Teaching and testing go hand
in hand in the pedagogical settings and testing has wash-back eects on teaching. Each
testing practice has its social consequences and uses or misuses that make it the most
dangerous game of pedagogical elds.
and Dorjana
Sirola
Abstract
The paper analyses the results of a questionnaire-based study on English as a
Lingua Franca (ELF) conducted among 103 Croatian university students of English.
The respondents tend to describe ELF in two ways: as (mostly American) English
used in international communication or as a simplied, neutral type of English.
They hold that British English (BE) diers from ELF to a larger extent than
American English (AE). In addition, BE is perceived as more stylistically marked
and culturally bound. Conversely, AE is seen as simpler and less tied to a particular
historical, cultural and geographical context, and thus is perceived as everyones
language. Most of the respondents, however, believe that ELF should not equal
either AE or BE. When asked which English they spoke and whether their use of
English was situationally determined, the respondents largely claim to speak AE in
all contexts due to high levels of exposure to it, but some opt for BE in academic
communication. A number of respondents were unable to determine which variety
they used, or said they spoke a neutral type of English, dened by them as a mixture
of BE and AE. Some explicitly said they did not want to sound native, as they felt
that it would be articial and pretentious. The respondents opinion on whether
the widespread use of English constitutes a threat to Croatian was also elicited.
The danger is exclusively seen to lie in numerous words of English origin, while the
perception of potential domain loss is virtually non-existent.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca, British English, American English,
Croatian, language attitudes
1 Introduction
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is currently commonly viewed in scholarly circles
along the lines of an emerging English that exists in its own right and which is being
described in its own terms rather than by comparison with ENL [English as a Native
Language] (Jenkins, 2007, p. 2), and an English that will increasingly derive its norms
of correctness and appropriacy from its own usage rather than that of the UK or
the US (Seidlhofer, 2001, p. 15). However, the extent to which learners, teachers,
and prospective teachers of English agree with either Jenkins conception of ELF or
Seidlhofers prediction for its future varies considerably, and has been the focus of a
number of studies.
Abstract
The present paper is a case study based on the observation of four groups of
focal primary-school learners (altogether 26 subjects) during a period of four years
(fth to eighth grade, i.e., ages eleven to fourteen). Half of the subjects were
from a city and half were from a small town. Every year each of the pupils was
recorded in an interview which consisted of two parts: a task fullment in English
and a motivational interview in their mother tongue, Croatian. In this way a
total of 97 interviews (about 20 hours of recorded speech) was obtained. Three
independent qualied assessors analysed auditorily their pronunciation features,
focusing on the presence or absence of core ELF features, as dened by Jenkins
(2002). Thus they looked primarily at features of pronunciation like substitutions in
the phonemic inventory; the preservation of the vocalic length contrasts; aspiration
in consonants; the overall degree of uency and intelligibility. On the basis of this
evaluation, four best pronouncers and four least successful pronouncers were singled
out. Next we looked for correlations of good pronunciation in this sense with the
type and degree of the subjects motivation for learning English and using it for
international communication, their awareness of the status of English as a global
language, and their day-to-day exposure to international (i.e. not necessarily native)
English outside school. Finally, conclusions were reached about the implications of
the results for learning and teaching English in the function of preparing learners
for successful communication on a global scale.
Keywords: English pronunciation, Croatian, primary school, core features,
ELF, international intelligibility
1 Introduction
The present paper presents the results of a case study based on the data obtained
within the research project Early acquisition of English as a foreign language: Analysis
of learner interlanguage, led by Jelena Mihaljevic Djigunovic, nanced by the Croatian
Ministry of Science and Education and related to the international ELLiE project (http:
//www.ellieresearch.eu). The aim of this paper is twofold: to draw up proles of
successful pronouncers of English (in terms of pronunciation features), and to relate
them to external factors inuencing their pronunciation performance.
, Elif Karsli
Abstract
In this paper we report research with an innovative program designed to promote
the development of adolescent Spanish-speaking immigrant students knowledge of
general academic English vocabulary (Snow, Lawrence and White, 2009) and the
academic language of science (Lemke, 2001; Schleppegrell, 2006) through the vehicle
of bilingual family science workshops. Development of English as the Lingua Franca
(ELF) among these young adolescents, their parents, their teachers, and university
students and faculty is one of the primary goals in this educational setting. However,
a secondary goal is to also develop all players awareness of the families mother
tongue, Spanish, as an important resource, both for learning academic English and
for developing bilingual and crosscultural communication skills for science learning.
Three case studies, based on parent-child interviews and analysis of assessments
of student writing with academic language in response to open-ended prompts, are
examined to gain perspective on the learning outcomes linked to the bilingual family
science workshops from the perspectives of students and their parents. The results
of the study are discussed in relation to the ndings of other research on pedagogies
associated with ELF (Alptekin, 2002; Jenkins, 2006; Mauranen, 2008). Implications
for educators working with ELF learners of all ages in a variety of settings where
bilingual pedagogical strategies grounded in academic content learning, such as in
science, could be benecial, are outlined.
Keywords: Bilingual education, academic language of science, family-school-
community partnership
1 The Context and the Rationale of the Study
Many regions of the United States have witnessed successive waves of immigration
beginning in the mid 1800s (LeMay, 1987). Starting in the 1980s and 1990s, communities
and cities in the southeastern region of the U.S. also began to experience the enriching
infusion of immigrants from many parts of the world (NCELA, 2007), with a majority,
as is true for the rest of the country, hailing from Mexico and other Latin American
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present an overview of Brazilian studies about ELF in
the period between 2005 and 2011 in order to identify the developments of this area
of research in our country as well as to indicate further directions. For this purpose,
the following sources were investigated: a) a national database of dissertations
and theses; b) the search engine Google Scholars; c) Brazilian journals in the
area of (Applied) Linguistics; d) proceedings of national events; and e) a recent
collection of papers on this subject, edited by Gimenez, Calvo and El Kadri (2011).
The studies were grouped in themes such as: general issues related to ELF (the
spread of the language, globalization and the teaching of English), ELF interactions,
ELF varieties, early language learning as a consequence of ELF, teacher education
(beliefs/attitudes of pre-service teachers toward ELF), users perspectives on ELF,
culture and language teaching, intelligibility, ELF in the curriculum of a pre-service
teacher education program, among others. Results show how the research and the
discussions about ELF are being addressed as well as what is still necessary to
strength and develop this eld of investigation in our context.
1
Keywords: English as a lingua franca, overview of studies, Brazil
1 Introduction
The emerging status of English as a lingua franca (ELF) brings new directions and
perspectives in the way this language is viewed, used, taught and learned in the con-
temporary world. Although the discussion about this issue is relatively recent, there
is an increasing number of academics interested in studying this question, both inter-
nationally (Jenkins, 2000, 2003; Seidlhofer, 2004, 2009; Canagarajah, 2006; Graddol,
2006; Kirkpatrick, 2007; among others) and locally (Gimenez, 2006; 2009; Siqueira,
2008; Jordao, 2009; Rajagopalan, 2010; El Kadri, 2010; Gimenez, Calvo and El Kadri,
2011, among others). Therefore, in order to identify the developments of this area of
research in Brazil as well as to indicate further directions to this line of inquiry, this
, Guo Libo
Abstract
This paper documents the development of a Singapore learner corpus of English
writing for pedagogy, which is currently being constructed at Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore. This corpus comprises sample English artefacts produced by
students at 3 levels, i.e. Primary 6 (Year 6), Secondary 4 (Year 10) and Junior Col-
lege 2 (Year 12). It is built to capture and compare learners developmental features
in terms of vocabulary, grammar and discoursal devices at dierent learning stages
and therefore theorize on the nature of English writing development of learners in
Singapore. The texts are tagged with meta information of learners school level,
gender, ethnic group and grade. Issues of corpus design, e.g. representativeness
in sampling, are also addressed. Finally, pedagogical implications and potential
applications of the project are presented.
Keywords: Learner corpus, writing development, sample artefacts
1 Introduction
The implementation of an English-dominant bilingual policy in Singapore over the past
decades has contributed to the establishment of the English language as lingua franca
in the country. Singapore English as a localized variety has triggered some corpus
construction research and four major Singapore English corpora have been constructed,
i.e. the Singapore Component of the International Corpus of English (shortened as
ICE-SIN), the NIE Corpus of Spoken Singapore English (Deterding and Low, 2001),
the Grammar of Spoken Singapore English Corpus (Lim, 2004) and the Singapore
Corpus of Research in Education (SCoRE) (Hong, 2005), a corpus of classroom discourse
collected from primary and secondary schools in Singapore. However, none of the above-
mentioned corpora is learner corpus and all of them comprise spoken data except the
written component of the ICE-SIN. In other words, so far there has not yet been a corpus
focusing on learner English writing in Singapore. For learner corpora, there are many
English learner corpora available worldwide, such as the Cambridge Learner Corpus
(CLC), the International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE), the Longman Learners
Corpus (LLC), and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST)
Corpus. Nevertheless, most of these corpora were constructed out of the language data
produced by learners of English as a foreign language. Many of the widely accessible
Abstract
Globalization, or the spread of languages across cultures, has modied the
denition of a language learner, suggesting that a totally monolingual country does
not exist. From ELF perspectives, English does not belong to English speaking
nations but to everyone who speaks it (Crystal, 1997; Fairclough, 2003). In other
words, English as a global lingua franca is actually inuenced by the various ways
it is used by its users, as well as the way it relates to dierent cultures. In the whole
world as a community, as Mackay (2003) notes, there are many EFL/ESL learners
who may not need to acquire the full range of registers needed by monolingual
speakers of English. In fact, the purposes of ELF learners should be redened and
adjusted to the situations in which they take part and to the ways through which
they use English within multilingual communities. This paper aims at dening
learners of English as a Lingua Franca in terms of purposes for which they use
English in a globalized world, not necessarily in a FL/SL community.
Keywords: ELF learners, globalization, multi-lingual communities
1 Introduction
Since only one out of every four English users in the world is a native speaker of the
language (Crystal, 2003), most ELF interactions in the globalized world take place
among non-native speakers of English. This way, since the mid-1990s it has become
increasingly common to nd EFL/ESL speakers referred to as speakers of English as a
Lingua Franca (Jenkins, 2006).
In simple words, ELF is a way of referring to communication in English between
speakers who have dierent rst languages. Although ELF interaction can include
native English speakers, in most cases, it is a contact language between people who
share neither a common native language nor a common national culture, and for none
of whom English is the mother tongue (Firth, 1996). The ELF learner can thus be
dened as any learner using English for lingua franca purposes, regardless of which
actual English variety s/he employs.
2 What is Globalization?
It is dened by Seidlhofer (2005) as the expanding integration and interdependence
of economic, social, technological, cultural, and political spheres across local activities.
Abstract
This paper demonstrates the preliminary results of an ongoing empirical study
of the use of a lexico-grammatical element, the -s sux to third person singular
verbs, in academic debates among freshman students in the Department of Foreign
Language Education at Bogazici University. The data are drawn from two classroom
debates, a total of 96 minutes of video-recording and corpora of approximately
12,000 words. The Simple Concordance Program (version 4.0) was used to analyze
the data. The ndings revealed that the students omission of the 3rd person -s is
similar to the omission of the same sux by ELF speakers in worldwide contexts
1
and that the students also used the -s sux in ways that are similar to native
speaker norms. Semi-structured interviews with selected students evidenced their
native speakerism, which probably resulted from their exposure to English as Native
Language (ENL) in academic life at the university.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca, lexis/lexico-grammar, linguistic domain,
third person -s, academic debates
1 Introduction
English is an international language currently used by native and even more non-native
speakers around the world, and, according to Kachru (2005), its use will continue
to spread. Kachru, consequently, has re-conceptualized his famous model of Inner,
Outer, and Expanding circles because people living in Outer Circle countries have now
become functional native speakers of English (Kachru, 2005). The spread of English
into Outer and Expanding Circles has enabled speakers of diverse rst languages (L1s)
to communicate with one another via English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) (Firth, 1996;
Jenkins, 2009; Seidlhofer, 2005).
Increased use of ELF has stimulated much recent research. Several studies have
investigated the eect of ELF interactions on various domains of life in the world (Dewey,
2007; House, 2003; Jenkins, 2009; Jenkins, Cogo, and Dewey, 2011; Seidlhofer, 2009;
Seidlhofer and Berns, 2009; Seidlhofer, Breiteneder, and Pitzl, 2006; Wacker, 2011).
Abstract
Most existing research into cohesion has concentrated only on texts (usually
written) and then only in standard English e.g. Quirk et al. (1972), Halliday
and Hasan (1976), Halliday (2004). Following on the work in anaphora of such
scholars as Reinhart (1983) and Cornish (1999), Christiansen (2011) describes
cohesion as an interactive process focusing on the link between text cohesion and
discourse coherence, viewed from the standpoints of both addressor and addressee.
A consideration of cohesion within the context of discourse (seen as the process of
which text is the product see Widdowson, 1984, p. 100) is especially relevant within
a lingua franca context because the issue of dierent varieties of ELF and inter-
cultural concerns (see Guido, 2008) add extra dimensions to the complex multi-
code interaction of which cohesion must be seen not only as the key element in
the co-construction of a dialogic text in interaction, but crucially as constituting
the interface between the various ELF varieties in the ongoing development of
discourse. As such, it is fundamental for the interpretation of the same discourse
by participants. In this case study, six extracts of transcripts (approximately 1000
words each), taken from the VOICE corpus (2011) of conference question and
answer sessions (spoken interaction) set in multicultural university contexts are
analysed in depth by means of a qualitative method. The types of cohesive device
that six selected speakers of diverse ELF backgrounds use are examined to test the
hypothesis that, in such a context, speakers dierently achieve cohesion both within
their own speaker turns and relating to other speakers turns, despite the fact that
conference interaction is generally assumed to constitute part of an internationally-
shared academic register.
Keywords: Anaphora, cohesion, discourse, ELF, interaction
1 Introduction
In this short paper, we analyse an area which has hitherto largely been overlooked
in the eld of ELF, namely cohesion. We examine a corpus made up of six extracts
(approximately 1,000 words each taken from the beginning of each
1
), taken from the
% Discourse
Dut
16.52
Nor
81.95
Fin
0.38
?
1.15
PRqas 19 (1,094 words) S1 S2 S3 SS SX
Speakers L1*
% Discourse
Spa
8.14
Kor
89.39
Eng
2.2
?
0.09
?
0.18
PRqas 224 (1,280 words) S1 S4 S5 S6 SX
Speakers L1*
% Discourse
Ger
5.86
Rus
34.14
Hun
42.50
Spa
17.42
?
0.08
PRqas 407 (1,031 words) S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Speakers L1*
% Discourse
Ger
8.24
?
14.45
Slv
33.85
Ger
26.19
Cze
17.26
PRqas 409 (1,182 words) S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 SX6 SXm
Speakers L1*
% Discourse
Ger
5.84
Slv
16.24
Slo
63.28
Cze
11.34
?
3.13
?
0.08
?
0.08
PRqas 495 (1,058 words) S1 S2 S3 S4 S13 SS SX-4 SX-m
Speakers L1*
% Discourse
Spa
8.60
Eng
5.58
Chi
82.04
Spa
2.74
Spa
0.19
?
0.09
?
0.38
?
0.38
Key: Chi =Chinese; Cze =Czech; Dut =Dutch; Eng =English; Fin =Finnish; Ger =German;
Hun =Hungarian; Kor =Korean; Nor =Norwegian; Rus =Russian; Slo =Slovakian; Slv =Slovene;
Spa =Spanish; SS =speakers; SX=unidentied speaker; SX6 =unidentied speaker, possibly
S6; SX-m=unidentied speaker, male; ? =not known.
VOICE corpus (2011) of conference question and answer sessions. Basic data relating
to the corpus is given in Table 1.
In the top left hand corner the identication code for each transcript is given, as
classied in the VOICE corpus; in brackets is shown the approximate number of words
Cohesion as Interaction in ELF Spoken Discourse 275
Table 2: Hoeys (1991) categorisation of types of lexical repetition (Christiansen, 2011,
p. 274)
Simple Repetition Complex Repetition
Items of same word class sharing same
lexical morpheme (bear/bears)
1. Same word class but with no common
morpheme (am; is).
2. Like Simple, share a common morph-
eme but are of dierent word class (drug
noun / drugging verb).
3. Antonyms containing the same lexical
morpheme (happy/unhappy).
Simple Paraphrase Complex Paraphrase
When one item can replace another text
without change of meaning, or having to
undergo any transformation (e.g. produce/
cause). If the substitution is reciprocal,
the paraphrase is Mutual ; if not, Partial.
Like Simple, one item includes another,
but shares no common lexical morpheme
(e.g. hot/cold; author/writings).
in the extract (approximate because the gure includes some vocal sounds such as um,
er, or laughter). To the right along the top row are the identication codes for each
speaker in the extracts as given in the VOICE corpus. On the bottom row is the
percentage of the discourse which that particular speaker produces. The graphs on the
left give a representation of how the discourse of each extract is divided among the
contributing speakers and allow, at a glance, to see that PRqas19 is the extract where
one speaker is most dominant and PRqas407 that where discourse is most evenly shared
between the various participants.
2 Method of Analysis
Because of the many and varied ties that may exist between items within a discourse,
it is dicult to arrive at a simple and comprehensive classication of the cohesion
in any particular text, and an analysis may run to several lists of dierent kinds of
cohesive items, each several pages long. Lexical cohesion in particular is problematic
as alternative classications exist (cf. Halliday and Hasan, 1976; Hasan, 1984, p. 9,
Halliday, 2004), not all of them based entirely on objective criteria (see Christiansen,
2011).
In this analysis, we use elements of Halliday and Hasans (1976) description for
grammatical ties (substitution, ellipsis and conjunction), and for lexical ties, (Hoey,
1991) because, though not perfect, it is, of the available classications, the most rigorous
and easiest to be applied consistently (see Christiansen, 2011) (Table 2).
276 ELF5 Proceedings
Table 3: Dierent means of reference and corresponding types of NERE (Christiansen,
2009b, p. 36)
Means of Reference Specic Kind of NERE
Syntactic
Manifestation
Representation
(Rep NERE*)
Describing Epithet
noun phrase headed
by common noun
Labelling Name proper noun
Deixis/Indication
(Deictic NERE*)
Deictic Device
pronouns/possessive
determiners
Key: Chi =Chinese; Hun =Hungarian; Kor =Korean; Nor =Norwegian; Slo =Slovakian;
Slv =Slovene, S.D. =standard deviation
deviation indicating uniformity) are taken up by substitution and ellipsis. This is
interesting because although the low incidence of substitution may be put down to
the fact that the rules governing it may be less accessible to non-native speakers due to
its being perhaps a feature most peculiar to English
2
(see Christiansen, 2011), ellipsis,
resting as it does on a presumably universal principle of abbreviation and reduction
of given items, would seem, like anaphor, conjunctions and lexical cohesive ties, to be
a feature of most languages. However, ellipsis and substitution both operate at the
grammatical level and thus are most bound to the complexities of the morphosyntax of
English. It is therefore fair to assume, provisionally at least, that non-native speakers
could not easily transfer competences from their L1s to assist them in the two specic
areas substitution and ellipsis.
Some supporting evidence for L1 transfer comes from the fact that, while the mean
for anaphora (a recognised language universal see Haegeman, 1991; Cornish, 1999)
is relatively high (7.69), the standard deviation is low (2.94) indicating again a high
degree of uniformity.
Conjunctions are more frequent than anaphors but there is markedly less uniformity
(see standard deviation). Conjunctions also constitute universals but it is worth noting
that intonation of kinds not tagged in VOICE can play a role here (see Halliday and
Hasan, 1976, p. 271) so the data here may not be incomplete and consequently the true
gure may be higher. It is certainly interesting to note that non-native ELF speakers
of dierent L1s do avail themselves of this resource more readily than anaphora. This
may indicate that conjunctions, of certain kinds at least, are more fundamental cohesive
devices than anaphors and more easy to handle given the fact that deictic devices in
particular have to be embedded within the syntax of sentences whereas conjunctions can
be slotted relatively easily between propositions with little concern for syntax or concord
/ agreement. Furthermore, as Christiansen (forthcoming) notes, conjunctions do not
2
It might be tempting the view the issue in terms of linguistic competence, which at one level is a
factor. This would however, in our view, be to relegate EFL speakers to the position of mere learners
and thereby miss the larger more interesting picture of how ELF speakers construct discourse along new
lines and not by merely copying, consciously or not, native speaker models.
278 ELF5 Proceedings
Table 5: Anaphoric reference, co-reference, substitution and ellipsis in selected speakers
turns
PRqas18 %
S2 (Nor)
PRqas19 %
S2 (Kor)
PRqas224%
S5 (Hun)
PRqas407%
S3 (Slv)
PRqas409%
S3 (Slo)
PRqas495%
S3 (Chi)
Anaphor comp ref* 2.04 3.33 11.76 9.68 6.45 2.67
Anaphor dem ref* 7.14 8.33 8.82 6.45 6.45 17.33
Anaphor per ref* 63.27 35 32.35 25.81 25.81 29.33
Cataphor per ref* 4.08 0 0 0 0 0
Cor ref def epithet* 13.27 18.33 11.76 35.48 22.58 20
Co-ref epithet* 6.12 16.67 23.53 3.23 27.42 21.33
Co-ref name* 3.06 16.67 5.88 16.13 9.68 6.67
Co-ref proposition* 0 0 0 0 1.61 0
Ellipsis verbal* 0 0 0 3.23 0 0
Ellipsis clausal* 0 0 5.88 0 0 2.67
Substitute nom* 0 1.67 0 0 0 0
Substitute clausal* 1.02 0 0 0 0 0
Abstract
This paper introduces a novel phonopragmatic approach to the analysis of a
corpus of migration movies employed as teaching material in university courses of
ELF for intercultural mediators. The pragmatic implications of the dialogic cues by
a number of ELF-speaking characters in lms will be explored both qualitatively, in
terms of conversation moves and acts occurring within specic contexts of intercul-
tural communication, and quantitatively, through a phonopragmatic investigation of
the acoustic analysis of speech, and of the phonological segmentation into intonation
units and acoustic variations. The objective is to investigate the extent to which
the illocutionary and perlocutionary dimensions of the movie interactions can actu-
ally nd cross-cultural phonopragmatic realizations accounting for linguacultural
dierences in the expression and recognition of conversational presuppositions in
the dierent ELF varieties used by the characters in the selected movies. More
specically, some new moves and acts will be identied to justify cross-cultural
miscommunication due to semantic inaccessibility and cultural unavailability in
ELF interactions, together with their phonopragmatic realizations in conversation
which are here explored by applying a number of prosodic parameters aimed at
cue disambiguation in dierent ELF varieties, such as: vowel sounds in dierent
morpho-syntactic positions and their duration; pitch and duration of tonic syllables
and of syllables preceding syntactic boundaries; pause duration at phrase bound-
aries and their inuence on syllabic duration. The relevance of this approach to the
teaching of ELF to intercultural mediators will also be discussed.
Keywords: ELF phonopragmatics, conversation analysis, migration movies
1 Theoretical Background and Rationale
This paper presents a novel phonopragmatic approach (Sperti, forthcoming) to the
analysis of a corpus of migration movies employed as teaching material in university
.
about his family from some UNHCR Ocials.
By cross-checking the maximum pitch with the pitch range and lexical density it
is noticeable that the speakers employ dierent strategies involving not only linguistic
choices but also extralinguistic and paralinguistic means, as the speakers emphasize the
pragmatic meaning of their own words through frequency variations, syllabic durations
and intonational phrasing, speech rate and also facial expressions, gestures, head and
eye movements.
Maximum pitch and increasing perceived intensity on some lexical items such as
checked, list, le, papers, oce, reveal the speakers illocutionary purposes of ordering
begging and obeying, not only through the adoption of lexical strategies, but also
through their interface with prosodic and acoustic devices (Figure 6).
The analysis of the illocutionary acts is also supported by the consequent perlocu-
tionary eects: the white men react impolitely to Solomons requests communicating
their inability to help him and Solomon fails to obtain information on his family and
cannot satisfy his illocutionary intents.
7 Conversation Analysis: Case Study 1
In order to inuence peoples behaviour, RUF performs violent actions-such as taking
prisoners-and its members use overwhelming utterances to lead the interactions, as
Captain Poison in the example in Table 1.
Captain Poisons English is characterized by peculiar verbal forms, as want replac-
ing wants (turn 3), or gonna, replacing the expression to be going to (They gonna
tell you, turn 3). The omission of the verb are can be noticed as well, in We now the
future (turn 3).
The moves and the turn-taking system reveal the illocutionary intent. Captain
Poison aims at scaring and controlling people, at imposing RUFs ideology, by means of
An ELF Phonopragmatic Approach to the Analysis of Migration Movies 289
Table 1: Blood Diamond, 00:05:0500:06:14.
Situation: Captain Poison + RUF Members: Relationship leader/subordinates, shared
knowledge.
Captain Poison + Prisoners: Dierent social status, non-shared knowledge.
Turn Utterances Moves
1 CAPTAIN POISON: Bring forward the next one! Bastards! order
Bring forward the next one! order
2 RUF MEMBER: Long sleeve or short sleeve? fake elicit
3 CAPTAIN POISON: Young man, young man, you must
understand!
summon
The government want you to vote, OK? inform
They gonna tell you the future is in your
hands.
support
We now the future. So we take your hands. inform
No more hands, no more voting. upgrade
Chop him! Spread the word: the
Revolutionary United Front is coming!
order
4 RUF MEMBERS: R-U-F support
5 CAPTAIN POISON: Bring forward the next one! Bring him
forward! Bring him forward!
order
6 RUF MEMBER: Long sleeve or short sleeve? fake elicit
7 CAPTAIN POISON: Chop him! Hold on, hold on! Wait, wait,
wait! Not this one! Look at him! Put him
into the truck! Lets go! Bring him to the
mines!
order
He can work, he can work. support
Move, move, move! order
verbal and physical violenceas exemplied by the use of the imperativeswhereas the
support moves (turn 4) conrm his higher status. Furthermore, a novel move, fake elicit,
has been identied and introduced to highlight Captain Poisons dominance: dierently
from the conventional elicit move, fake elicit corresponds to a question supposedly
not to be answeredit serves to impose the leaders will, giving the impression of an
equalitarian relationship between the participants. The analysis reveals instead that
there is not a relation of cooperation: the prisoners are not allowed to take the oor,
nor the interaction includes moves aimed at testing the interlocutors feedback.
290 ELF5 Proceedings
Table 2: Blood Diamond, 00:11:1900:11:54.
Situation: Archer + Commander Zero: Shared knowledge
Turn Utterances Moves
1 ARCHER: Then una boys dhem can use old rotten
AK dehm against dehm government
troop
challenge
and their new weapons, huh? upgrade
2 COMMANDER
ZERO:
Maybe a could just kill you and take
what you bring back!
challenge
3 ARCHER: Then you get one more dead body? challenge
Instead of an airplane way full with
grenade launchers.
relaunch
So am tink a go go to dehm government. inform
Dehm government at least dehm go pay
me, huh?
support
4 COMMANDER
ZERO:
Wait, wait, wait, my friend. summon
Dis the tin you want? accept
Ie? try-marker
So many a noh no what do wit dehm all. repair
Ehy, Archa, next time bring satellite TV: elicit
I wanna see Baywatch. cross-
cultural
challenge
8 Conversation Analysis: Case Study 2
Archer perceives oral interactions as a kind of trade. Hence, his conversations are
generally characterized by a series of challenging utterances aiming at becoming the
leader, at prevailing over his interlocutors, as in the dialogue with Commander Zero
(Table 2).
Archer and Commander Zeros English does not respect the standard rules and is
characterized by peculiar verbal formse.g., go, replacing to be going to (am tink
a go go to dehm government, turn 3). Furthermore, alternative pronunciations are
noted as well, for example in a (= I) noh (= dont) no what (omission of to) do wit
(= with) dehm (= them) all (turn 4).
Two novel moves have been identied to suit the view of oral interactions as a
An ELF Phonopragmatic Approach to the Analysis of Migration Movies 291
Table 3: Blood Diamond, 00:28:4600:28:58.
Situation: Solomon + UNHCR Members: dierent social status; non-shared
knowledge.
Turn Utterances Moves
1 SOLOMON: Excuse me, summon
my names Solomon Vandy. open
2 MAN 1: Check the list. order
3 SOLOMON: I have checked the list. obey
4 MAN 1: File papers at the Oce for Refugees. order
5 SOLOMON: Sir, summon
I have led papers with the oce. obey
6 MAN 1: Then God help you, pass turn
because I cant. support
7 SOLOMON: Please, Sir beg
8 MAN 2: Next! pass turn
kind of trade: when Archer responds to Commander Zeros threaten a could just kill
you (turn 2), he is actually relaunching, as in gambling, being condent of succeeding.
The battle continues till Commander Zero recognizes that Archer is the higher-status
participant, thus accepting his conditions. Yet, the socio-cultural, implicit conict
between the RUF member and Archer leads to a particular reaction which mocks
Western culture by mentioning Baywatch, an American TV series (turn 4). This
utterance corresponds to a novel move, called cross-cultural challenge, since besides
opposing to Archers previous statements and to his roleCommander Zero is not the
leader, yet he closes the dialoguethe purpose is to downgrade that Western culture
Archer is in contact with.
9 Conversation Analysis: Case Study 3
When Solomon tries to obtain information about his family from UNHCR, the partici-
pants respect the conventional relationship of subordination between the African people
and the white men representing institutional power (Table 3).
The use of Standard English conveys the solemnity of the interaction, whereas the
analysis of the moves and the turn-taking system reveals the respect for the conven-
tional socio-cultural roles and the level of cooperation, as exemplied by the structured
alternation between summon/order and obey. The participants attitude is further
illustrated by turns 67: When Man 1 closes the distance between him and Solomon,
the latter restores their non-equalitarian relationship, begging for help.
292 ELF5 Proceedings
10 Conclusions
The analysis of the three case studies has shown dierent pragmalinguistic strategies
applied to the construction of messages through dierent variations of ELF employed
in migration movies. The cross-cultural interactions have been investigated through
(i) a phonopragmatic approach, to inquire into the relation between pragmatic goals
of the utterance and the use of prosodic tools to convey the speakers illocutionary
intentions, and (ii) a conversation analysis, to investigate the use of language in ELF
oral interactions and to identify the socio-cultural conventions imposed by the higher-
status participants, which can be respected or disregarded according to the level of
cooperation. Novel moves have been introduced to suit the peculiar strategies activated
by the speakers and the eects triggered on the receivers. Indeed the three case studies
have revealed how phonology inuences syntax and pragmatics in cross-cultural oral
interactions, as well as discourse comprehension and socio-cultural perception. Finally,
the analysis of the scripted interactions from the migration movies has the pedagogic
value of providing a framework for intercultural mediators, who should discern not only
the pragmalinguistic realizations of the participants socio-cultural conventions, but also
their phonopragmatic habits derived from dierent L1s transferred to their respective
use of ELF.
About the authors
Pietro Luigi Iaia is a Lecturer in English and Translation and a Ph.D. student in the
Department of Humanities of the University of Salento, Italy. His research interests
focus on ELF in cross-cultural audio-visual discourse.
Email: pietroluigi.iaia@unisalento.it
Silvia Sperti is a Lecturer in English and a Ph.D. student in the Department of Human-
ities of the University of Salento, Italy. Her research interests focus on the phonological
and pragmatic dimensions of ELF used in immigration and asylum contexts.
Email: silvia.sperti@unisalento.it
References
Backley, P. (2011). An Introduction to Element Theory. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Uni-
versity Press.
Boersma, P. and Weenik, D. (1996). PRAAT: A System for Doing Phonetics by
Computer (Ver. 3.4). Institute of Phonetic Sciences, University of Amsterdam,
Report 132. Retrieved from (http://www.praat.org).
Burton, D. (1980). Dialogue and Discourse: A Sociolinguistic Approach to Modern
Drama Dialogue and Naturally Occurring Conversation. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
Edwards, D. (1997). Discourse and Cognition. London: Sage.
An ELF Phonopragmatic Approach to the Analysis of Migration Movies 293
Guido, M.G. (2008). English as a Lingua Franca in Cross-cultural Immigration Do-
mains. Bern: Peter Lang.
Gumperz, J.J. and Hymes, D. (1964). The Ethnography of Communication. Washing-
ton: American Anthropological Association.
Iaia, P.L. (Forthcoming). Cognitive-Semantic, Pragmatic and Socio-Cultural Dimen-
sions of the Dubbing Translation of Audiovisual Texts. Ph.D. Thesis in English
Applied Linguistics, Universit`a del Salento.
Searle, J.R. (1983). Intentionality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sperti, S. (Forthcoming). Phonopragmatic Dimensions of ELF in Specialized Immigra-
tion Contexts. Ph.D. Thesis in English Applied Linguistics, Universit`a del Salento.
Paraphrases in ELF Interaction: A Case in a
British Higher Education Context
Mayu Konakahara
Abstract
This paper investigates how ELF users utilize paraphrases, particularly other-
paraphrases, in an informal group discussion in a British university setting. Since
earlier studies on ELF interactions revealed successful, cooperative and mutually
intelligible nature of ELF interactions despite variance in language forms (e.g.,
Firth, 1996; House, 2002; Mauranen, 2006), many studies have scrutinized how
such communicative eectiveness can be achieved through a variety of communica-
tive strategies. A communicative behavior of paraphrasing, which is of particular
interest in this study, is one of such strategies. Compared with a similar but
dierent communicative behavior of repeating, however, paraphrasing is still under-
explored in ELF research. This is partially because paraphrases tend to be regarded
as one form of repetitions or dierent forms along the continuum (Lichtkoppler,
2007; Mauranen, 2011), except in a few studies (e.g., Kaur, 2009). Although
it has to be acknowledged that some functions of the two behaviors inevitably
overlap, more detailed analysis is required in order to reveal specic procedures
that paraphrases are utilized. This paper, therefore, investigates how paraphrases
are utilized to achieve communicative eectiveness in ELF interactions, particularly
focusing on other-paraphrases. The ndings show two types of interactional envi-
ronment that other-paraphrases are exploited in: one is where a prior utterance
involves vague words and the other is where opinions about an ongoing topic are
shared by interactants. In such interactional environments, other-paraphrases serve
multiple and interrelated functions such as specifying or elaborating on the content
of the preceding utterances and showing participation in the ongoing interaction.
These, then, contribute to facilitating or enhancing mutual understanding between
interactants and creating a sense of solidarity between them in the current ELF
interactions.
Keywords: ELF interactions, other-paraphrases, communicative strategies,
communicative eectiveness
1 Introduction
This paper investigates how users of English as a lingua franca (ELF) exploit a com-
municative behavior of paraphrasing in talk-in-interaction. It particularly examines
interactional functions of other-paraphrase, i.e., a recipients paraphrase of the prior
Abstract
Libya is one of the Arab countries where the government has invested richly in
the English language teaching curriculum, which focuses on improving the teaching
and learning of English as a foreign language (EFL) in schools and universities
(Eldokali, 2010). As English becomes a dominant language of power in global com-
merce, science, and technology, the need to teach and learn English has increased
tremendously. The purpose of giving emphasis on the teaching and learning of
English in Libya is to enable the country to go along in the development of its
economy and to promote international exchange. But the research of Eldokali
(2010) revealed that very few studies have been done on teaching English in Arabic
countries in Africa, specically in Libya. Thus, this paper delved on empirical
method to carry out the linguistic description of how Libyans expressed their
sentiments during the Libyan uprising in 2011 using English language. Through
linguistic and sociolinguistic analysis of the dierent grati found on the roads
of Tripoli and Bengazi, the study revealed that group identity, social class and
the inuence of L1 has a lot to do with Libyans L2 learning. But, despite the
deciency of English, the power of the English language heightened the sentiments
of the people who cried and waited for freedom in the last 42 years. This shout for
freedom was heard internationally. Despite Libyans limited knowledge of English,
they made use of this language as a global lingua franca. How the people actually
used it and made it work recorded an impact in the world. This study clearly saw
how English as a medium of intercultural communication played an important role
in shaping the future of Libya.
Keywords: Grati, sciolinguistics, intercultural communication
1 Libya Free!
Libya was in the limelight in 2011. In all the corners of the world, the voices of the people
were heard. Banners, streamers, tarpaulins, ags and all other means of communications
were unfolded just to let the world know of their sentiments and feelings. The global
media like BBC, CNN, and Aljazeera battled their way in just to get exclusive news
from the citizens. An important and signicant event occurred in Libya. And they were
victorious.
Abstract
The paper introduces a socio-cognitive enquiry into the hybridization processes
occurring in the academic discourse of Islamic Finance as represented in a corpus
of recently-published textbooks written in English as a specialized lingua franca
dealing with nancial topics (cf. Iqbal and Mirakhor, 2011). Hybridization involves
the structural, textual and pragmatic choices identied in such textbooks reecting
as they do a specic attempt on the part of the text producers to make nancial con-
cepts informed by Shariah practices accessible (Widdowson, 1991) and acceptable
to Western/International university students, especially those from the expanding
circle. The focus is placed on selected texts written by Islamic/Muslim scholars re-
formulating original texts in the L1-Arabic through ELF structures and pragmatics
in order to provide explanations and clarications to the original Islamic concepts.
The objective of the enquiry, based on a systematic comparative analysis grounded
on Hallidays (1985) functional grammar, involves an identication of the strategies
writers apply to: (a) make a text function in a cross-cultural perspective and (b)
facilitate students to acquire content competences in a way that best ts their
background knowledge of the discipline. Therefore, facilitating strategies such as
denitions, periphrasis and repetitions of noun phrases shall be explored as triggers
for Western students processes of schema redenition, of cross-cultural revision of
textuality standards (de Beaugrande and Dressler, 1981) and of simplication rules
(van Dijk, 1980) which actually dene a specialized ELF variety of hybrid academic
discourse.
Keywords: Specialized variety, register, hybrid academic discourse, reformula-
tion, accessibility, nance discourse
1 Introduction
This study arises from the observation that there are new specialized Islamic concepts
of Finance that need to be investigated as represented in textbooks written in English
because of their relevance in the global context of this disciplinary domain and of
their contextual implications in terms of discourse analysis (Brown and Yule, 1983).
The assumption is that such an inuence should be evaluated in terms of the con-
ceptscontextual relevance, particularly if compared with the conventionally recognized
Umit Boz
Abstract
Studies that explore second language acquisition in online environments report
that online discussions help improve learners sociolinguistic competence and facil-
itate increased language production via such factors as reduced aective lter, col-
laborative learning, and negotiation of meaning (Blake, 2000; Toyoda and Harrison,
2002). Yet, few studies have examined students collective sociolinguistic behavior
in online environments in an eort to understand how they perform discourse
management. This scarcity in research provided the foundation for this proposed
study which aims to explore (a) how ELF speakers communicative competence is
reected in their sociolinguistic behavior in task-based online discussions through
their use of certain linguistic and conversational features such as topic introduc-
tions, topic mentions, and various speech acts, and (b) how this communicative
competence relates to their pragmatic competence as captured by the use of a set
of formulaic expressions including speech formulas and situation-bound utterances.
In this proposed study, discourse management is operationalized along two sociolin-
guistic dimensions that dierentiate speakers according to specic communicative
practices. These dimensions include: (a) Topic Control, a measure of how much
a speaker imposes the topics discussed; (b) Task control, the degree to which a
speaker manages the process of the discussion. Through automated and manual
annotation of local topics, dialogue acts, and formulaic expressions, this study aims
to show a prole of the dierential sociolinguistic and pragmatic behavior of a group
of speakers engaged in online discourse. In addition, by comparing the results with
the control group (native speakers), it aims to contribute to the understanding of
various discourse roles (e.g., inuential, collaborative, passive) that ELF speakers
assume in online discussions.
Keywords: Topic control, task control, formulaic language, sociolinguistic
analysis
1 Introduction
As a result of the advancements in technology, language learners have gained greater
access to communication in the target language via a wide variety of online social
networks including Facebook and Twitter. Globalization and technology have also led us
to rethink and reshape traditional learning and teaching with the introduction of online
Abstract
English is becoming an international language or a lingua franca, which requires
a paradigm shift in English language teaching (Kachru, 2005; Jenkins, 2000, 2007;
Seidlhofer, 2005; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Walker, 2010). Intelligibility is not only a
central concept for ELF research, but also an attainable and realistic goal of
pronunciation teaching. Many scholars have conducted research on the intelligibility
of dierent varieties of English; however, the intelligibility of Chinese-accented
English has been less studied except for some ndings on the intelligibility of Hong
Kong English (Kirkpatrick, Deterding and Wong, 2008). The present research
aimed to identify the features that hamper international intelligibility of Chinese-
accented English, and suggest priorities for English pronunciation teaching in the
context of China. The subjects were 32 university sophomores (16 females and
16 males), coming from seven typical Chinese dialect systems. They carried out a
diagnostic pronunciation test which consisted of words, a passage and an impromptu
speech. The corresponding recorded data were then transcribed by 32 educated
listeners from over 20 dierent nationalities. Mismatches between the speakers
transcriptions and the listeners transcriptions were recorded as intelligibility fail-
ures. The results reveal that the salient features that hamper the international
intelligibility of Chinese-accented English are as follows: (1) vowel quantity and
vowel quality; (2) substitution of diphthongs by monophthongs; (3) fortis and lenis
consonant confusion, /l/ and /n/ confusion, /v/ and /w/ confusion, /n/ and /m/
confusion at word ends, /l/ and /r/ confusion and so on. The research ndings on
Chinese-accented English are discussed with reference to Jenkins Lingua Franca
core (2000) and Kirkpatricks ASEAN ELF pronunciation (2010). Finally, based
on this empirical study, teaching strategies are proposed to enhance international
intelligibility in a college English pronunciation classroom.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca, intelligibility, Chinese-accented English,
pronunciation teaching
1 Introduction
English has become an international language or a lingua franca which is no longer
owned just by its native speakers. Nowadays non-native speakers using English for
international communication outnumber native speakers. As one of the central concepts
/ and /tr/, which occurred 11 times. The mismatched words are chain and
train, traveler and children, train and chain and so on. This is also one of the
new ndings from the present empirical research.
6. Adding consonants after the word ending
Adding consonants after the word ending is one of the central factors contributing
to intelligibility failures of Chinese-accented English, whose mismatch frequency
was 92 times. Among them, adding a nasal consonant /m//n//N/ after the word
ending 32 times and that was why some international listeners used the word
nasal to describe Chinese-accented English. Also, some other consonants such as
/k//d// l//t/ were added to the word endings.
Besides the above-mentioned, elision of consonants at word endings and consonant
cluster problems also hamper the international intelligibility of Chinese-accented En-
glish.
International Intelligibility of Chinese-Accented English 333
5 Conclusion
The main ndings of the research are as follows:
1. Although the international listeners had some diculty in understanding the
Chinese-accented English, they managed to get the speakers intended meaning.
The most salient adjectives to describe Chinese-accented English were unintelli-
gible, accented, hesitant, fast and so on.
2. The results reveal that the salient features that hamper international intelligibility
of Chinese-accented English are: (1) vowel quantity, especially the conation of
/i:/ and /I/, /O:/ and /O/; (2) vowel quality, the conation of /e, /, /2, /,
/2,A:/, /2,O/; (3) the substitution of diphthongs by monophthongs, the conation
of /eI/ with /e, ,i:/; the conation of /a I/ with //, /@u/ with /O:,O/; (4) nasal
consonant confusion; fortis and lenis consonants confusion; /l/ and /n/, /v/ and
/w/, /n/ and /m/ at word ending, /l/ and /r/, /T,D/ and /s,z/ or /t,d/, /r/ and
/w/; /tS//dZ/ and /tr//dr/, / l/ and /u:/ confusion; (5) adding consonants after
the word ending.
The changing scene of English requires a paradigm shift in English language teaching.
Intelligibility is undoubtedly an important aspect for promoting pronunciation teaching
reform in China. First of all, teachers of English pronunciation at college level should
bear in mind multiple standards and international intelligibility, cultivate students
awareness of dierent Global Englishes and enhance their condence in using Chinese-
accented English. Secondly, English teachers should familiarize themselves with all the
general, dialectal and individual problems that hamper the international intelligibility
of speech by Chinese university students. As teaching priorities, the general and core
areas for intelligibility should be highlighted in classroom teaching, while specic and
non-core areas could be tackled in web-based autonomous language learning. Finally, it
is highly recommended that the index of intelligibility be included as one of the criteria
in oral English tests.
About the author
Dr. Lingli Zhang has worked as an associate professor in School of Foreign Languages,
China University of Geosciences. In 20112012 she was an academic visitor funded by
China Scholarship Council in the Centre for Global Englishes, University of Southamp-
ton, U.K. Her main interests include applied linguistics, phonetics and phonology and
computer-assisted language Teaching.
Email: zhanglingli@cug.edu.cn
References
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Brown, A. (1991). Function load. In A. Brown (Ed.), Teaching English Pronunciation:
A Book of Readings (pp. 211224). London: Routledge.
Catford, J.C.(1950). Intelligibility. ELF Journal, 1, 715.
He, S.F. (2002). [A Contrastive Analysis of Chinese and English].
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Ho, L. (2003). Pronunciation Problems of PRC students. In L.G. Ling, L. Ho, L. Meyer,
et al. (Eds.), Teaching English to Students from China (pp. 138155). Singapore:
University of Singapore Press.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The Phonology of English as an International Language. Oxford,
UK: Oxford University Press.
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and Identity. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Kachru, B.B. (2005). Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon. Hong Kong: Hong Kong
University Press.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2007). World Englishes: Implications for International Communication
and English Language Teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kirkpatrick, A., Deterding D. and Wong J. (2008). The international intelligibility of
Hong Kong English. World Englishes, 27, 359377.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as a Lingua Franca in ASEAN A Multilingual Model.
Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Seidlhofer, B. (2005). Key concepts in ELF: English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal,
59(4), 339341.
Smith, L.E. and Raqzad,K. (1979). English for cross communication: the question of
intelligibility. TESOL Quarterly, 13(3), 371380.
Smith, L.E. and Nelson. C. (1985). International Intelligibility of English: directions
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Smith, L.E. (1992). Spread of English and issues of intelligibility. In B.B. Kachru
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Suenobu, M., Kanzaki, K. and Yamane,S. (1992). An experimental study of intelligibil-
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Interpreting Trauma Narratives in Crosscultural
Immigration Encounters Between Outer-Circle
and Expanding-Circle ELF Users: Sociolinguistic
Issues and Pedagogic Implications
Maria Grazia Guido
Abstract
This paper explores the ways in which traumatic experiences of war and torture
are rst represented in the narratives of West African refugees through their ELF
variations during crosscultural medical encounters, and then interpreted by Italian
specialists with reference to their clinical-schema categories, and encoded according
to the genre conventions which inform the syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and
textual features of the ELF which the specialists use. The case study investigates
not only the dierent ELF linguacultural conventions of the two contact groups,
respectively coming from the outer and the expanding circles, but also the register
structures of the Italian specialists, transferred to their ELF, which do not account
for the African refugees dierently situated narratives, perceived by specialists as
deviating. This is so because coherence and cohesion in such narratives reect
the refugees dierent L1 typological features transferred to their ELF variations,
as well as their dierent knowledge systems and community values associated with
traumatic experiences relating more to socio-political balance than to individual
wellbeing. Four deviation levels between conventional and native trauma reports
through ELF are investigated: transitivity vs. ergativity; generic vs. ethnopoetic
patterns; epistemic vs. deontic modality; specialized lexis vs. native idioms of
distress. The identication of divergent narratives has also a pedagogical impact
on the training of community interpreters in contexts of transcultural psychiatry as
it suggests alternative ways of textualizing, through ELF, dierent socio-cultural
conceptualizations of the trauma experience, thus safeguarding the refugees social
identities and fostering successful communication in the expanding circle.
Keywords: Non-western ELF trauma narratives, conventional PTSD registers,
hybrid ELF registers
1 Research Topic, Assumption and Hypothesis
This paper focuses on how past traumatic experiences are rst represented in the
narratives of non-western (West-African) immigrants from the outer circle (Kachru,
1986), speaking endonormative ELF variations, and then interpreted as deviating
Abstract
The focus of this paper is on how meaning making is achieved with reference to
ELF and what competencies are discernible in ELF interactions. In particular, two
research questions are investigated: Which wordings and features of discourse are
characteristic of interactions in contexts where English is used as a lingua franca,
and how do they contribute to meaning making? To what extent do successful ELF
interactions require competencies which are additional to those already described
in the literature, and how can they best described and accounted for? Adopting
a linguistic ethnographic perspective, meetings of the committe members and the
ocers of an international students society at the University London were observed
and audio-recorded while English was used as a lingua franca. The data were
analysed qualitatively tapping into analytic traditions such as Conversation Anal-
ysis and Discourse Analysis. What was found was that interlocutors extensively
drew linguistic elements from their linguacultural backgrounds, whether these were
their mother tongue or other varieties of English with which they had come into
contact before, and they were inserting them in their ELF conversations with their
colleagues. These linguistic innovations of the interlocutors seemed to emerge due
to a variety of functional-pragmatic motivations and to achieve various interactive
functions. This paper will focus on linguistic innovations with which the ELF
interlocutors managed to make specic meaning in the sense of lling some kind of
lexical gap. This particular function did not seem to be achieved at random, but
on the contrary it was strategically well thought out and well elaborated on, as it
is shown in the provided excerpts and also as it was reported in the accounts of the
participants themselves in the post-session discussions which took place with them,
as it will be shown.
Keywords: ELF, code-switching, borrowing, innovations, functions, meaning
making
1 Introduction
This paper looks at the meetings of an international students society at the University
of London, with the aim to discuss the lexical innovations which emerged when students
were drawing on their linguistic and cultural backgrounds to communicate using English
Abstract
Contact with and Use of English is a dichotomized view of language used in this
paper. It is used to consider how English occurs and aects language behaviour
incurring English across three zones in Kachrus Three Circles of English: Japan
in the Extending Circle; Singapore in the Outer; and Norfolk Island in the Inner
Circle. While the lingua franca in Japan is Japanese rather than English, the other
two zones ostensibly have English as lingua francas (ELFs). However dierent
languages and English varieties regularly occur in dierent situations in language
cultures across each of these zones. English that people have Contact With is any
ostensibly English text which people in a language community would encounter,
consciously or subconsciously, in their environments. Such texts are sourced either
inside or outside their language cultures. Texts sourced inside are also English
Used by people in those cultures. This paper gives an overview of research in the
three zones mentioned above with the purpose of trying to pin down what exactly
ELF is. In the process, pragmatics of English in language cultures there and also
what English is learned by people there are considered. It is concluded that ELF is
necessarily various, and the signicance of this is discussed. Three ways in which
scholars, language policy makers and planners might deal with this realization are
suggested.
Keywords: ELF, contact with English, use of English, diglossic situations,
English which is learned
In spite of all academic debate and discussion about English as Lingua franca (ELF),
it is hard to pin down as to be observable as a unitary phenomenon. Yet it is often
discussed as such. How then might ELF be realized? From place to place ELF is
hardly ever the same thing. As the title suggests, this paper attempts to dichotomize
English as something which people have contact with and also which people use. Could
this dichotomized view assist pinning down (an) ELF for observation? In this paper,
contact with and use of English are considered as theoretical and generic concepts
with references to text analysis, and relevant ethnographic research ndings. Further
discussion of other aspects (including Pragmatics, English which is taught or otherwise
learned and peoples attitudes to English) leads to nal discussion of the situation
regarding ELF in light of ndings in this research.
Starting with the conventional Kachrurian Three Circles of English model as a
template, Japan, Singapore and Norfolk Island were selected to represent the Extending,
Abstract
This paper explores the sociolinguistic consequences of a language contact sit-
uation between Portuguese-speaking domestics and their Anglophone clients in
a multilingual cleaning company in New Jersey, USA. Language attitudes and
ideologies (Blommaert, 2005; Jenkins, 2007) about English for many of these domes-
tics index their national identities as well as their migrant identities Their beliefs
and desires to eventually return to their home countries inuence their minimal
investment (Norton, 2000) in English. Domestics testimonies concerning language
practices among their strong and dense ties of their social networks within their
local community reveal that domestics do not rely on English in their private, daily
lives since their ethnic enclave accommodates to Portuguese-speaking residents.
This means individuals residing within the Ironbound neighborhood of Newark,
NJ are not forced to speak the majority language (English). Because domestics
private lives can be carried out in Portuguese, their levels of English vary and so
does their attitude towards the language, all of which correlate to the amount of
time they have resided in the U.S. and if they learned English within a formal
classroom setting. The domestics with no or low prociency in the target language
cannot directly communicate with their clients. As a result, the main employer of
the cleaning rm and several rst-generation daughters serve as language brokers
between domestics and clients. For the domestics who employ ELF in the workplace,
insecurities about their language skills often leads to delays in problem solving
when domestics are required to speak to their Anglophone clients directly. Despite
their command of English, many domestics compare themselves to native speakers
(Jenkins, 2007; Cogo, 2010) and rate their English-speaking skills poorly although
co-workers, employers, and clients assess their skills very positively. In this paper, I
investigate domestics language ideologies concerning English in the workplace and
how these do not always coincide with how their language use is perceived by both
language brokers and English-speaking clients. In doing so, I show how the use of
English within an ELF workplace context continues to be measured against native
speaker norms.
Keywords: ELF perceptions, language ideologies, native speaker norms, work-
place discourse
Abstract
The concept that each language learner has a unique combination of language
learning abilities is crucial to individual dierences research in SLA. Motivation
(Dornyei, 2005; Pintrich, 1989) and the number of languages spoken (De Angelis,
2007; Sanz, 2000) along with the eect that these languages have on subsequent
language acquisition are all crucial to the composition of language learner ability.
Although motivation is often discussed, the multilingualism perspective is often
under analyzed (De Angelis, 2007). This study examines bilinguals and multilin-
guals and the eect that previous language experience has on motivation. The
participants are 79 bilingual and multilingual learners of English from Casa de Cul-
tura Britanicas English language program, an aliate of the Universidade Federal
do Ceara in Fortaleza, Brazil. The participants completed the Portuguese version
of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), the Questionario
de Estrategias Motivacionais para Aprendizagem (QEMA). Using a Factor Analysis
(FA) and a Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) from the participants answers on
the QEMA, the bilingual and multilingual participants are compared. An innovative
approach to dening multilingualism Perceived Positive Language Interaction
(PPLI) is also discussed. Results indicate that for this context, the bilingual and
multilingual participants do not have distinct motivational proles. The surprising
results for the non-signicant bilingual/multilingual comparison with regards to
motivation can perhaps be partially explained by a combination of the participants
similar backgrounds, the context of the study, and the status of English as a lingua
franca (Berns, 2009; Dornyei and Csizer, 2002; Dornyei, Csizer and Nemeth, 2006;
Munat, 2005; Seidlhofer, 2009).
Keywords: Motivation, multilingualism, perceived positive language interac-
tion (PPLI), ELF
1 Introduction
Although there are dierent approaches to researching language learning motivation (see
Dornyei, 2005, for an overview), this paper uses the cognitive-situated framework, which
is based largely on cognitive theories from the eld of educational psychology, focusing
on classroom-based motivation and how thinking about tasks and personal capabilities
are crucial to the concept of motivation (Dornyei, 2005). One of the instruments created
Abstract
This paper reports on the use of English as a medium of instruction in a
multilingual context in which students as well as lecturers are native speakers
of languages other than English. Thus English serves as the only language all
users have in common, although the degree to which they master English diers
signicantly. Most students are either from the expanding circle or from the outer
circle (see Kachrus (1985) Concentric Circles Model ), while most lecturers are from
the expanding circle. Very few (if any) are from the inner circle. The case study
refers to a postgraduate programme in Development Studies, taught in English for
an international audience at the University of Antwerp, in the Dutch-speaking part
of Belgium (Flanders). For many students, English remains a problem, even though
they meet the admission requirements and in spite of language facilities provided by
the department. After having established the students linguistic prole by means
of a questionnaire and short interviews, the paper focuses on the students written
English, and on their rst 3,500 words assignment in particular. The study also
addresses the issues of language quality and norms in an international academic
context. The study illustrates the problems encountered by speakers of English
from the expanding and outer circle. It nds that students who write native-
like English may have a clear advantage over the others (e.g. some students from
the expanding circle whose language is related to English). Students from the
outer circle who use localized varieties of English may face particular problems of
intelligibility in an international context. The paper argues that ELF may not be
the common language it is often believed to be, and that it may introduce new
inequalities rather than equalities. It concludes that all Englishes are equal, but
some may be more equal than others.
Keywords: Academic English, Dutch-speaking context, English medium in-
struction, Flanders, native speaker
1 Introduction
The view persists that English belongs to its native speakers, and that they decide what
constitutes standard language. Yet, the terms native speaker and standard language are
highly problematic, even though they are rarely questioned (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 5). I
take the view that language is a discursive construct, and so is the belief in the existence
, Dora Chostelidou
Abstract
In acknowledgement of current EU multilingual policy, the present study was
conducted with the aim to provide a comparative account of primary school teach-
ers beliefs on issues related to ELF and multilingual learning in two educational
contexts: the Greek and Cypriot. The stimulus for conducting the study can be
identied in current EU multilingual policy, the spread of English world-wide and
the changing status of English within Europe for the last decades. In total, the
views of 100 EFL teachers employed in Greek and Cypriot primary schools were
surveyed. Semi-structured interviews were used as the basic research instrument.
The ndings indicated that teachers in both contexts acknowledged the dominant
role of ELF and they highlighted the benets from learning a FL from a very young
age. Nevertheless, it should be noted that although the teachers acknowledged
the inuential role and dominance of English as a lingua franca, they highlighted
the need for students to acquire multilingual competence in a variety of foreign
languages starting from very early age.
Keywords: ELF, multilingualism, language policy, teachers beliefs
1 Introduction
Over the last decades English has established itself as a global language (Crystal,
2003) or lingua franca (ELF), a eld developed in its own right (Jenkins, 2006).
Nevertheless, ELF is not considered to present the one and only solution for interlingual
communication (Zeevaert and Thije, 2007) marginalizing the learning and using of
other languages while ignoring the benets of multilingualism and multiculturalism
(Cunningham, 2006). For this reason, ocial policies have been developed with the aim
to realize the emerging demands for language learning and linguistic diversity (Wilton,
2011, p. 45). In this direction, the Commissions policy proclaims the furthering of
multilingualism through the educational systems of all member states (Grin, 2006),
due to the acknowledged signicance for all citizens to be able to speak two European
languages in addition to their mother tongue, 2+1 formula, (European Commission,
1995).
Abstract
The research aims to nd out what impact has a common non-native language
on the perceptions and the representations of dierent identities and roles in the
multicultural urban class in Italy. As language is an issue both at the level of identity
and identication, my interest regards the creative and transformative potentials of
ELF in multicultural classes. I conducted a qualitative research through: Insider
observation; 62 interviews in two dierent kinds of high schools in Turin, a city in
the North West of Italy; 2 back-talk focus groups. The research shows that, though
taught as EFL, in Italian multicultural classes English is being appropriated by
adolescents as ELF, a lingua franca for intercultural communication. The paradigm
of ELF can be helpful when applied to the micro context of the urban classroom as
it helps to take a closer look at how English is regarded. Data show that students
perceive a gap between the English they study and the English they use. At
school, students consider it as a normative subject (EFL) which may sometime
cause anxiety, while in the extra-school they appreciate the interactional quality
of ELF, as it is able to oer connection to their peers and/or to represent the
means for exploring new personal and collective identities, untied from previous
roles and national belongings. The data of this research show that ELF can serve
as a linguistic space in common set at the border of dierent languages and dierent
voices. This is a practice and a process which may help to traverse the boundaries
of identity/ties, and blur those of ethnicity to create new aliations and belongings.
Keywords: Language and identity, adolescents, multicultural classes, EFL/
ELF
1 From Macro to Micro
In the second half of the twentieth century EFL (English as Foreign Language) has
undergone many changes that are having an impact on the way English is taught and
spoken around the world at the start of the twenty-rst (Jenkins, 2003; p. 33). Dierent
uses and practices of the language users are transforming the language itself. English is
not a unitary language (Dewey, in press, p. 3), being transformed by and transforming
its users.
Abstract
This paper presents the ndings of a study that delves into learners attitudes
towards learning dierent foreign languages in a multicultural setting. To be more
specic, 98 lower secondary students, who have migrated to Greece and receive
schooling in a Greek intercultural school, responded to a questionnaire that looked
into students attitudes towards the learning of Greek as a second language, English
as an additional language (which is a compulsory school subject) and a chosen
additional language (i.e. French or German). A subset of 9 students coming from
various linguistic and cultural backgrounds took part in a semi-structured interview.
The ndings demonstrated that the students held more positive attitudes towards
Greek, which is the ocial and spoken language in the host country, and English,
which can be attributed to the international dimension of this language. With
regard to the chosen additional languages, it seems that the students were not
favourably inclined towards learning these languages due to the lack of perceived
utilitarian purposes. Once this particular student population is closely examined,
it becomes apparent that the students had formulated denite views about their
needs and were determined to strive hard towards the attainment of their goals.
The attitudes held are language specic, closely associated with the language status
and aected by the economic situation in the host country.
Keywords: Language attitudes, multiculturalism, language status, intercul-
tural school
1 Introduction
In the global village, multiculturalism and multilingualism have invaded various as-
pects of everyday life, while the quest for human resources is thriving along with the
quest for other resources. In Europe, in particular, the economic crisis has permeated
most societies and multiculturalism in the wider socio-cultural context has aected
the education received in the school setting. The promotion of multilingualism in the
school curriculum is seen as a rst step towards developing multilingual speakers of the
languages taught within a particular speech community. Various questions arise: What
attitudes do learners exhibit towards the dierent languages taught in a multicultural
English
M
French
M
German
M
How important do you think these languages are in
the world these days?
Greek vs. English: N = 73, z = 7.541, p < .001
Greek vs. French: N = 21, z = 1.843, p > .05
Greek vs. German: N = 46, z = 2.835, p = .005
2.57 1.49 2.97 2.92
How much eort can you put into learning these
languages?
Greek vs. English: N = 58, z = 3.014, p < .003
Greek vs. French: N = 26, z = 4.465, p < .001
Greek vs. German: N = 46, z = 4.653, p < .001
2.56 2.29 3.63 3.25
How much do you think the knowledge of these
languages would help you nd a future job?
Greek vs. English: N = 58, z = 1.471, p > .05
Greek vs. French: N = 21, z = 3.959, p < .001
Greek vs. German: N = 44, z = 5.460, p < .001
1.91 2.04 3.31 2.78
English
M
French
M
German
M
I am sure that I will learn this language well.
Greek vs. English: N = 92, z = 8.391, p < .001
Greek vs. French: N = 31, z = 4.931, p < .001
Greek vs. German: N = 57, z = 6.649, p < .005
4.67 2.77 2.39 2.42
Learning this language is an easy task.
Greek vs. English: N = 16, z = 3.078, p < .002
Greek vs. French: N = 24, z = 2.466, p < .014
Greek vs. German: N = 44, z = 2.756, p < .006
2.56 2.29 3.63 3.25
England
M
US
M
France
M
Germany
M
How much do you like TV movies made
in these countries?
Greece vs. England:
N = 74, z = 7.090, p < .001
Greece vs. US:
N = 73, z = 6.723, p < .001
Greece vs. France:
N = 21, z = 1.129, p > .05
Greece vs. Germany:
N = 31, z = 3.088, p = .002
2.21 1.32 1.39 2.50 2.51
How much do you like reading magazines
made in these countries?
Greece vs. England:
N = 60, z = 5.335, p < .001
Greece vs. US:
N = 60, z = 5.335, p < .001
Greece vs. France:
N = 15, z = 3.455, p < .001
Greece vs. Germany:
N = 30, z = 4.838, p < .001
2.01 1.38 1.39 4.63 4.66
How much do you like the music made in
these countries?
Greece vs. England:
N = 38, z = 0.169, p > .05
Greece vs. US:
N = 36, z = 0.713, p > .05
Greece vs. France:
N = 25, z = 4.449, p < .001
Greece vs. Germany:
N = 29, z = 4.765, p < .001
1.28 1.27 1.33 4.28 4.28