Imperatives are verbs used to give orders, commands and instructions.

The form used is usually the same as

the base form. It is one of the three moods of an English verb. Imperatives should be used carefully in English;
to give firm orders or commands, but not as much when trying to be polite or show respect to the other person.
EG: Give me that tape, please.

(Adjectival noun) An Adjective can sometimes function as a Noun; the young, the rich, etc. These are Adjectival
Nouns, meaning the people who are young, the people who are rich, etc.

An adjective modifies a noun. It describes the quality, state or action that a noun refers to.
ADJECTIVE RULES:
i) Adjectives can come before nouns: a new car
ii) Adjectives can come after verbs such as be, become, seem, look, etc.: that
car looks fast
iii) They can be modified by adverbs: a very expensive car
iv) They can be used as complements to a noun: the extras make the car
expensive

An adverbial is a group of words that functions in the same way as an Adverb:
eg: Before the play, we met up in a pub near the theatre.
'Before the play' functions in the same way as an adverb of time such as
Yesterday, etc.
Most adverbs in English are formed by adding -ly to an Adjective. An adverb is a word that modifies the
meaning of a Verb; an Adjective; another adverb; a Noun or Noun Phrase; Determiner; a Numeral; a Pronoun; or
a Prepositional Phrase and can sometimes be used as a Complement of a Preposition.
ADVERB SPELLING NOTES
i) Adjectives ending -l still take -ly; careful-carefully.
ii) Adjectives ending -y change to -ily; lucky-luckily
iii) Adjectives ending -ble change to -bly; responsible-responsibly
ADVERB OF MANNER
Adverbs of manner modify a verb to describe the way the action is done.
EG: She did the work carefully.
('Carefully' modifies the verb to describe the way the work was done, as
opposed to quickly, carelessly, etc..)
ADVERB OF PLACE or LOCATION
Adverbs of place show where the action is done.
EG: They live locally.
ADVERB OF TIME
Adverbs of time show when an action is done, or the duration or frequency.
EG: He did it yesterday. (When)
They are permanently busy. (Duration)
She never does it. (Frequency)
ADVERB OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree increase or decrease the effect of the verb.
EG: I completely agree with you. (This increases the effect of the verb,
whereas 'partially' would decrease it.)
ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVES
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, which precedes the adjective,
except 'enough' which comes after.
EG: That's really good.
It was a terribly difficult time for all of us.
It wasn't good enough. ('Enough' comes after the adjective.)
ADVERBS MODIFYING ADVERBS
An adverb can modify another. As with adjectives, the adverb precedes the
one it is modifying with 'enough' being the exception again.
EG: She did it really well.
He didn't come last night, funnily enough.
ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUNS
Adverbs can modify nouns to indicate time or place.
EG: The concert tomorrow
EG: The room upstairs
ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUN PHRASES
Some adverbs of degree can modify noun phrases.
EG: We had quite a good time.
They're such good friends.
Quite; rather; such; what (What a day!) can be used in this way.
ADVERBS MODIFYING DETERMINERS, NUMERALS &
PRONOUNS
Adverbs such as almost; nearly; hardly; about, etc., can be used:
EG: Almost everybody came in the end.
Attributive and Predicative Adjectives
ADJECTIVES
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Most adjectives can occur both before and after a noun:



the blue sea ~ the sea is blue
the old man ~ the man is old
happy children ~ the children are happy

Adjectives in the first position - before the noun - are called
ATTRIBUTIVE adjectives. Those in the second position - after the
noun - are called PREDICATIVE adjectives. Notice that predicative
adjectives do not occur immediately after the noun. Instead, they
follow a verb.
Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun,
especially in certain institutionalised expressions:
the Governor General
the Princess Royal
times past
We refer to these as POSTPOSITIVE adjectives. Postposition is obligatory
when the adjective modifies a pronoun:
something useful
everyone present
those responsible
Postpositive adjectives are commonly found together with superlative,
attributive adjectives:
the shortest route possible
the worst conditions imaginable
the best hotel available
Most adjectives can freely occur in both the attributive and the
predicative positions. However, a small number of adjectives are
restricted to one position only. For example, the
adjective main (themain reason) can only occur in the attributive
position (predicative: *the reason is main). Conversely, the
adjective afraid (the child wasafraid) can only occur predicatively
(attributive: *an afraid child).


A common adjective is an adjective that is not written with a capital letter. Most adjectives are common- ones
that are written with a capital letter are proper adjectives .

The Comparative is the form of an adjective or adverb used to compare two things. To create a comparative,
remember that with short adjectives add -er to the end, and longer ones use more before the adjective:
EG: The Nile is longer than the Amazon. - Long >> Longer
EG: Many students find writing more difficult than reading. - Difficult >> More Difficult


Demonstrative adjectives (this, that, these, those) show whether the noun they refer to is singular or plural and
whether it is located near to or far from the speaker or writer.

A disjunct expresses the speaker or writer's attitude to what is being
described in the sentence.
EG: Fortunately, we managed to get there on time. ('Fortunately' shows us that the
speaker was pleased about the result of the action.)

Here are some examples (note: the disjuncts that follow are 'sentence adverbs'):
Honestly, I didn't do it. (Meaning "I'm honest when I say I didn't do it" rather than "I didn't
do it in an honest way.")
Fortunately for you, I have it right here.
In my opinion, the green one is better.
Frankly, this whole paragraph needs work.
Interestingly, the comment made for a great topic of its own.
Luckily, the amount of sugar the recipe called for was in stock in the pantry.
Clearly, the mail did not come today due to it being a national holiday.
Unfortunately, by the time she reached the bus stop, the bus had already left.
Sometimes, the same word or phrase can be interpreted either as a disjunct or as a simple
adjunct:
They seriously worked in an underground diamond mine run by Barbara.
Disjunct meaning: I'm serious when I say that they worked in an underground diamond
mine ...
Adjunct meaning: They worked with seriousness...

My, your, his, her, its, our, and their are the English possessive adjectives,
used with nouns to show possession or ownership.
EG. That's my folder. (My is an adjective which shows that I am the owner of
the folder.)
My; your; his; her; its; our; & their are the possessive adjectives in
English. They are used before a noun to show possession.


A proper adjective is an adjective that is written with a capital letter. They are often derived from proper nouns:
A Japanese camera- Japanese is derived from the proper noun Japan.
This is not always the case:
The drama club performed the Shakespearian play Macbeth.Shakespearian is derived from the
proper noun Shakespeare.

Ordinary adjectives that are not written with a capital letter are common adjectives.


A resultative adjective is an adjective that is placed postpositively (after the noun it modifies) and reflects a
change that occurs by action of the verb on the noun. Hence result +ative.


He cooked the meat rare.
She painted the fence white.
She rinsed the glass clean.

The Superlative is the form of an adjective or adverb that shows which thing has that quality above or below
the level of the others. There must be three or more to use the superlative. It takes the definite article and short
adjectives add -est and longer ones take 'most':
SUPERLATIVE EXAMPLES:
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
It is the most expensiverestaurant I've ever been to
A conjunction is a word like AND, BUT, WHEN, OR, etc., which connects words, phrases or clauses.

A conjunct relates what is said in a sentence to another sentence. As such, it
is not part of the structure of the sentence in which it is used.
EG: However, things turned out much worse than expected. ('However' relates
what is said to contrast it with previous information about the speaker's
expectations.)
All told, we did very well. ('All told' connects information that has already been
given to produce a final conclusion that connects everything. In both
examples it is possible to remove the conjunct without making the sentence
ungrammatical.)


Coordinating conjunctions join two items of equal importance. For, and, nor, but, or, yet and so are
the coordinating conjunctions in English, forming the mnemonic FANBOYS. They contrast with subordinating
conjunctions, like if and whether, that introduce a dependent clause .

A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause, which depends on the
rest of the sentence for its meaning and cannot stand alone:
Unless we leave now, we'll be late. (Unless is the subordinating conjunction)
Subordinating conjunctions include: although, as, because, before, if, once, since, than, that,
till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever.


The Zero Conditional is used for actions that are always true when the
conditions are satisfied.
EG: If you put sugar in coffee, it tastes sweet.
Formation:
If + Present Simple, + Present Simple


The third conditional is used for imaginary past actions, where the conditions
for the action WERE NOT satisfied.
eg: If you'd been there, you would've seen it. (The conditions were not met
because the person was not there and as a result did not see it.)
Formation:
If + Past Perfect, + Would have + Past Participle



(2nd conditional) 1/ For future actions dependent on the result of another
future action or event, where there is only a small possibility of the conditions
for the action being satisfied.
eg: If I won the lottery, I would stop working.
2/ For imaginary present actions, where the conditions for the action are
NOT satisfied.
eg: If you phoned home more often, they wouldn't worry about you. (The
conditions are not satisfied because the person does not phone home, so
they do worry.)
TO BE: In Standard English this verb can take the 'were' form for all persons in
the If clause.
eg: If I were you, I'd tell her.
CONTRACTIONS: 'Would' and 'had' are contracted to 'd; the way to
distinguish them is simple because 'would' is always followed by a Base
Form and 'had', as an Auxiliary Verb, is followed by a Past Participle.
eg: I'd tell her. 'Tell' is the Base Form so it means 'I would tell her'
I'd done it. 'Done' is the Past Participle so it means 'I had done it'
Formation:
If + Past Simple, + Would + Base Form
Protasis is a term for the if clause in a conditional sentence:
If you go there, you'll enjoy it.
If you go there is the protasis and you'll enjoy it is the apodosis.


1) Will Will
If + Will, + Will
When trying to convince someone that you will do something in return for their doing something.
EG: If you'll walk the dog, I'll do the dinner.

2) Would Would
Would + If + Would

To be very polite, especially in writing:
EG: I would be very grateful if you would be so kind as to send me the forms as soon as possible.


i) Third Second Mixed Conditionals
If + Past Perfect, + Would + Base Form
1/ For imaginary present actions or situations that are not possible because
the necessary conditions were not met in the past. eg: If you had taken the
course, you would know about it. (The conditions were not met because the
person did not do the course and as a result does not know about it now.)



ii) Second Third Mixed Conditionals
If + Past Simple, + Would have + Past Participle
1/ To avoid the illogicality of saying 'If I had been you', which means that I
was not you on that occasion, but could be in the future, which is, of course,
impossible.
eg:If I were you, I wouldn't have done that.
2/ Where the first part is still true:
eg:If I could speak Spanish, I wouldn't have needed to get the letter
translated.
This means that I couldn't speak Spanish then when I needed the translator
and still can't.

The first conditional (or 1st Conditional) is for future actions dependent on
the result of another future action or event, where there is a reasonable
possibility of the conditions for the action being satisfied.
eg: If he gets here soon, I'll speak to him about it. (The speaker believes that
there is a reasonable or good chance of seeing him.)
Formation:
If + Present Simple, + Will


(Conditional perfect) It is used in the 3rd Conditional to talk about imaginary
situations in the past: eg: If she'd seen the advert, she would have applied
for the job.
NOTE: 'If she'd seen = If she had seen
Formation:
'WOULD HAVE' + Past Participle


A, AN, and THE are called articles.
THE is the Definite Article
A and AN are both used for the Indefinite Article
"The boy" refers to a definite, particular boy, but "A boy" refers to no
particular boy; it could be any boy.
When no article is used, it is sometimes referred to as the Zero Article.
Articles belong to a group of words which are known as Determiners; they restrict or
specify a noun in some way.


'The' is the definite article is English. It is used to restrict the meaning of
a noun to make it refer to something that is known by both the speaker or
writer and the listener or reader:
He's gone to the shops. (Here the listener knows which shops I mean)
It can also be used to refer back to something that has already been
mentioned:
There's a word for that. Now, what is the word?
It can be used to refer forwards to something that is coming:
The key to the front door is under the mat.
It can be used to refer to a group:
The car has changed our way of living.


There are two indefinite articles in English: 'a' and 'an'. They are used before a singular noun that has
a plural form. 'A' is used before a consonant sound and 'an' is used before a vowel sound.
The sound is more important than the spelling; we say 'an umbrella' and 'a
union' because the sounds of the first letter are different.
The Zero Article is when a noun is used without the, a or an:
EG: Time is money.

Colligation is a type of collocation, but where a lexical item is linked to a grammatical
one. Surprising, amazing and astonishing are nearly synonymous. We can say it is
astonishing/surprising/amazing, but we tend to say it is not surprising and not the others- surprising colligates
with the negative.

A complement is the part of a Sentence that comes after the Verb and is
needed to make the sentence complete. The following are the most
important types of complement used in English:
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
Eg: He's a surveyor. (The Subject is completed by the complement to the verb.
This is a Copula Verb.
OBJECT COMPLEMENT
Eg: She sent him the fax. (The sentence is completed by telling us what she
sent to him.)
ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENT
Eg: They'll be happy. (The sentence is completed by the Adjective; this could be
extended further, they'll be happy to see us, etc..)
PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
Eg: They talked about what needed doing. (The sentence is completed by
the Phrase linked to the verb by the Preposition.)


The direct object of a verb is created, affected or altered by the action of a verb,
or appreciated or sensed by the subject of the verb.
EG: She closed the door. ('door' is directly affected by her action.)


The indirect object of a verb is not directly affected by the action, but can either receive the direct object or have
the action done for them.
EG: She sent James the letter. ('letter' is the direct object as it is directly
affected by the action and 'James' is the indirect object as he receives the letter.)
EG: They made him dinner. ('Dinner' is the direct object as it is created by the
action and 'him' is the indirect object as the dinner is made for him.)
These sentences can also be written as follows:
EG: She sent the letter to James.
EG: They made dinner for him.


The object of a verb is created, affected or altered by the action of a verb, or
appreciated or sensed by the subject of the verb.
EG: He wrote the book. ('book' is the object, created by the action of writing)
EG: I saw the film. ('film' is the object, sensed by the subject seeing it)


A retained object is an object in a passive sentence that would also be the object in
an active sentence:
She was given the job by the previous manager.
The previous manager gave her the job.
The job is the retained object. It was the direct object in the active sentence of
the ditransitive verb gave and is still an object in the passive voice as the indirect
object has become the subject of the sentence.


A determiner is used with a noun and restricts the meaning by limiting the
reference of the noun. The following types can be used:
1 Article a boy the girls
2 Numeral two cars the first day
3 Possessive Adjective my job their friends
4 Quantifier some coffee few tickets
5 Demonstrative Adjective this tape those books

Direct speech is used to give the exact words used by another speaker. The words are given between
quotation marks (" ") in writing:
EG: "I'm coming now," he said.


Indirect Speech (also called Reported Speech) is used to communicate what someone else said, but without
using the exact words. The tenses of the verbs are often changed.
EG: He said that he was going to come. (The person's exact words were "I'm going to
come.")


Reported Speech (also called Indirect Speech) is used to communicate what someone
else said, but without using the exact words. A few changes are necessary;
often a pronoun has to be changed and the verb is usually moved back a tense,
where possible.
EG: He said that he was going to come. (The person's exact words were "I'm
going to come.")





Freakish A freakish extra toe.