Experience of offshore fish farming in Cyprus

Stephanou D.
in
Muir J. (ed.), Basurco B. (ed.).
Mediterranean offshore mariculture
Zaragoza : CIHEAM
Options Mditerranennes : Srie B. Etudes et Recherches; n. 30
2000
pages 57-64

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Stephanou D. Experi ence of offshore fi sh farmi ng i n Cyprus. In : Muir J. (ed.), Basurco B. (ed.).
Mediterranean offshore mariculture. Zaragoza : CIHEAM, 2000. p. 57-64 (Options Mditerranennes :
Srie B. Etudes et Recherches; n. 30)
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57
Experience of offshore fish farming in Cyprus



D. Stephanou
Department of Fisheries, Nicosia, Cyprus



SUMMARY - During the early nineties the Cyprus government chose the technology of offshore cage culture to
develop marine aquaculture, due to the already high exploitation of coastal land by tourism, concerns for
environmental issues and the lack of sheltered inland sea sites. Currently there are 8 privately owned
commercial sea cage farms, licensed for an average annual production of 150 t (mainly seabream and
seabass). The farms are located 1-1.5 km offshore, spaced at 3 km intervals, in water depths ranging from
20-35 m. Of the main manufacturers (PolarCirkel, Dunlop, Bridgestone, FarmOcean, etc.) the most commonly
used cage is the circular 16 m-diameter "PolarCirkel" type. The report provides information on the
physicochemical environment, the supporting infrastructure (both private and governmental), and the regulations
for the establishment/operation of cage farms. Information is also provided on aquaculture production and on
main constraints/problems facing marine aquaculture development, i.e., the small size of the farms, the scarcity
of available sites, the negative public perception of the environmental impact of aquaculture and the attitudes of
the inshore fishermen towards cage farms. The potential for offshore mariculture development is discussed in
relation to the application of the WTO philosophy on fish imports, and the harmonization of Cyprus to the "Aquis
Communautaire".

Key words: Offshore mariculture, fish farming, cages, fisheries.


RESUME - "L'exprience de l'aquaculture en mer ouverte Chypre". Pendant les annes quatre-vingt-dix, le
gouvernement de Chypre a choisi la technologie de "offshore cage culture" pour dvelopper l'aquaculture
marine, d l'exploitation prexistante des terres ctires par le tourisme, aux proccupations
environnementales, et au manque de sites ctiers bien protgs. Actuellement il y a 8 entreprises prives
d'aquaculture marine en cages flottantes qui sont autorises pour une production moyenne annuelle de 150 t (la
plupart dorade et loup). Les fermes sont situes une distance de 1-1,5 km de la cte, spares par une
distance minimale de 3 km, des profondeurs partir de 20 35 m. Parmi les producteurs importants
(PolarCirkel, Dunlop, Bridgestone, Farmocean), la cage le plus souvent utilise est le type PolarCirkel, circulaire,
de 16 m de diamtre. Cet article donne des renseignements sur l'environnement physico-chimique,
l'infrastructure d'appui (prive et gouvernement), et les rglements pour l'tablissement/opration. Des
informations sont galement apportes sur la production aquacole et sur les principales contraintes/problmes
que doit affronter le dveloppement de l'aquaculture marine, c'est--dire la petite taille des exploitation, la raret
des sites disponibles, la perception ngative du public concernant l'impact environnemental de l'aquaculture et
les attitudes des pcheurs du littoral face aux fermes aquacoles en cages. Le potentiel pour le dveloppement
de la mariculture en mer ouverte est examin en liaison avec l'application de la philosophie de l'OMC sur les
importation de poissons, et l'harmonisation selon "Aquis Communautaire" Chypre.

Mots-cls : Mariculture, mer ouverte, cages, pcheries.


Introduction

The mass production of fry by privately owned marine fish hatcheries in Cyprus started as early as
1987. The ongrowing of fish was first undertaken during 1988 using a privately owned land-based
installation located in the Liopetri area. During the summer months of 1990-1991 the farm was
implicated by the neighbouring tourist industry as the root cause for the mass growth of the green
filamentous alga Cladophora patentiramea which caused excessive nuisance along the tourist
beaches. Despite a subsequent survey showing that domestic and agricultural runoff was in fact the
greatly dominant source for elevated nitrates (Baird and Muir, 1990), the government was obliged to
reconsider its policy for land-based marine aquaculture. According to the new policy only fish
hatcheries were to be allowed onshore, while ongrowing would be located offshore in cages. As a
consequence, Cyprus became one of the first Mediterranean countries to carry out the commercial
culture of seabream and seabass in offshore cages.

The first commercial marine cage farm began operation in 1990-1991, in the only semi-protected
area of the island, near the port of Limassol (Stephanou, 1993). This was followed by 7 additional
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cage farms, which were established between 1992-1994 and operated under open sea offshore
conditions.


The present state of marine aquacuIture

Private commercial marine farms

The private sector played a decisive role in development, investing private funds in a new high-risk
operation. Currently, there are 8 privately owned commercial marine cage farms licensed, for an
average production of 150 t p.a. (Table 1).


Table 1. Evolution of seabream, seabass offshore cage farms, by size class
Annual production Number of licensed fish farms
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
5-30 t 1 2 1 2 2 1
30-100 t 1 1 2 1 4 4 3 4 2
100-200 t 3 3 6


Of these farms, one has its own hatchery. Two further commercial marine fish hatcheries are also
established on coastal land. A shrimp farm and hatchery also operates in a land based installation
(see map).


Ownership

All farms and hatcheries belong to Cypriot companies with Greek Cypriots being the majority
shareholders. According to Government regulations foreign participation in aquaculture companies
can be, under certain conditions, up to 49%. Foreign investors are shareholders in some of the farms.


Technology employed

The cage farms utilize the most successful offshore structures, tested in exposed areas in other
parts of the world, such as Japan, Scandinavia, Ireland, etc. Development work by these companies
continues to test new designs in the Mediterranean. A wide variety of offshore cages is in use,
produced by manufacturers such as Bridgestone, FarmOcean, Dunlop, PolarCirkel, Aqualine,
Aquazur, Stamatiou, etc. Also the new submersible cage Sea Station is being under experimental use
(1998-1999).

Initially, most farms used the relatively expensive cages specifically designed for exposed areas,
produced by Bridgestone, Dunlop and FarmOcean (Stephanou, 1993). Later, as more experience was
accumulated on technological issues and site characteristics, farms found they could use lighter and
cheaper cage types such as those manufactured by PolarCirkel.

The most commonly used cages are now the circular PolarCirkel types, with collars comprising 2 or
3 x 16 m HDPE pipes, with or without security steel chains, kept empty or filled with buoyancy material
(mainly polystyrene). Support stanchions are usually made of steel. Cages of 8 m and 12 m diameter
are also used, many farms using a combination of cage sizes and types. In addition to PolarCirkel type
cages two farms use modular square rubber hose Dunlop cages, either 15 m x 15 m or 20 m x 20 m,
and the similar Bridgestone type of 15 m x 15 m. In these farms the Dunlop and Bridgestone cages
are used in effect as offshore breakwaters, providing shelter inshore for the PolarCirkel cage types. In
semi-protected areas and offshore sites, FarmOcean "Flexfloat" interlocking plastic cube systems are
also being used, forming cage areas of 12 m x 12 m or 6.5 m x 6.5 m. These are usually arranged to
form multiple unit modules; one such cage platform module covers an area of 4500 m
3
.
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The cage net depth ranges between 6 m-15 m, with mesh sizes from 5 mm-13 mm. Net materials
contain UV inhibitor. The rearing of 2 g fish is undertaken in the same offshore cages employed for
ongrowing. Usually the farms use cages of different dimensions, i.e., smaller units for fry, harvest
stocks, auxiliary and experimental use, and larger units for fattening. Recently there has been a trend
to use antifouling-treated nets, which are claimed to extend the net lifespan and be more resistant to
seabream net biting. Nets are usually changed only once during the production cycle, when the fry are
large enough to be moved into larger mesh nets in ongrowing cages.


Species produced

The main species produced in 1998 were gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) and seabass
(Dicentrarchus labrax), at a ratio of about 4:1 bream:bass (Fig. 1).


0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

i
n

t
o
n
s


Fig. 1. Production of table fish for the years 1988-1998.


Other species farmed to a lesser extent are the sharpsnout bream Puntazzo puntazzo, and the
Japanese red seabream Pagrus major, although by 1997 production of this species has practically
ceased due to marketing problems, associated with its dark colour. The first table size red porgy
Pagrus pagrus was produced by one cage farm recently, while another farm undertook the
experimental culture of shi drum Umbrina cirrosa (Table 2).


Table 2. Evolution of marine aquaculture table fish production (t)
Species 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sparus aurata 37 45 52 133 187 223 527 769 827
Dicentrarchus labrax 15 15 19 34 20 99 100 57 205
Puntazzo puntazzo 15 32 15 21
Pagrus major 1 11 4


PhysicochemicaI environment

Currents-waves

Cyprus lacks any protected areas or bays along the 296 km of coastal land controlled by the
government. The nearest lands to Cyprus are the Greek Island of Rhodes 380 km to the west, Egypt
380 km south, Syria 105 km east and Turkey 75 km to the north, and so aquaculture sites are
exposed to long wind fetch distances.

The cages are found in open sea conditions, exposed mainly to south, southeast winds. The
existing prevailing coastal currents were found to have an average speed of 0.2 m/sec at midwater
depths, in areas where cage farms are located. The maximum significant waves range between 3 m
(semi-protected area) and 5.5 m (exposed areas), while the mean significant waves are about 0.5 m.
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In winter, waves of 3 m-4 m height are not uncommon. In exceptional cases, during storms, in the
areas of some farms (Zygi, Paphos) waves of 8-9 m have been experienced and have caused
damage (Govt. of Cyprus, 1994).


Water quality

The waters are oligotrophic, with background levels of P around 1 g/l. Salinity is around 39 and
surface water temperature ranges between 15C-30C during the year. A thermocline is established
during summer months at about 25 m-30 m below the water surface.

The water is clean, without serious pollution problems. No serious fouling problems exist on the
cage nets.


Supporting infrastructure

Technical

Each farm employs personnel of high academic and technical ability. During 1998, the farms
employed 177 people on a full-time basis, with an additional 83 part-time for production, management
and marketing of fish.

Cyprus is self-sufficient as regards fry production (Table 3 and Fig. 2), the majority of which has
been exported since 1987.


Table 3. Evolution of marine fish fry production; (no of fry x10
3
)
Species 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sparus aurata 6095 7867 5593 4530 5194 7834 5575 9981 9906
Dicentrarchus labrax 500 110 287 517 818 1240 857 1429 1342
Puntazzo puntazzo 303 0144 146 100 429
Pagrus pagrus 81
Pagrus major 20 80
Dentex dentex 12
Umbrina cirrosa 56



0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

f
r
y

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s
)


Fig. 2. Production of fry for the years 1986-1998.


The food used is basically of an extruded type and the majority is imported. Efforts are currently
under way to produce feed locally. The majority of farms feed by hand, supplemented in some cases
with the use of an air feed cannon or using the built-in computerized system of the FarmOcean
platform. One farm is using a fully computerized system, with food being distributed from a central unit
via pipes.
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Farms are usually located up to 10 km from the nearest port, fishing shelter or marina. The
locations of all farm sites are marked on Admiralty maps. Locations of farms are also identified by
radar reflectors and by solar powered beacon lights.


Governmental

According to the government "Strategic Plan on Development for the period 1994-1998",
"emphasis will be given to strike a balance between aquaculture development and the environment,
and the diversification of aquaculture sector. These targets will be pursued through the promotion of
marine aquaculture in offshore cage culture units, the culture of trout (in reservoirs) and of ornamental
fish and recreational fishing in reservoirs for tourist purposes".

The Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources in the competent
authority for aquaculture development. A special Aquaculture Division is included in its establishment,
which operates from its central Nicosia Offices as well as at the Meneou Marine Aquaculture
Research Station, which has some cage culture facilities in addition to land-based ones. The
Department has established an Aquaculture Data Bank for assisting and monitoring the aquaculture
industry, related government departments, and prospective investors, etc. It is also an active member
of the Mediterranean aquaculture thematic networks TECAM, SIPAM, SELAM and EAM (Stephanou,
1995, 1999).

Up to now government financial assistance to marine fish farms has been very limited. Since 1996
however, a government scheme was introduced subsidizing aquaculture loan interests. The scheme
aims at inducing and accelerating investments on topics which are considered crucial for the
consolidation and further development of, mainly, marine aquaculture: for the expansion of farms, the
installation or improvement of packing facilities in order to conform to relevant EU regulations,
technological improvements and the amelioration of the quality of the effluents from land-based farms.


Research on marine aquaculture

Research is focused mainly on the diversification of species and technology of marine aquaculture.
The main species presently under experimental culture are: Pagrus pagrus, Puntazzo puntazzo,
Siganus rivulatus, Dentex dentex and Umbrina cirrosa. Research work is centred on reproduction and
larval rearing aspects, but work on aspects like the intensive rearing up to the commercial level,
broodstock management, etc. is also undertaken. The experiments are undertaken at the Meneou
Experimental Marine Aquaculture Station of the Department of Fisheries and by some of the private
farms, in parallel and/or in cooperation with the Department of Fisheries (Stephanou, 1996).

Research on the diversification of technology refers mainly to open sea cage culture technology,
like submersible cage, etc.


Inspection-quality control of aquaculture products

Fish inspection and quality control aspects are under the jurisdiction of the Veterinary Services
Department, which is in the process of strengthening and upgrading its infrastructure (personnel,
laboratories, legislation), in cooperation with the Department of Fisheries. This work has been
catalyzed by assistance provided within the framework of the special FAO-Cyprus government
Technical Cooperation Project-"Supporting Services to Aquaculture Development".


ReguIations for the estabIishment and operation of cage farms

The government is responsible for the management and environmental monitoring of farms. The
obligation to provide statistics is included in the terms and conditions under which the farms operate.
According to government policy, cage farms should not be anchored over Posidonia beds and should
be at least 1 km offshore and in a minimum water depth of 20 m. Existing farms conform to these
regulations and are found in distances ranging from 1 km to 1.5 km offshore and in depths of 20 m to
about 35 m. The setting up of cage farms is not allowed in certain locations. These include site
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opposite residential zones, areas of natural beauty, nature reserves, marine parks, etc. Although
avoided up to now, fish farms could be set up in tourist zones under certain assumptions. According to
the existing government practice the reason for the rather arbitrary distance between the farms
(approx. 3 km) is to minimize their interaction and their synergism as regards their environment impact
(Stephanou, 1999).

No recreational fishing is allowed within a distance 300 m from the floating structures of the cage
farms. In the case of professional fishermen the distance is 150 m.

Presently the government is at the stage of revising its policy for the further development of marine
aquaculture. Expectations are that existing farms will be allowed to increase their production level, and
new farms may be allowed to establish.


Licensing

Any prospective fish farmer requires an Environmental Impact Assessment study. This is assessed
by the Department of Fisheries, the Environment Service, and finally the Technical Advisory
Environment Committee, which may impose binding terms and conditions on the relevant investor.
The EIA then becomes part of the terms and conditions of the license for the operation of the fish
farm.

Licenses for the setting up and operation of marine farms are issued by the Department of
Fisheries according to the provisions of the Fisheries Law Cap. 135, Regulation 20 of the Fisheries
Regulations of 1990. Certain terms and conditions are included in the license which aim at
safeguarding good management practices, collection of data on production, responsible use of
chemicals, protection of the environment, etc. according to Article 9 Aquaculture Development of the
FAO "Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries".

A special Law of Aquaculture and related regulations has been drafted with assistance from FAO.
The legislation, after lengthy discussions with the interested parties, is expected to be approved soon
by the House of Representatives.


Constraints and probIems of offshore maricuIture

To date the development of marine aquaculture in Cyprus has on the whole proved to be a
success, despite some "teething problems" and difficulties.

The farms do no face any serious technological problems and are at the stage of expansion and
consolidation. The acquired experience for the management in the maintenance of stocks and
structures under the prevailing conditions filled an existing knowledge gap, since offshore mariculture
is still a rather new activity in the Mediterranean.

The small size of farms results in high production costs and, to a lesser extent, low productivity: the
average production/person ranges is 20 t and average production/cage volume is 8 kg/m
3
.
Applications for an annual production increase of existing farms up to 300 t and the establishment of
new ones of the same production magnitude may help overcome these constraints. These are under
consideration by the Department of Fisheries in anticipation of the new government policy being
approved by the Council of Ministers.

The scarcity of sites for new farms is another constraint, because of the intensive use of the
coastal zone for other activities, particularly tourism. Tourism is the main industry on the island, with a
sector of US $660 million value added, that employs 10-5% of active population and in 1996,
contributes 8% to the GDP. Aquaculture does not figure in coastal zone management projects as a
significant activity, despite its growing economic importance.

The lack of port facilities further limits the areas suitable for cage farming, although the setting up
of new marinas now under way will allow the further exploitation of new areas for aquaculture currently
lacking boat refuge facilities.
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The negative public image towards aquaculture, considered by many as being an enemy to the
environment, has been due mainly to the "Cladophora case" when a privately owned land-based
installation located in the Liopetri area was implicated by the neighbouring tourist industry as the root
cause for the mass growth of the green filamentous alga Cladophora patentiramea. This was alleged
to have caused excessive nuisance along the tourist beaches. Regardless of the extremely dubious
scientific validity of these assertions, this image poses obstacles, usually in the hands of local
authorities, to the establishment and expansion of fish farms. Their present geographical positions are
also at stake because of the continuous demands for their movement to other sea areas. This is due
mainly to the lack of any coastal zone management plan.

Conflict also exists between inshore fishermen and fish farms, due partly to the locating of farms
within inshore fishing areas but mainly due to fears of reduced market value brought about by the
greater availability of farmed produce.

Thefts, and to a lesser extent vandalism, are becoming more of a problem to cage fish farmers.
Bird predation, mostly during the migration of cormorants, is alarming. Oil pollution from an oil spill
was successfully handled in one case.

Until now the local market has regulated, to a degree, the rate and level of farm expansion, which
has proceeded gradually in parallel with the expansion of local markets. However, these are not
expected to be able to absorb the anticipated production increase. This will require Cyprus farms to
become locally and internationally competitive and capable of surviving the foreseen liberalization of
fish imports. Seabream and seabass, which until recently were not sold in local markets, are now
becoming very popular (Stephanou, 1995). Their demand is expected to increase with the anticipated
decrease of their price as a result of potential import competition, and local economies of scale. New
outlets, such as supermarkets, and better organization of the distribution-marketing system, combined
with successful publicity undertaken by the government as well as the producers, provide further
opportunities for the industry. However, the securing of export markets is of crucial importance to its
continued development. The setting up or upgrading of packing facilities to conform to relevant EU
regulations is now taking place to overcome any foreseen quality control problem for future exports.
Exports of aquaculture table fish by October, 1999 reached 125 t.


Offshore aquacuIture in the context of Cyprus fisheries

In Cyprus there is a shortage of fresh marine fish. Local production from domestic fishing activities
in 1998 met about 40% of the total demands for fish and fish products. Fisheries depend on inshore
boats (av. annual catch per boat: 3.2 t) and trawlers which fish in the narrow continental shelf of the
island and in international waters. The role of offshore mariculture is complementary to that of capture
fisheries. In 1998 the production from aquaculture gave an additional quantity of 1180 t table fish
(including trout) and about 11.8 million fry (including 6.3 million exports) valued at C6.4 million (C 1
= US$1.93). The production from aquaculture represented about 33% of the total quantity of fish
produced in Cyprus, 47% of their value and more than 60% of the good quality fresh fish in the local
market. However, in addition to domestic production, 5500 tons of fish and fish products valued at
about C10.5 million had to be imported to cover the demand. The per capita consumption of fish and
fish products in 1998 was 13.5 kg out of which 1.7 kg came from aquaculture (mainly marine) and
about 3.6 kg from domestic fisheries.

The prospects for increasing local production of fish through fisheries is limited, since the East
Mediterranean is generally poorly productive, the fishing grounds almost fully exploited and overfishing
of certain species exists. Production from fisheries has therefore been almost stable during the last 5
years, in contrast with that of aquaculture, particularly the marine sector.

Fishery products are not included in the Customs Union Agreement of Cyprus with the EU, which
provides a series of preferential trade concessions. For this reason 15% and 16% duty is imposed on
table size marine fish and fish fry respectively when exported to EU countries.

In 1996, applying the philosophy of GATT/WTO to fish trade, imports of fresh fish into Cyprus were
liberalized, while at the same time imposing an import duty to protect local production until marine fish
farms become competitive at the national and international level. As a result of this measure,
production from marine aquaculture replaced, to a great extent, the imports of fresh fish, which were
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derived mainly from the Gulf countries. Fish prices continued to be profitable to the producers, despite
the decreasing trends, due to decreased production costs.


Requirements for deveIopment of offshore maricuIture

A relevant government policy and infrastructure, to safeguard the sustainable future development
of aquaculture in an environment of free competition and in harmony with the environment is
considered to be of utmost importance. The introduction of a legal framework covering all aspects of
aquaculture is essential as well as the preparation/implementation of a coastal zone management plan
where aquaculture activities will be included.

The need is now emerging for the adoption of more advanced technology for the exploitation of
deeper waters, further away from the coast, in exposed area, including new cage designs,
self-contained units, remote sensing/control equipment, new management practices, higher levels of
mechanization and more sophisticated mooring systems.

More research is also needed on environmental aspects and on the interactions of offshore
aquaculture and the environment, to overcome the existing reservations on their perceived impact.

A limited number of new farms could be set up in "new" areas. A lot depends on the technology to
be employed, since the siting of farms further offshore is expected to be less favourable than for the
existing units. Their establishment is expected to be scrutinized according to a set of criteria
(technological, financial, managerial, etc.). The marketing prospects of aquaculture products will play a
substantial role in every development, because a decisive factor for the achievement of the targets will
be the conditions prevailing both in the local as well the international market.

The potential for further increase of local market of aquaculture products, the replacement of
imports and the development of exports will dictate the rate of production increase, as well as the
levels of production.

The further growth of offshore mariculture will safeguard the potential for production of good quality
fish, in sufficient quantities, at reasonable prices.


References

Baird, D.J. and Muir, J. (1990). The impact of Telia Aqua Marine Fish Farm on the coastal
environment at Liopetri at Cyprus. UNDP/Cyprus Government (unpublished report), p. 50.
Govt. of Cyprus (1994). Nearshore wave climate analysis. Prepared by X. Loizidou. Project on coastal
zone management for Cyprus, Public Works Department (internal report), p. 300.
Stephanou, D. (1993). Open sea cage culture development in Cyprus. In: MEDRAP II TECAM
Workshop on Aquaculture Engineering and Offshore Culture, Toulon (France), 23-25 June 1993,
p. 6.
Stephanou, D. (1995). On the supply and consumption of fish in Cyprus. In: Marketing of Aquaculture
Products, CIHEAM (IAMZ), Zaragoza (Spain), 1996. Options Mditerranennes, Sries Cahiers,
17: 45-54.
Stephanou, D. (1996). Marine aquaculture development in Cyprus. In: First Regional Symposium on
Enhancement of Coastal Productivity in the Middle East through Mariculture Development, Elat
(Israel), 14-16 October 1996 (abstracts).
Stephanou, D. (1999). Marine aquaculture development and tourism: The case of Cyprus.
In: Aquaculture Planning in Mediterranean Countries, Proceedings of the Workshop of the SELAM
Network, CIHEAM/FAO/INRH, Tangier (Morocco), 12-14 March 1998. Options Mditerranennes,
Sries Cahiers, 43: 35-40.

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